Highway war, pothole world: how roads are built in different countries. The history of the Russian road - even when there were seven bends a mile - MAMLAS
Introduction. 3
1. Roads to Kievan Rus. 4
2. Territorial growth of Russia and development of roads. 6
3. Large road construction projects of the 18th–19th centuries. 7
4. Russian roads in the twentieth century. nine
Conclusion. fourteen
List of references.. 15
Introduction
Anyone who thinks that roads appeared on our planet recently is very mistaken. There have always been roads, even when there was no man himself on Earth. Animals, for example, always ran to the watering hole along the relatively trampled by them safe roads without risking falling into a deep hole or drowning in a swamp. But a man came. He was no longer satisfied with the spontaneously formed and narrow paths passing through forests and mountains. A person had to move not only on his own, but also to come up with something so that the carts he made would not get stuck in the mud during the autumn thaw. And the man began to build roads. At first it was just narrow and long strips paved with cobblestones or pieces of sandstone. But, over the centuries, roads have been improved, and today they are multi-lane structures with their own infrastructure, interchanges, bridges across water barriers, many kilometers of tunnels pierced in the mountains and lying under water. All of these are roads.
The history of road construction itself is like a long and winding road. In this paper, we will consider the history of one of its sections - the history of Russian roads.
1. Roads in Kievan Rus
Roads are one of the most important elements state infrastructure. The degree of development of the road network directly affects the economic prosperity and defense capability of the country.
Unfortunately, throughout history, Russian roads have left much to be desired. To some extent, this is due to the peculiarity of the natural and geographical conditions in which Russian civilization was formed. In view of the harsh climate, the presence of a large number of various kinds of obstacles - forests, wetlands, the construction of roads in Russia has always been associated with significant difficulties. Unlike the countries of the West, which arose on the site of one of the greatest ancient civilizations - Ancient Rome and inherited from it, in addition to Roman law and architecture, an excellent road system, Russian civilization, being peripheral, arose on a rich but undeveloped territory, which also explains the peculiarities of its development. transport system.
By the end of the ninth century, the education ancient Russian state. In view of the fact that most of the territory of Russia was occupied by impenetrable forests, rivers played the role of roads; all Russian cities and most of the villages were located along the banks of the rivers. In the summer they swam along the rivers, in the winter they rode sledges. According to the testimony of the Byzantine emperor of the 10th century, Constantine Porphyrogenitus, even the collection of tribute by the Kiev prince (poludie) was carried out in winter time. In November, the prince with a retinue left Kyiv and traveled around the subject territories, returning in April. Apparently, in the rest of the year, many Russian territories were simply inaccessible. Overland communication was also hampered by gangs of robbers who hunted on forest roads. Kyiv prince Vladimir Monomakh, who ruled in early XII century, in his “Instruction”, addressed to his children, as one of his exploits, he recalled the journey “through the Vyatichi” - through the land of the Vyatichi. The first mention of road works dates back to 1015. According to The Tale of Bygone Years, Kyiv prince Vladimir, going on a campaign against his son Yaroslav, who reigned in Novgorod, ordered his servants: "Pull the paths and bridge the bridges." In the 11th century, the authorities tried to legislate the status of "bridgemen" - masters in the construction and repair of bridges and pavements. The first written set of laws in Russia, Russkaya Pravda, contains a Lesson for Bridgemen, which, among other things, set tariffs for various Men at work.
The absence of roads sometimes turned out to be a boon for the population of the Russian principalities. So, in 1238, Batu Khan, who ruined the Ryazan and Vladimir-Suzdal principalities, could not reach Novgorod due to the spring thaw, and was forced to turn south. Tatar-Mongol invasion played a dual role in the development road system Russian lands. On the one hand, as a result of Batu’s campaigns, the economy of the Russian principalities was thoroughly undermined, dozens of cities were destroyed, a significant part of the population died or was taken prisoner, which ultimately led to a reduction in trade and desolation of roads. At the same time, having subjugated North-Eastern Russia and made it an ulus (part) of the Golden Horde, the Tatars introduced their postal system in the Russian lands, borrowed from China, which in fact was a revolution in the development of the road network. Horde mail stations began to be located along the roads, called pits (from the Mongolian "dzyam" - "road"). The owners of the stations were called coachmen (from the Turkic "yamdzhi" - "messenger"). The maintenance of the pits fell on the local population, who also performed the underwater duty, i.e. was obliged to provide their horses and carts to the Horde ambassadors or messengers. Horde officials traveling along Russian roads were issued a special pass - a paysatz.
2. Territorial growth of Russia and development of roads
XIV-XV centuries in the history of Russia - the time of the formation of a single centralized state. The Moscow Principality unites the lands of North-Eastern Russia around itself, at the end of the 15th century a new name for the single state appeared - “Russia”. The growth of the territory of Russia continued in the XVI-XVII centuries. By the end of the 16th century, the Volga, Urals, Western Siberia. In connection with the growth of the territory, roads in Russia have acquired special importance; on them, messengers from all the outskirts of the state delivered to Moscow news of the invasions of foreign troops, rebellions and crop failures. The central government showed particular concern for the development of the Yamskaya post, inherited from the Tatars. In the 16th century, yamskaya chase was established in the Ryazan and Smolensk lands. By the time of the reign of Ivan III, the first surviving travel document issued to Yuri Grek and Kulka Oksentiev, who was sent "to the Germans", dates back. In it, the sovereign ordered at all distances from Moscow to Tver, from Tver to Torzhok and from Torzhok to Novgorod to give ambassadors "two carts to carts from pit to pit according to this letter of mine." In another letter of Ivan III - dated June 6, 1481 - for the first time the position of an official responsible for the condition of postal stations and roads - the Yamsky bailiff was mentioned. The pits were located at a distance of 30-50 miles. Coachmen were obliged to provide horses for all travelers with a princely letter, for their service they were exempted from tax - the sovereign tax and all duties - and, moreover, received maintenance in money and oats. Local peasants had to keep the roads in good condition under the supervision of coachmen. At the choice of the headman, two people from the plow (a territorial unit of tax payment) went out to clear roads, repair bridges and renew the gates through the swampy sections of the road. Under Ivan the Terrible, in 1555, a single body for managing the road business was created - the Yamskaya hut. Already at the beginning of the 16th century, the first descriptions of large Russian roads appeared - “Russian road builder”, “Perm” and “Yugorsky” road builders. By the end of the 16th century, “exiled books” appeared with descriptions of small regional roads.
3. Large road construction projects of the 18th–19th centuries.
In the Petrine era, road supervision passed to the Chamber Collegium, the central tax department, which also collected road tolls. In the localities, in the provinces and provinces, the roads were entrusted to zemstvo commissars, who were elected by local landowners and subordinate to the Chamber Collegium. The largest road construction project of the time of Peter the Great was undoubtedly the construction of a "prospective" - straight-line road from St. Petersburg to Moscow. Work on the construction of the "prospective" road continued until 1746. The road work was in charge of the Office of the State Road Construction, headed by General V.V. Fermor.
Catherine II, already at the beginning of her reign, decided to give the road business the character of an important state task. It strengthened the status of the Chancellery from the construction of state roads as a central institution. The decree of February 18, 1764 ordered her to "make efforts to bring all state roads to the best condition." In 1775, a provincial reform was carried out. Most of the central departments, including the Office for the Construction of State Roads, are being gradually liquidated, their powers are being transferred to provinces and counties. The authorities of the province were supposed to deal only with the completion of state roads, and their maintenance was transferred to the county authorities - the zemstvo police officer and the lower zemstvo court. They were instructed to “apply vigilant watch and care so that roads, bridges and crossings ... in such good condition were kept so that there was no stopping or danger for the passers-by, so that “no one dug bridges and roads, blocked them and shifted from one place to another ... and that everywhere on the roads and bridges there was cleanliness, and dead cattle and carrion, from which a harmful spirit comes ... was not lying anywhere.
During the XVIII-XIX centuries, the road departments were subjected to constant reorganization. In 1809, Alexander I approved the Institution for the management of water and land communications. According to him, the Expedition of Water Communications and the Expedition for the Construction of Roads in the State merged into the Directorate of Water and Land Communications (since 1810 - the Main Directorate of Communications - GUPS), which was entrusted with all communications of national importance. The administration was located in Tver, headed by chief director and advice. Under the chief director there was an expedition, which included three categories (departments), of which the second was engaged in overland roads. The empire was divided into 10 districts of communications. At the head of the district was the district chief, who was subordinate to the managing directors who supervised the most important parts of the lines of communication and were especially busy drafting projects and estimates. The security of the roads has also been improved. It was entrusted to special district police teams, which were subordinate to the district chiefs. The teams consisted of the chief of police, caretakers, non-commissioned officers and privates. Their task was not to fight criminality, but to ensure that "roads, bridges, ditches, etc. were not damaged, that the side channels were not blocked, that the roads themselves were not narrowed by buildings, wattle fences or plowed."
In the second half of the 19th century, the importance of unpaved and highway roads in Russia, in connection with the development railway transport decreased significantly. If in 1840–1860 up to 266 miles of highways were put into operation annually, then in the 60s it was 2.5 times less. So, in 1860-1867, an average of 105 miles per year was built. In the years 1867-1876, the construction of roads was practically not carried out, and from 1876 to 1883 no more than 15 versts of the highway were put into operation annually. In addition, the quality and condition of these roads left much to be desired. The situation changed somewhat after the Zemstvo reform in 1864. The roads were transferred to the jurisdiction of the zemstvos, which were supposed to monitor their serviceability. Lacking the large funds necessary for carrying out large-scale road works, the zemstvos launched a vigorous activity to improve roads. Along the roads begin to form green spaces, road equipment is purchased abroad.
4. Russian roads in the twentieth century
The rapid development of the country's industry in turn of XIX-XX centuries, as well as the appearance of the first cars on Russian roads, contributed to a change in the attitude of the government to the state of the road network. Before the First World War, motor races were organized almost every year, local authorities tried to improve the roads before these events. Many dignitaries, generals, senior officials contributed to the allocation of financial and material resources for the construction of roads, as well as the solution of various organizational problems. The measures taken at the beginning of the 20th century by the government, zemstvos, commercial, industrial and financial circles made it possible to slightly increase the length of the road network, improve their condition, and introduce some technological innovations.
The revolutions of 1917 and the civil war of 1918-1920 had a huge impact on the development of the country's road network. During the Civil War, road construction was carried out by Voenstroy, Frontstroy, as well as the Highway Administration (Upshoss) of the NKPS. After the end of the civil war, countless reorganizations of these departments began. At the beginning of 1922, Upshoss and the Central Automobile Section of the Supreme Council of National Economy were merged and included in the Central Administration of Local Transport (TSUMT) as part of the NKPS. However, already in August 1922, by a joint decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR, the country's road infrastructure was divided between two departments - the TSUMT NKPS and the Main Directorate of Communal Services (GUKH) of the NKVD. The roads of national importance were under the jurisdiction of TSUMT, the direct concern for the condition of the roads was entrusted to the district departments of local transport (OMES) subordinate to TSUMT. Departments of communal services GUKH NKVD carried out the management of local roads.
The reforms of the road management authorities continued in subsequent years. At the same time, the state of the road remained in a deplorable state. The problem of financing road construction was particularly acute. At the same time, the country that carried out industrialization needed to create a developed transport system as soon as possible. From the position Soviet leadership tried to get out by transferring control of the roads of the allied significance to the NKVD. In 1936, as part of the NKVD of the USSR, the Main Directorate of Highways (Gushosdor) was formed, which was in charge of roads of allied significance. As early as 1925, a natural road service was introduced in the country, according to which, local residents were obliged to work for free certain number days a year for road construction. In 1936, a government decree was issued, which recognized the expediency of creating permanent local brigades, whose work was counted in overall plan labor participation of collective farmers. However, the main labor force in the construction of roads were prisoners. As a result of the second five-year plan (1933-1937), the country received more than 230 thousand kilometers of profiled dirt roads. At the same time, the plan for the construction of paved roads turned out to be underfulfilled by 15%.
A large road construction program was planned for the third five-year plan (1938–1942), but the Great Patriotic War prevented its implementation. During the war years, a significant part of the road equipment was transferred to the Red Army, many road workers went to the front. During the hostilities, 91 thousand kilometers were destroyed highways, 90 thousand bridges with a total length of 980 kilometers, therefore, after the end of the war, the primary task facing the road services was the repair and restoration of roads. However, the fourth five-year plan, adopted in March 1946, poorly took into account the interests of the road industry, which was funded on a residual basis. At that time, two departments were responsible for the construction of roads - Gushosdor of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the Main Road Administration (Glavdorupr). As part of Gushosdor in 1945, a Special Road Construction Corps was created, the basis of which was road troops.
In the 1950s, Gushosdor passed into the structure of the newly created Ministry of Automobile Transport and Highways of the USSR, where it was divided into two main departments - operational (Gushosdor) and construction (Glavdorstroy). All work on the construction of national roads, which was previously carried out by Gushosdor, was transferred to Glavdorstroy. Problems with the financing of the road industry were felt in these years as well. Efforts continued to be made to involve the local population, various enterprises. In 1950, Glavdorupr was simultaneously building 32 roads of republican significance and a number of local roads. The dispersal of resources and the multi-objective nature of tasks with poor material and personnel support had a negative impact on the results of the work.
http://www.rosavtodor.ru/doc/history/main15.jpg The peak of road construction in the USSR falls on the 60-70s. The allocation of significant funds for road construction begins, road builders receive modern technology. In 1962, the Moscow Ring Road was put into operation, with a length of 109 kilometers. In general, in Russian Federation in 1959–1965, the length of paved roads increased by 81.2 thousand kilometers, 37 thousand kilometers of them had improved pavements. In the same years, the roads Kashira-Voronezh, Voronezh-Saratov, Voronezh-Shakhty, Saratov-Balashov, Vladimir-Ivanovo, Sverdlovsk-Chelyabinsk, and a number of others were built.
Intensive road construction continued in the 1970s and 1980s. As a result, in 1990 the road network common use in the RSFSR was 455.4 thousand kilometers, including 41 thousand kilometers of national roads and 57.6 thousand kilometers of republican significance.
However, in the early 1990s, about 167 district centers (out of 1,837) were still not connected to regional and republican centers by paved roads. The residents of almost 1,700 central estates (out of 23,000) and about 250,000 medium, small settlements and farms. Due to the difficult economic situation in the country, there was a big shortage of financial resources. At the same time, the transition to a market economy required a revision and fundamental change in the essence of many socio-economic categories, such as the form of ownership, planning, management of industrial relations, the psychology of the individual and society, and many other components. human being.
Despite all the difficulties, for 1997-1999. there have been real shifts both in the development of the road network and in the efficiency of the functioning of the road sector. Over the past 12–13 years, Russia has seen an accelerated (up to 10% per year) growth in the car park, traffic intensity and road transport.
As of January 1, 2002, the length of motor roads in the Russian Federation was 904.7 thousand km, including 759.3 thousand km of paved roads and 145.4 thousand km of unpaved roads. The length of public roads is 588.7 thousand km, including 537.3 thousand km of paved roads (91%), unpaved roads - 51.4 thousand km. At the same time, the length of federal public roads is 46.6 thousand km, including 46.3 thousand km (99.3%) with a hard surface, and 542.1 thousand km of territorial public roads, in including hard-surfaced 491 thousand km (90%).
Yes, our roads are still inferior to European ones, and in general we do not have enough of them. Experts have calculated that in order to fully meet the socio-economic needs of the country, the minimum length of the Russian road network should be at least 1.5 million km, that is, increase one and a half times compared to what we already have.
Of course, this will require a significant increase in the volume of road construction. Here it is appropriate to quote the statement of Sergei Frank, Minister of Transport of the Russian Federation. He announced that the national program for the development of the road network envisages an increase in the total length of Russian roads by 2010 by 80,000 km. This task is supposed to be carried out with the involvement of private investors, who will have the opportunity to create a network of toll roads in our country.
However, those who are frightened by the very phrase "toll roads" can be reassured. Commercial highways will only be an alternative to the conventional road network. The appearance of toll roads will not change the quality of functioning of existing roads, and first of all, federal highways. The driver himself will decide whether to drive straight as an arrow and ideally flat road, for which you will have to pay, or use the free one, the quality of which has become familiar to us. This practice has long been accepted in many countries of the world. And, in my opinion, this is quite fair, as long as there are no excesses.
Conclusion
The road builders do not stop there and direct their main efforts to expanding not only the domestic, but also the international space. This is reflected in the federal target program “Modernization of the transport system of Russia (2002-2010)”, which is being implemented today, namely in the part “Roads” (the program “Roads of Russia in the 21st century”), which is based on the principle of developing international and Russian transport corridors : Baltic-Center-South, Western border-Center-Ural, North-South, North-West-Ural, Western Siberia-Far East and others. They play a central role in solving transport problems related to the expansion of international, interstate and interregional transport, economic, political, and cultural ties.
Currently, with the support of the Government of the Russian Federation, active work is underway on a long-term program for the development of the national network of Russian highways until 2025. New tasks are set, the main directions are determined, priorities are identified with one goal - to make Russia a country of developed motorization and excellent roads. Let's hope that this most difficult task will be completed not only in the central part, but also in the northern part of Russia, on Far East and in Siberia.
List of used literature
1. Roads of Moscow [Electronic resource]: http://about-roads.ru/auto/moscow-roads/
2. Roads of Russia: trouble or victory [Electronic resource]: http://about-roads.ru/auto/autoroad-rus/2/
3. Roads of Russia: history and modernity [Electronic resource]: http://www.rosavtodor.ru/doc/history/hystory1.htm
4. History of roads in Russia and the world [Electronic resource]: http://about-roads.ru/auto/road-history/
Napoleonic aggressive army. The victory of Russia is not an easy miracle, an expression of the inflexible will and boundless determination of all the peoples of Russia, who rose in 1812 to fight the Patriotic War in defense of the national independence of their homeland. The national liberation character of the war of 1812 also determined the specific forms of participation of the masses in the defense of their homeland, and in particular the creation ...
E.A. " Legal basis organization and activities of the general police of Russia (XVIII - early XX century)”. Krasnodar: Kuban State Agrarian University, 2003. - 200 p. 2.5. Kuritsin V.M. "History of the Russian Police". Brief historical outline and main documents. Tutorial. - M .: "SHIELD-M", 1998.-200 p. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS USED IN WORK doc. - document...
And a respectable breadwinner - the village - this is how Russia appears to Solzhenitsyn at the beginning of the 20th century. These are the views and ideas of Solzhenitsyn that lie in the interpretation of his concept. He is guided by them, describing the history of pre-revolutionary Russia, the Russia of the Soviet period, and when he wrote his "overwhelming considerations" about the future of the country. Conclusion After the Crash Soviet Union have to...
Eagle". In 1700, a decree was issued on domestic mail, which at first operated only between Moscow and Voronezh. Only in 1719 was it ordered to conduct mail "to all noble cities." Thus, by 1723 in Russia there were 4 post offices, which the Germans were in charge. Soon 7 postal stations in Finland were added to them. The length of postal routes in the middle of the 18th century...
Land trackless roads are one of the elements of transport, which K. Marx called the fourth area of material production.
The history of road construction and its technology is closely connected with the development of human society and material culture.
Only the primitive communal system knew almost no roads; people lived in small groups, there was no need for communication routes.
With the emergence of slave states, it became possible to use simple labor cooperation on a large scale, for example, in construction Egyptian pyramids, Indian temples, construction of roads in ancient persia, Assyria, Rome.
Already in 3000 BC. e. the first traces of the existence of wheeled carriages are noted; in 750-612 BC e. a road network was created in Assyria (the beginning of postal operations); in 530-330 BC e. in Persia there was a developed network of good roads; on the edge new era- the heyday of road construction in ancient Rome.
The proverb that exists at the present time: “All roads lead to Rome” is based on a literal meaning - 29 roads connected the capital of the Roman Empire with Spain, Gaul and other states conquered by the Romans.
A kind of trackless highway (straight, with high embankments, etc.) with a width of 11 m and a stone layer thickness of 0.9 m, requiring a colossal consumption of stone materials: 10000-15000 m 3 per 1 km of the road (about 10 times more than on modern highways). The speed of movement on Roman roads reached 20 km/h(higher than in Europe and America in the middle of the 18th century).
In the Middle Ages in Europe, there was a decline in the road business. However, the origin big industry“... with its feverish pace and mass character of production, with its constant transfer of masses of capital and workers from one sphere of production to another, and with the world market connections created by it ...” demanded a break in the fetters bequeathed to it by the manufacturing period; "... communication and transport were gradually adapted to the mode of production of large-scale industry ...".
At the turn of the XIX century. the first highways appeared. It is characteristic that for the years 1820-1840. the appearance of the first steam cars was registered (about 40 units).
At the end of the XIX century. the beginning of the development of road transport required the adaptation of highways to automobile traffic. Active construction of highways began in Europe and especially in the USA. In the 20s of the XX century. road construction in the United States reached its peak.
In some countries, especially in militarist Germany, rapid road construction was dictated by strategic considerations.
On the territory of our Motherland during archaeological excavations in the mounds of the steppes Lower Volga, Transnistria, Transcaucasia sometimes find solid (cut from one piece) wheels and harness of Scythian carts dating back to the VIII-III centuries. BC e. Already the ancestors of the Slavs were aware of road surfaces not only from soil, but also from wood (flooring, gati), stone (pavement).
In the XIV-XV centuries. Moscow was a node of a developed network of roads (Mozhaiskaya, Volokolamskaya, Tverskaya, Dmitrovskaya, Vladimirskaya, Ryazanskaya, Ordynskaya).
In the 17th century Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich's "Code" was published, in the IX chapter of which - "On the washing, on transportation and on bridges" - the rules for maintaining the so-called pit roads were set out. Yamsky settlements, located on these roads every 40-50 miles, were in charge of the maintenance of dummy (replaceable) carts, the issuance of travel documents and the improvement of roads. The Yamskaya service was based on natural Yamskaya duty, engaged in the allocation of coachmen with carts, served the post office (which was under the jurisdiction of the Ambassadorial Order) and extended north to Arkhangelsk and Mezen; to the west - to Velikiye Luki; to the southwest - to Kyiv; to the southeast - to Astrakhan; to the east - to the Albazinsky prison (Transbaikalia).
Measures for the improvement of roads at that time were mainly reduced to laying gates, building crossings, filling potholes, etc.
In 1678, on the road Moscow - Smolensk, there were 533 gati, some of them were up to 5-6 versts long (for 1 sazhen of gati - 10 logs with a diameter of about 20 cm, laid close, across the road).
The road Moscow - Vologda (14 pits) required 7 days of summer and only 5 days of winter (toboggan) journey.
The reforms of Peter I also affected the road business: the construction of a “promising” road between Moscow and Volkhov (later brought to St. Petersburg) began.
In the second half of the XVIII century. The forces of the Russian expeditionary corps built the Georgian Military Road - the shortest route through the Main Caucasian Range. At the end of the XVIII century. a type of Russian highway from "cartilage" (coarse sand) appeared - a prototype of future gravel roads.
In the 30s of the XIX century. V. P. Guryev became famous, the inventor of wooden end bridges and the author of the essay “On the Establishment of End Roads and Land Steamboats in Russia” (St. Petersburg, 1836).
Guryev's idea - the creation of railless highways of great length - at that time was never implemented, partly due to the inertia of the tsarist government, partly due to the lack of proper rolling stock. Neither in the 19th century, nor at the beginning of the 20th century. the tsarist government did not pay due attention to road construction in Russia.
The Soviet government inherited a poorly ramified and unsuitable road network for motor traffic. Over the years Soviet power transport has developed tremendously. Significant work has also been done to increase the network of paved roads (Table 1).
It is known that the entire freight turnover of the country's road transport annually amounts to tens of billions of ton-kilometers. Since a significant part of this cargo turnover is carried out on unimproved roads, the state suffers losses from lack of roads amounting to billions of rubles. The situation is aggravated by the fact that bad roads and off-road, the service life is reduced by 2-3 times trucks.
The development of cultural ties with foreign countries, passenger communications, as well as sanitary and hygienic factors contribute to the improvement of roads. Improvement of roads is necessary in the interests of the country's defense. The Soviet government pays great attention to the fight against impassability, the construction and reconstruction of roads.
Over the past 20-25 years, a number of important highways have been built.
Moscow - Minsk - four-lane road throughout; in the interests of unhindered high-speed traffic bypasses intermediate cities (Vyazma, Smolensk, Orsha). All intersections of this highway with railways and other highways are made at different levels.
During the post-war years, first-class roads were built and reconstructed: Moscow - Simferopol, Moscow - Leningrad, Leningrad - Kyiv, Kyiv - Kharkov - Rostov - Ordzhonikidze, etc.
In 1962, the reconstruction of the highway connecting Moscow with the city of Gorky was completed. This 406-kilometer highway, which meets all modern requirements for the operation of highways, for the most part is laid parallel to the "Vladimirka", an old highway. The section of this motorway closest to Moscow is now called the Entuziastov Highway. Prior to the turn to Orekhovo-Zuevo, the motorway is made four-lane; between each pair of lanes intended for movement in one direction, a dividing lawn is arranged.
3 mln. m 2 cement concrete pavement. Some sections are made of string concrete, first used in the USSR. Due to the fact that concrete is laid on special wire strings, it acquires special strength, and this makes it possible to almost halve the thickness of the coating.
The road Sochi - Matsesta before the reconstruction was 12 km, now - 8 km. On the old highway, there were more than three hundred roundings (turns in plan); after the reconstruction, only about ten remained.
Many important highways were built in the outlying regions of the USSR, among them the Great Pamir Highway (Osh-Khorog), which opened land communication with the Pamirs. The pass section of this tract is located at an altitude of more than 4000 m.
Highways played an invaluable role during the Great Patriotic War 1941-1945
More from and also more from
Millennium Roadmap
How the transport system developed in Russia before the advent of rails and sleepers
It is known that Russian statehood arose precisely on the river routes - first of all, "From the Varangians to the Greeks", from ancient Novgorod to ancient Kyiv. On this topic: The technology of walking the Tatar-Mongol to Russia
"Novgorod. Pier, Konstantin Gorbatov
But people usually forget that the rivers remained the main "roads" of Russia throughout the next thousand years, until the beginning of mass railway construction.
Road heritage of Genghis Khan
The first to move a noticeable number of people and cargo across Russia outside the river "roads" were the Mongols during their invasion. Transport technologies were also inherited from the Mongols of Moscow Russia - the system of "pits", "pit chase". "Yam" is the Mongolian "road", "way" distorted by the Muscovites. It was this well-thought-out network of posts with trained interchangeable horses that made it possible to link the vast sparsely populated space of Eastern Europe into a single state.
Yamskoy Prikaz is a distant ancestor of the Ministry of Railways and Federal postal service- first mentioned in 1516. It is known that under the Grand Duke Ivan III, more than one and a half thousand new "pits" were established. In the XVII century, immediately after the end of the Troubles, long years The Yamskaya Prikaz was headed by the savior of Moscow, Prince Dmitry Pozharsky.
But the land roads of Muscovy performed mainly only administrative and postal functions - they moved people and information. Here they were at their best: according to the memoirs of the ambassador of the Holy Roman Empire, Sigismund Herberstein, his messenger covered a distance of 600 miles from Novgorod to Moscow in just 72 hours.
However, the situation with the movement of goods was quite different. Until the beginning of the 19th century, there was not a single verst of paved road in Russia. That is, two seasons out of four - in spring and autumn - there were no roads simply as such. A loaded wagon could move there only with heroic efforts and at a snail's pace. It's not just about mud, it's also about rising water levels. Most of the roads - in our concept of ordinary paths - went from ford to ford.
The situation was saved by the long Russian winter, when nature itself created a convenient snowy way - "winter road" and reliable ice "crossings" along the frozen rivers. Therefore, the overland movement of goods in Russia to the railways was adapted to this change of seasons. Every autumn in the cities there was an accumulation of goods and cargo, which, after the establishment of a snow cover, moved around the country in large convoys of tens, and sometimes hundreds of sledges. Winter frosts also contributed to natural storage perishable products- in any other season, with the storage and conservation technologies that were almost completely absent then, they would have rotted on a long journey.
"Sigismund Herberstein on the way to Russia", engraving by Augustin Hirschvogel. 1547
According to the memoirs and descriptions of Europeans of the 16th-17th centuries that have come down to us, several thousand sleighs with goods arrived in winter Moscow every day. The same meticulous Europeans calculated that transporting the same cargo on a sleigh was at least two times cheaper than transporting it on a cart. It was not only the difference in the condition of roads in winter and summer that played a role here. Wooden axles and cart wheels, their lubrication and operation were at that time a very complex and expensive technology. Much simpler sleds were devoid of these operational difficulties.
Shackled and postal tracts
For several centuries, land roads played a modest role in the movement of goods; it was not for nothing that they were called “postal routes”. The center and main node of these communications was the capital - Moscow.
It is no coincidence that even now the names of Moscow streets remind of the directions of the main roads: Tverskaya (to Tver), Dmitrovskaya (to Dmitrov), Smolenskaya (to Smolensk), Kaluga (to Kaluga), Ordynka (to the Horde, to the Tatars) and others. By the middle of the 18th century, the system of "postal routes" that intersected in Moscow had finally taken shape. The St. Petersburg Highway led to the new capital Russian Empire. The Lithuanian highway led to the West - from Moscow through Smolensk to Brest, with a length of 1064 versts. The Kyiv tract to the "mother of Russian cities" totaled 1295 versts. The Belgorod tract Moscow - Orel - Belgorod - Kharkov - Elizavetgrad - Dubossary, 1382 versts long, led to the borders of the Ottoman Empire.
They went to the North along the Arkhangelsk highway, to the south they led the Voronezh highway (Moscow - Voronezh - Don region - Mozdok) in 1723 versts and the Astrakhan highway (Moscow - Tambov - Tsaritsin - Kizlyar - Mozdok) in 1972 versts. By the beginning of the long Caucasian war, Mozdok was the main center of communications for the Russian army. It is noteworthy that it will be so even in our time, in the last two Chechen wars.
The Siberian Highway (Moscow - Murom - Kazan - Perm - Yekaterinburg) with a length of 1784 versts connected central Russia with the Urals and Siberia.
The road in the Urals is probably the first consciously designed and built road in the history of Russia.
We are talking about the so-called Babinovskaya road from Solikamsk to Verkhoturye - it connected the Volga basin with the Irtysh basin. It was “designed” by Artemy Safronovich Babinov on the instructions of Moscow. The route he opened in the Trans-Urals was several times shorter than the previous one, along which Yermak went to Siberia. Since 1595, forty peasants sent by Moscow had been building the road for two years. According to our concepts, it was only a minimally equipped trail, barely cleared in the forest, but by the standards of that time, it was quite a solid trail. In the documents of those years, Babinov was called so - "the leader of the Siberian road." In 1597, 50 residents of Uglich were the first to experience this road, accused in the case of the murder of Tsarevich Dmitry and exiled beyond the Urals to build the Pelym prison. In Russian history, they are considered the first exiles to Siberia.
Without hard coating
By the end of the 18th century, the length of the "postal routes" of the European part of Russia was 15 thousand miles. The road network became denser to the West, but to the east of the Moscow-Tula meridian, the density of roads dropped sharply, in places tending to zero. In fact, only one Moscow-Siberian tract with some branches led to the east from the Urals.
The road through the whole of Siberia began to be built in 1730, after the signing of the Kyakhta Treaty with China - systematic caravan trade with the then most populated and richest state in the world was considered as the most important source of income for the state treasury. In total, the Siberian tract (Moscow - Kazan - Perm - Yekaterinburg - Tyumen - Tomsk - Irkutsk) was built for more than a century, having completed its equipment in the middle of the 19th century, when it was time to think about the Trans-Siberian railway.
Until the beginning of the 19th century, there were no roads with a hard all-weather surface in Russia at all. The capital highway between Moscow and St. Petersburg was considered the best road. It began to be built by order of Peter I in 1712 and was completed only 34 years later. This road, 770 versts long, was built by a specially created Chancellery of State Roads according to the then advanced technology, but still they did not dare to make it stone.
The “Capital Trakt” was built in the so-called fascine method, when a foundation pit was dug along the entire route to a depth of a meter or two and fascines, bundles of rods were laid in it, pouring layers of fascines with earth. When these layers reached the level of the ground surface, a platform of logs was laid on them across the road, on which a shallow layer of sand was poured.
"Fashinnik" was somewhat more convenient and reliable than the usual trail. But even on it, a loaded cart went from the old capital to the new one for five whole weeks - and this is in the dry season, if there was no rain.
In accordance with the laws of the Russian Empire
the repair of roads and bridges was to be carried out by the peasants of the respective locality. And the "road duty", for which rural peasants were mobilized with their tools and horses, was considered among the people one of the most difficult and hated.
In sparsely populated regions, roads were built and repaired by soldiers.
As the Dutch envoy Deby wrote in April 1718: “Tver, Torzhok and Vyshny Volochek are littered with goods that will be transported to St. Petersburg by Lake Ladoga, because the carters refused to transport them by land due to the high cost of horse feed and the poor condition of the roads ... ".
A century later, in the middle of the 19th century, Lessl, a professor at the Stuttgart Polytechnic School, described Russian roads as follows: “Imagine, for example, in Russia a convoy of 20-30 carts, with a load of about 9 centners, one horse, following one after another. IN good weather The convoy moves without obstacles, but during prolonged rainy weather, the wheels of the wagons sink into the ground to the axles and the entire convoy stops for whole days in front of overflowing streams ... ".
The Volga flows into the Baltic Sea
For a significant part of the year, Russian roads buried in mud were liquid in the truest sense of the word. But the domestic market, although not the most developed in Europe, and active foreign trade annually required a massive flow of cargo. It was provided by completely different roads - numerous rivers and lakes of Russia. And since the era of Peter I, a developed system of artificial canals has been added to them.
The Siberian tract in the painting by Nikolai Dobrovolsky "Crossing the Angara", 1886
The main export goods of Russia since the 18th century - bread, hemp, Ural iron, timber - could not be massively transported across the country by horse-drawn transport. Here, a completely different carrying capacity was required, which only sea and river vessels could give.
The most common small barge on the Volga with a crew of several people took 3 thousand pounds of cargo - on the road this cargo took over a hundred carts, that is, it required at least a hundred horses and the same number of people. An ordinary boat on the Volkhov lifted a little more than 500 pounds of cargo, easily replacing twenty carts.
The scale of water transport in Russia is clearly shown, for example, by the following statistics that have come down to us: in the winter of 1810, due to early frosts on the Volga, Kama and Oka, 4288 ships froze into ice far from their ports (“wintered”, as they said then) 4288 ships. In terms of carrying capacity, this amount was equivalent to a quarter of a million carts. That is, river transport on all waterways of Russia replaced at least a million horse-drawn carts.
Already in the 18th century, the basis Russian economy was the production of iron and iron. The center of metallurgy was the Urals, which supplied its products for export. Mass transportation of metal could be provided exclusively by water transport. The barge, loaded with Ural iron, set sail in April and reached St. Petersburg by autumn, in one navigation. The path began in the tributaries of the Kama on the western slopes of the Urals. Further downstream, from Perm to the confluence of the Kama with the Volga, the most difficult segment of the journey began here - up to Rybinsk. The movement of river vessels against the current was provided by barge haulers. They dragged a cargo ship from Simbirsk to Rybinsk for one and a half to two months.
From Rybinsk, the Mariinsky water system began, with the help of small rivers and artificial canals, it connected the Volga basin with St. Petersburg through the White, Ladoga and Onega lakes. From the beginning of the 18th century to the end of the 19th century, St. Petersburg was not only the administrative capital, but also the largest economic center of the country - the largest port in Russia, through which the main flow of imports and exports went. Therefore, the city on the Neva with the Volga basin was connected by as many as three "water systems" conceived by Peter I.
It was he who began to form a new transport system of the country.
Peter I was the first to think over and begin to build a system of canals linking together all the great rivers of European Russia: this is the most important and now completely forgotten part of his reforms,
before which the country remained a loosely interconnected conglomerate of disparate feudal regions.
Already in 1709, the Vyshnevolotsk water system began to work, when the Tvertsa River, a tributary of the upper Volga, was connected by canals and locks with the Tsna River, along which there was already a continuous waterway through Lake Ilmen and Volkhov to Lake Ladoga and the Neva. So for the first time there was a unified transport system from the Urals and Persia to the countries of Western Europe.
Two years earlier, in 1707, the Ivanovsky Canal was built, connecting the upper reaches of the Oka River through its tributary Upa with the Don River - in fact, for the first time, the huge Volga river basin was combined with the Don basin, capable of linking trade and freight traffic from the Caspian to the Urals with the regions into a single system Black and Mediterranean seas.
The Ivanovo Canal was built for ten years by 35,000 driven peasants under the leadership of the German Colonel Brekel and the English engineer Peri. Since the beginning Northern war the captured Swedes also joined the fortress builders. But the British engineer made a mistake in his calculations: studies and measurements were carried out in an extremely high level ground water. Therefore, the Ivanovsky Canal, despite the 33 locks, initially experienced problems with filling with water. Already in the 20th century, Andrei Platonov would write about this drama a production novel from the era of Peter the Great - “Epifan Gateways”.
The canal that connected the Volga and Don basins, despite all Peter's ambitions, never became a busy economic route - not only because of technical miscalculations, but primarily because Russia still had a whole century before the conquest of the Black Sea basin.
The technical and economic fate of the canals connecting the Volga with St. Petersburg was more successful. The Vyshnevolotsk canal system, built for military purposes hastily over 6 years by six thousand peasants and Dutch engineers, was improved and brought to perfection by the Novgorod merchant Mikhail Serdyukov, who turned out to be a talented self-taught hydraulic engineer, at the end of the reign of Peter I. True, at the birth of this man, his name was Borono Silengen, he was a Mongol who, as a teenager, was captured by Russian Cossacks during one of the skirmishes on the border with the Chinese Empire.
The former Mongol, who became Russian Mikhail, having studied the practice of the Dutch, improved the locks and other canal structures, doubled its capacity, reliably connecting the newborn St. Petersburg with central Russia. Peter I, in joy, transferred the canal to Serdyukov in hereditary concession, and since then, for almost half a century, his family received 5 kopecks per sazhen of the length of each ship passing through the canals of the Vyshnevolotsk water system.
Burlaki against Napoleon
Throughout the 18th century, unhurried technical progress of river vessels was going on in Russia: if in the middle of the century a typical river barge on the Volga took an average of 80 tons of cargo, then at the beginning of the 19th century a barge of similar sizes already took 115 tons. If in the middle of the 18th century an average of 3 thousand ships passed to St. Petersburg through the Vyshnevolotsk water system, by the end of the century their number had doubled and, in addition, 2-3 thousand rafts with timber exported were added.
"Barge haulers on the Volga", Ilya Repin
The idea of technological progress was not alien to people from the government boards of St. Petersburg. So, in 1757, on the Volga, on the initiative of the capital of the empire, so-called machine ships appeared. These were not steamships, but ships moving by means of a gate rotated by bulls. The ships were designed to transport salt from Saratov to Nizhny Novgorod - each lifted 50 thousand pounds. However, these "machines" functioned for only 8 years - barge haulers turned out to be cheaper than bulls and primitive mechanisms.
At the end of the 18th century, it cost more than one and a half thousand rubles to carry a barge with bread from Rybinsk to St. Petersburg. Loading a barge cost 30-32 rubles, the state fee - 56 rubles, but the payment to pilots, barge haulers, konogons and waterways (that was the name of the technical specialists who serviced the canal locks) was already 1200-1300 rubles. According to the surviving statistics of 1792, the Moscow merchant Arkhip Pavlov turned out to be the largest river merchant - in that year he spent 29 baroques with wine and 105 with Perm salt from the Volga to St. Petersburg.
By the end of the 18th century, the economic development of Russia required the creation of new waterways and new land roads. Many projects appeared already under Catherine II, the aging empress issued appropriate decrees, for the implementation of which officials constantly did not find money. They were found only under Paul I, and the grandiose construction work was completed already in the reign of Alexander I.
So, in 1797-1805, the Berezinsky water system was built, connecting the Dnieper basin with the Western Bug and the Baltic with canals. This waterway was used to export Ukrainian agricultural products and Belarusian timber to Europe through the port of Riga.
Map of the Mariinsky, Tikhvin and Vyshnevolotsk water systems
In 1810 and 1811, literally on the eve of Napoleon's invasion, Russia received two additional canal systems - the Mariinsky and Tikhvin - through which the country's increased cargo flow went from the Urals to the Baltic. The Tikhvin system became the shortest route from the Volga to St. Petersburg. It began at the site of the modern Rybinsk reservoir, passed along the tributaries of the Volga to the Tikhvin connecting canal, which led to the Syas River, which flows into Lake Ladoga, and the Neva River. Since even in our time Lake Ladoga is considered difficult for navigation, along the coast of Ladoga, completing the Tikhvin water system, there was a bypass canal built under Peter I and improved already under Alexander I.
The length of the entire Tikhvin system was 654 versts, 176 of which were sections that were filled with water only with the help of sophisticated lock technology. A total of 62 locks worked, of which two were auxiliary, which served to collect water in special tanks. The Tikhvin system consisted of 105 cargo piers.
Every year, 5-7 thousand ships and several thousand more rafts with timber passed through the Tikhvin system. All gateways of the system were served by only three hundred technicians and employees. But 25-30 thousand workers were engaged in piloting ships along the rivers and canals of the system. Taking into account the loaders at the piers, the Tikhvin water system alone required over 40 thousand permanent workers - huge numbers for those times.
In 1810, goods worth 105,703,536 rubles were delivered to St. Petersburg by river transport from all over Russia. 49 kop.
For comparison, about the same amount was the annual budget revenues of the Russian Empire at the beginning of the 19th century on the eve of the Napoleonic wars.
The Russian water transport system played its strategic role in the victory of 1812. Moscow was not a key communication hub in Russia, so it was more of a moral loss. The systems of the Volga-Baltic canals reliably connected St. Petersburg with the rest of the empire even at the height of the Napoleonic invasion: despite the war and a sharp drop in traffic in the summer of 1812, goods worth 3.7 million rubles came to the capital of Russia through the Mariinsky system, and 6 million through the Tikhvin .
BAM Russian tsars
Only the direct expenses of Russia for the war with Napoleon amounted to a fantastic amount at that time - more than 700 million rubles. Therefore, the construction of the first roads with a hard stone surface, begun in Russia under Alexander I, progressed at an average speed of 40 versts per year. However, by 1820 the Moscow-Petersburg all-weather highway was operational and for the first time regular passenger stagecoach traffic was organized along it. A large carriage for 8 passengers, thanks to interchangeable horses and a stone-paved highway, covered the distance from the old to the new capital in four days.
After 20 years, such highways and regular stagecoaches were already functioning between St. Petersburg, Riga and Warsaw.
The inclusion of a significant part of Poland into the borders of Russia required the construction of a new canal from the empire. In 1821, Prussia unilaterally imposed prohibitive customs duties on the transit of goods to the port of Danzig, blocking access to the sea for Polish and Lithuanian merchants who became subjects of Russia. In order to create a new transport corridor from the center of the Kingdom of Poland to the Russian ports in Courland, Alexander I approved the August Canal project a year before his death.
This new water system, which connected the Vistula and the Neman, took 15 years to build. The construction was slowed down by the Polish uprising of 1830, an active participant in which was the first head of construction work, Colonel Prondzinsky, who had previously served in Napoleon's army as a military engineer and was amnestied when creating the Kingdom of Poland.
In addition to the Augustow Canal, which passed through the territory of Poland, Belarus and Lithuania, another indirect result of the Napoleonic invasion was another canal dug far in the north-east of Russia. The North Catherine Canal on the border of the Perm and Vologda provinces connected the basins of the Kama and the Northern Dvina. The canal was conceived under Catherine II, and its previously unhurried construction was forced during the war with Napoleon. The North Catherine Canal, even in the event that the enemy reached Nizhny Novgorod, made it possible to keep the connection between the Volga basin through the Kama and the port of Arkhangelsk. At that time it was the only canal in the world built by hand in the deep taiga forests. Created largely for purely "military" reasons, it never became economically viable, and was closed 20 years after construction was completed, thereby anticipating the history of BAM a century and a half later.
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abstracton the topic:
" The history of the development of road construction, earlyAndnaya withXVIIIin."
1. Development of road construction in Russia
After a long century of stagnation, road construction resumed on the most important trade and military routes. The development of his technique in the XVIII century. was reduced to finding ways to provide road access in the face of ever-increasing traffic volumes and increasing road loads while striving to reduce labor and material costs.
In Russia, road construction initially developed in several different ways than in the West due to the lack of readily available stone materials for mining. The main sources of stone were the labor-intensive collection of boulders in the fields and the development of gravel in glacial deposits. Despite the considerable length of roads (in the second half of the 18th century, only the network of postal routes from Moscow reached 16-17 thousand km and there was a great need to improve the conditions of transportation, the technique of road construction in Russia long time was limited to draining the road lane and strengthening difficult-to-pass places with wood materials.
The beginning of road construction in Russia can be considered 1722, when on June 1 a Senate decree was issued on the construction of a road linking St. Petersburg with Moscow. The road was built as an earth road. The decree of May 20, 1723 said: “... And in swampy places, lay fascines and fill them with earth in layers to those places where the height will be even with natural earth and then pave without putting logs under the bottom and, moreover, pour the bridge along little land."
The primitive construction technology did not lead to obtaining roads satisfactory for driving in the harsh soil-hydrological conditions of the north-west of the European part of Russia. The low quality of dirt and wood-reinforced roads led to the fact that road construction managers began, on their own initiative, to pave certain sections of the road with stone. In December of the same year, the Senate decided that "in right places and where there is enough stone, one half of the aforementioned roads, in consideration of the strength and conservation of forests, should be paved with stone on such soil so that the stone does not soon fall off and hollows do not become damaged and the road would not be damaged ... ". Since that time, a firm policy has been adopted in Russia for the construction of stone pavements on the main roads. The development of trade and industry in Russia required the maintenance of roads in good condition.
On the most important state roads, the predominant type of pavement was crushed stone. Despite the small volumes of its construction, it was in Russia that a significant improvement in construction technology was achieved. The original technology did not provide for any special compaction of the road surface. The idea of abandoning the compaction of crushed stone by movement and switching to compaction with a roller did not immediately gain recognition and only in the 40s of the XIX century began to be considered as mandatory.
In Russia in 1786 it was approved as a mandatory design of pavement by Captain Baranov for roads with a carriageway. The coating was two-layer. The bottom layer consisted of crushed stone "small chicken egg”, and the top 2-4 inches thick is made of durable stone material, which, during construction, had to be “pricked more tightly with hand-held women and leveled with rollers, iron and stone.” When rolling, it was recommended to use "rollers of low weight at first, but increase the weight of these as they are rolled." At the same time, "the benefit of the skating rink could only be, as soon as its severity gradually reached 300 pounds with a load in a box of stone." The last building operation was recommended much earlier than it was introduced in 1830 into building practice for crushed stone coatings in France by Polonso.
After 1860, the volume of road construction in Russia began to decline. If before 1861, on average, 230 km of paved roads were built per year, which in itself was extremely small compared to the need, then in the next twenty years the volume of construction decreased to 25-30 km per year, and only after 1890 in connection with the deployment of the construction of strategic roads in the western provinces, it again increased to 300-350 km. Railways during this period, from 730 to 1320 km per year were put into operation annually.
The limited financial possibilities of the zemstvos led to the fact that cobblestone pavements began to spread on the access roads, the construction of which did not require mechanization (the first foreign steam rollers weighing 10 tons appeared only in 1875, and their production was limited in Kolomenskoye, Warsaw and Bryansk machine-building plants were deployed at the end of the 19th century). Cobblestone pavements were less labor intensive to build, since there was no need to crush the stone into rubble, and they could be left without repair for a long time. For a long time, rolling was carried out without watering, although the positive effect of crushed stone moistening on rolling was known. In 1851, engineer. Evreinov recommended “when rolling to a scattering of seedings, choose damp and rainy times, if possible, while rolling with seedings should be done when the highway surface is already somewhat dry, and moisture will be only in the lower layer.”
In the period before the Second World War, the construction of pavements made of concrete became widespread for all countries. A typical transverse profile of a concrete pavement was made of slabs of constant thickness of 18-24 cm connected by metal pins, laid on a sandy or gravel base or a thicker “frost-protective layer” that protected against heaving. It was supposed to be thick concrete slab, distributing pressure from the wheels of cars on large area foundations, can to a certain extent compensate for the heterogeneity of the subgrade soil. However, operating experience has shown that the difference in deflections of the central part and edges of the slabs during the passage of cars leads to the accumulation of residual deformations of the soil under the transverse seams and the formation of a cavity there, which is filled during rainy periods with water, which dilutes the subgrade soil. There is a characteristic phenomenon of "splashes" - splashing out of the seams when passing cars dirty water, leading to an increase in the cavities under the ends of the plates, their work under load as consoles, in the end, to their breaking off. A similar phenomenon of accumulation of sediments in the underlying soil under the influence of slab deflection also occurs in the central part of the slabs. In the concrete of the slab, which is not fully supported by the soil base, fatigue phenomena begin to develop, leading to the formation of cracks.
If we trace the chronology of the development of the roads of the USSR and Western countries, it is easy to see that the lag in the technology of the pre-war period averaged 10-20 years, for example, given the preparations for the attack being carried out by fascist Germany, in Russia they began to build the Moscow-Minsk highway, which differed sharply in its technical parameters from previously built roads. The highway was designed for a speed of 120 km / h. Its carriageway, which was still without a dividing strip, was 14 m wide and provided for the movement of cars in two rows in each direction. In terms of technical parameters, it corresponded to the US highways of the 1930s and the Cologne-Bonn road completed by that time in Germany.
Difficulties in obtaining stone materials, the severity of the climate and a significant diversity climatic conditions predetermined the creative development in Russia of crushed stone structures pavement. An idea has been developed about the structure of the crushed stone bark.
Noted engineer. Vasiliev, the role of substances that fill voids in the crushed stone bark, long time was the subject of controversy. To increase the coherence of the crushed stone bark, proposals were made about the need to introduce materials into it, “forming a bond based on the strength chemical agent". At the same time, “the use of calcareous substances for filling voids in crushed form with their special supply” could be of considerable benefit.
A significant difference between pavement designs in Russia was the rejection of mandatory requirement J. McAdam on the creation of pavement from homogeneous composition, size and strength of crushed stone.
The middle strip of the European part of Russia, where the construction of crushed stone coatings was carried out, is poor in stone materials, since the bedrock is covered with thick layers of glacial deposits. The main source of obtaining stone materials was the collection of boulders in the fields. Therefore, the idea soon arose of laying large rubble of weak, but cheap local rocks in the lower layer of clothing. A number of highways in the western provinces were built in this way. At first, like McAdam, the crushed stone clothes were given a thickness of 25 cm (10 inches), but then, making sure that the good compaction of the crushed stone layer extends only to a depth of about 10 cm, and deeper the crushed stone remains in a weakly compacted state, we switched gradually in order to reduce costs to a thickness of 15 cm in the compacted state. This turned out to be possible due to the lower loads on horse-drawn carts in Russia compared to those used in England. Under unfavorable ground conditions, where abysses could be expected, the crushed stone clothes were thickened to 9-12 inches, but since this greatly increased the cost of construction, the lower part of the stone layer began to be replaced with sand. So the highway Petersburg - Moscow was built.
In Russia, the idea of increasing the coherence of crushed stone pavement began to be implemented only after the introduction of artificial compaction of crushed stone placers with rollers, and on the basis of other principles than abroad. The crushed stone bark from one-dimensional strong crushed stone, despite breaking off the edges of the crushed stones, had a high porosity. To fill the pores in the upper most compacted layer, they began to use a finer material - wedges and screenings, pressed by the weight of the rink into the unfilled places between the gravel and creating wedging. In Russia, it was considered mandatory to use crushed stone of the same rocks, as for the main placer, since the use of soft, easily crushed rocks, facilitating rolling, gave an unstable, rapidly degrading coating.
A feature of crushed stone pavements was that they needed daily supervision and repair, since a rapid growth of further destruction began from the knocked out crushed stone.
In 1870, the first proposal for a method for calculating the thickness of the pavement was published. Based on the concept of pressure transfer in crushed stone coatings from particle to particle, E. Golovachev came to the conclusion that “wheel pressure applied to the coating through a small rectangular area ... propagating in the crushed stone layer at an angle of repose ...”.
Progress in the construction of crushed stone coatings in comparison with the technique recommended by McAdam was best formulated in 1870 by E. Golovachev, who wrote that “... starting from the forties, when they were convinced of the complete need to study not only the strength of crushed stone, but also the properties its dust, which provides the greatest bond between the crushed stone, to add fine material to the crushed stone to fill the gaps, to artificially roll the highway until it is completely compacted in order to save the amount of stone material that should have turned into dust and fragments under the previous system of rolling the highway through traffic, so that fill the gaps between the crushed stones, without which they could not obtain proper immobility and stability, which actually ensures the strength of the crushed stone embankment, when crushed stone was watered for rolling and for better compaction of the crushed stone layer of steel in other places, together with crushed stone of hard rocks that form the basis crushed stone embankment, apply another admixture of crushed stone of soft limestone.
2. Expansion of the range of materials used in crushed stoneaboutroofs
Difficulties in obtaining stone materials for road surfaces forced Russian engineers from the first days of road construction to pay attention to expanding the range of materials used in road pavements. Gravel immediately began to be used in the lower layers of crushed stone clothes, the movement along which was opened, “when the gaps between the stones are filled with sand or other dirt-producing material” (TsGIAL, fund 206, 1824, op. 1, case 748, l. 57) .
In 1832, engineer. Richter proposed the use of artificial materials in road pavement - "iron brick, burned to perfect vitrification." This proposal was implemented in 1847 by Eng. A.I. Delvig, who built experimental sections of the highway in Nizhny Novgorod from artificial brick rubble, cast iron ore and marsh iron ore, because "in many places there is no stone, in others it already reaches an incredible price." The constructed roads, without significant damage, passed carts to the Nizhny Novgorod fair with heavy carts with a load of 150-200 pounds.
In the 19th century made a number of attempts to increase the cohesion of crushed stone coatings using binders. Already in the article by P.E. Schroeter, the first printed work on roads in Russian, mentioned the great inconvenience in St. lime mortar.
Soon the beginnings of improved road surfaces appeared. In Russia, in 1833, the mechanic Portnov proposed to prepare bricks and slabs from solid “tar cement”, which is “composed as follows: three pounds of finely sifted brick trifles are poured into one pound of melted pitch or black solid resin, which is mixed until the entire mass is perfectly connected "(TsGIAL, f. 206, 1833, op. 1, d. 1417).
In 1838, Lieutenant Colonel M.S. Volkov described the use of asphalt in the construction of a sidewalk on a bridge across the river. Rhone in Lyon and an attempt to use artificial asphalt in Paris instead of natural asphalt, prepared on the basis of residues from the distillation of coal. On the basis of this experience, he proposed to strengthen crushed stone coatings by impregnating with mastic prepared from resin, which, penetrating into the seams of the placer, should bind it, thereby making it possible to reduce the thickness of the crushed stone layer. In fact, it was a recommendation for the widespread use of the impregnation method before the Second World War. In Russia, since the deposits of natural asphalts were discovered and developed later, the first attempts at the device of improved coatings were made with coal tar. Captain Buttatz in 1838 covered almost 100 m of the sidewalk near the Tuchkov bridge and a strip on the pavement with artificial asphalt, compiled according to the recipe: 1 part of pitch, 1/10 part of tar (coal tar), 4 parts of clay and 5 parts of sand by volume, heated the mass was distributed over a compacted base and sprinkled with coarse sand on top. For the pavement, rectangular and hexagonal checkers 7.5 cm high and 22-27 cm long were prepared, pouring the molten mass into molds filled with cobblestone. In Odessa, in 1855, D. Spiridonov received a patent for coating of cobblestones partially embedded in mastic from a mixture of 15 parts of Syzran natural asphalt, 19 parts of stearin resin, 5 parts of lime and 45 parts of gravel. In the second half of the XIX century. pavements made from natural asphalt rocks began to spread.
3. Road construction in Western European countries
In the countries of Western Europe, the resumption of road construction at first followed the path of imitation of the constructions of Roman roads. However, the changed economic conditions - the impossibility of being used for road construction, as in Ancient Rome, cheap labor and the need to replace it with the labor of only the local population involved in road work in the form of compulsory road service or for a fee forced them to lighten the design of pavement on main roads, leaving local roads practically without any improvement and maintenance.
The first attempts to improve roads were described in a treatise by Thomas Procter published in London in 1607 "Useful for the whole kingdom important works for the repair of all roads ... ". The author noted: “As everyday experience shows, main reason bad and dirty roads- this is that rain or any other water that lingers on an improperly built road, when driving wheels, penetrates deeper into the road and softens and destroys it more and more. To prevent this, it was proposed to tear off a ditch 3 feet (0.9 m) deep and 4 feet (1.2 m) wide on the side of the road, distributing the excavated earth along the width of the road with an average thickness of one yard (0.91 m), and in 2 feet higher in the middle than at the edges. At the same time, the width of the road should be sufficient for the passage of two wagons. In case of weak soils on the road, it was proposed to arrange clothes from gravel, stone, slag, iron ore, tree stumps or bundles of brushwood, laid in wooden frames from logs 18 feet long and 10-14 inches in circumference, fastened together with wooden dowels. From above, this base should be covered with a layer of gravel, coarse sand or crushed stone. On fig. 1 reproduced a drawing from the book of T. Procter, showing the design of the pavement recommended by him.
Rice. 1. Construction of massive pavement in the middle of the 18th century: 1 - compacted soil; 2 - gravel with a particle size of 25 mm; 3 - package; 4 - Sand and gravel
There were also other pavement designs created by different authors. Construction technology has changed with almost every subsequent generation, both in connection with the accumulation of experience and changing requirements. At first, it was believed that artificial compaction by ramming was less effective than compaction for two to three months, but this opinion changed at the end of the century, and, for example, I.S. Gerhardt pointed out that when filling an embankment from the earth taken out of the side ditches, “the road should never suddenly rise above 4 inches; and in comparison with the earth, it must be killed firmly. This work must be repeated with each new filling of earth.
H. Ekschake in 1787 recommended building gravel beds at least 10 inches thick in a compacted condition, laying the gravel in two layers. The gravel should be "the size of a walnut and not less than a bean, not polluted or dusty."
By the end of the XVIII century. when laying the route on the ground, some geodetic tools began to be used. An astrolabe with a compass appeared in the middle of the 16th century, a level with an air bubble was invented in 1661. Based on it, a level was proposed in 1680. When tracing used inclinometers.
4. Progress in the construction of subgrade and pavement
road construction clothing canvas
18th century characterized by attempts to accurately account for the properties of soils in construction. This was noted by M.V. Lomonosov in a book written in 1757-1759. treatise "On the layers of the earth", indicating that "the builder heeds the solidity of the earth in the ditches for the foundation." He classified soils according to composition and properties, dividing them into chernozem, "clay different kinds"," akin to clay silt or mud ". The size of the soil particles was taken into account - “earthy silty particles separating from the water”, sands, “which in the reasoning of the size of the grains vary infinitely, cartilage and shoreline -“ pebbles larger than peas.
In the period under consideration, pavements began to spread, which in design almost did not differ from modern ones. There were certain requirements for their quality. The chipped cobblestone had to measure 7-8 inches and tapered downwards in a wedge shape. The ligation of the seams was required, "so that in the longitudinal direction there are no matching seams that the wheels of the wagons could push apart." Layers of sand 6 to 8 inches thick were laid in the base, preferably fluvial and gravelly, and not quarry, which is very dusty. In the book of H. Luder, it was indicated that when paving on both sides of the road, large stones are placed in the ground, and then smaller and smaller ones are put in. To increase the strength of the pavement, H. Gauthier proposed to arrange transverse rows (“stravers”) of larger cobblestones 10-13 inches high through two toises (1.82 m) so that if the pavement begins to collapse, damage does not extend beyond this row . Cage paving has become ubiquitous.
At the end of the 18th century, when the pace of road construction began to increase, the most widespread pavement was based on a package - stones installed with a wide side on a soil or sandy base and wedged, which later began to be replaced with crushed stone "the size of a walnut made of hard rock" , which was distributed with a layer of 8 cm. However, pavements on packing bases did not meet the requirements of mechanized construction, and operating experience showed that they could not withstand the movement of heavy vehicles, the multiple passes of which were concentrated on a narrow rolling strip and caused longitudinal subsidence of the coatings.
P. Trezaguet significantly reduced the thickness of the pavement, reducing it to 24-27 cm compared with the thickness of the pavements of previously built roads, which reached 50 cm along the axis. 60% o· With cohesive soils, this contributed to the partial runoff of water seeping through the pavement, and also made it possible to give the pavement a constant thickness over the entire width of the carriageway. Equally important was the convexity of the bottom of the trough for a more economical use of stone material. The bottom layer (base) of the pavement, 10 inches thick, was made of stones set on edge at the bottom of the trough, so that not one stone towered over the other. The stones were rammed with a manual rammer. On top of them, a layer 8-10 cm thick of smaller stones was laid, which were crushed on the spot and compacted by tamping. Partially penetrating into the gaps between the stones, they wedged large stones. 10 cm of gravel was laid on top.
The next stage in the development of road construction technology is the transition to road clothes only from crushed stone, to the so-called "gravel highway", which is usually associated with the name of the Scottish road builder J. McAdam.
The McAdam method got wide use because it was simple, cheap and met the requirements of the time. Starting in 1806 to take contracts for road construction, J. McAdam developed his own system for the construction and repair of roads and, having taken over in 1816 the trust of the Bristol district, the largest in England, he began to vigorously introduce this system into practice. The methods of road maintenance proposed by him proved to be very effective and economical.
The essence of MacAdam's ideas, scattered throughout the book, boils down to the following:
1. The strength of the road is provided by the soil base. Until then, it will not be possible to build roads that are not affected by seasonal and weather factors, “until the following principles are fully realized, recognized and put into practice, namely, that the traffic load is actually taken up by natural soil ... this natural soil must be previously drained ".
2. The role of pavement is reduced mainly to the protection of the underlying soil from soaking. “Experience shows that if water penetrates the road and saturates the natural soil, the pavement of the road … breaks into pieces.” McAdam believed that for any load, a thickness of 10 inches in a dense body is sufficient.
3. Pavement should rise above the ground and not be laid in a trough open in it. “The first action in the construction of the road should be the refusal to tear off the trough. Pavement should not be submerged below the level of the surrounding ground…. This can be achieved either by providing drains to lower the water level or, if this is not feasible due to the nature of the terrain, the ground should be raised a few inches above the water level.
4. Pavement should be flat, cohesive and waterproof.
5. One-dimensional clean crushed stone or gravel should be used for clothing. “The size of the stones used for the road should be proportional to the space occupied by a regular sized wheel on a smooth, level surface. Each gravel laid on the road, which in any dimension exceeds this value, is harmful.
6. The strength of the crushed stone bark, according to J. McAdam, is provided by the mutual locking of the crushed stone. Therefore, pavement should be made of pure rubble. “Each road must be built of crushed stone, free from earth, clay, chalk, or any other material that absorbs water and affected frost. Nothing should be added to clean rubble to give coherence. The rubble will combine by its angularity into a smooth, dense surface, unaffected by the vicissitudes of the weather or the shifting action of the wheels, which will pass over it without bouncing, without causing damage. Clothing must be uniform throughout its entire thickness. "The only way to avoid the movement of stones in the road is to use stones of the same size in it to the very bottom."
7. During the period of compaction by the movement of stone material behind the road, enhanced maintenance is required. “After gravel has been laid on the road, workers are hired daily to fill the ruts and at the same time remove stones from the surface with a rake that are too soft or irregular shape like long flints or too big.” When compacting a crushed stone placer, mainly through Vehicle J. McAdam noted that “for the first sedimentation of gravel, a heavy iron roller with a diameter of 4 to 5 feet (1.2-1.5 m) at least can be successfully used.
8. The cross slope of the road should not be too steep. “I believe that the road should be as flat as possible in order to allow water to run off… I usually make the road 3 inches higher in the middle than at the edges, with a width of 18 feet… If the road is made flat, riders will not just stick to the middle, as they do with excessive convexity. As a result of repeated attempts to improve the passage on the roads with a scattering of new materials, thick layers of riprap were formed on them. These layers were dismantled and replaced with crushed stone coverings, for which a large stone removed from the road was crushed away from the road. Therefore, the rebuilding of roads according to the McAdam method, which did not require a new stone, replaced the laborious and more expensive rebuilding of roads with the device of clothes like T. Telford. The amount of work performed was limited necessary minimum and therefore J. McAdam emphasized that "on each road I was forced to change the way of work depending on local conditions, and often on funding."
5. History of the paver
Usually in the literature, the artificial rolling of crushed stone clothes is associated with the name of the French engineer Polonso, who in 1829 used instead of tamping the crushed stone placer with a 20-kilogram rammer, “which compacted only the surface”, rolling with a 3-ton roller, the mass of which was increased to 4 during the last passes, 5 tons. The skating rink was made of oak beams bound with iron hoops, the diameter of the roller was 2.1 m, the width was 1.6 m. The beams had a concavity in the middle equal to 3.2 cm, designed to form a cylindrical the surface of the coating, and the crushed stone was not squeezed out from under the roller to the side. Holes were provided in the side discs of the rink, through which the rink could be filled with sand or gravel, increasing its mass from 1.2 to 6 tons.
The emergence of steam rollers contributed to the expansion of the use of rolling. In 1859, the Lemoine skating rink was released, which had three rollers located one after the other. The front and rear rollers were smaller in diameter than the average drive. Ballezon's skating rink was two-roller. Starting with the Aveling and Porter rollers, they switched to the usual three-roller scheme. The optimal weight of the rollers was not immediately found.
In Switzerland, in 1721, near the city of Neuchâtel and in 1810, near the city of Seysel, deposits of asphalt rocks were discovered - limestones and sandstones impregnated with bitumen. They began to be developed for the preparation of mastic for waterproofing work. Soon it was noticed that pieces of asphalt rock that fell on the road during transportation form a solid homogeneous layer when compacted in transit. This led to the idea of building asphalt pavements. In 1829, a footpath, and in the 30s, the first attempts were made to build asphalt pavements.
Sosseni (Zozzepu) began to arrange asphalt pavements by heating asphalt limestone in boilers to a temperature of 150-170 ° C and adding to it up to 60% dried river sand. The resulting plastic mixture was leveled on a solid stone base and compacted by tamping. The first coatings laid in Paris on the Place de la Concorde and on the terrace of the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg gained international fame.
First in the USA asphalt pavement was laid in 1871 from material brought from Europe. Later, they began to use local asphalt rocks containing a higher percentage of bitumen, adding to them, in addition to sand, stone flour. Rollers were used to compact the hot mixture. Compressed and rolled asphalt pavements have begun to spread on the streets big cities. In Paris in 1854 there were 800 m, in 1856 - 8 km, and in 1860 - already 230 km. In London, the first coating appeared in 1869, in Berlin - in 1877.
The beginning of the systematic construction of improved pavements should be considered the rapidly spreading laying on the streets of capital cities of pavements from "rammed asphalt" - crushed stone from natural asphalt rocks, which was heated in boilers and compacted by ramming after leveling on a solid stone foundation. In 1913, for the first time in Europe, rolling of the “asphalt mass” borrowed from the USA was used. The coatings are called "rolled asphalt".
6. The advent of the automobile and the improvement of road networks
At the end of the XIX century. an event occurred that made a revolutionary change in transport technology - the appearance of a car - a self-propelled cart with an internal combustion engine. In 1885-1886. German engineer K.F. Benz installed a gasoline engine on a three-wheeled wagon, and in 1887 G. Daimler began mass production of cars. Already in 1895, the Paris-Rouen car race took place in France, at which it was achieved average speed 24 km/h.
In Russia, the first cars appeared in 1901, when there were already 23 thousand of them in the USA. Since 1908, the Russian-Baltic plant in Riga began to produce cars, which manufactured 460 of them. until 1916 - before the evacuation in connection with the offensive of the German troops.
Bad roads were not an obstacle to motorization. However, the development of automobile production put in different countries before their designers and the road service various tasks. IN Western Europe, where there was already a dense network of roads with solid pavements, the task arose of taking into account the requirements for the movement of vehicles with high speeds. In countries with a sparse road network and a predominance of dirt roads - in Russia and the USA - the problem arose of ensuring travel on roads and adapting cars to the condition of these roads.
The first direction led to the development of techniques for the construction of improved pavements, the second - to the emergence of methods for the mechanized construction of dirt roads as a temporary way of passing low-intensity traffic.
Mass production of automobiles gave impetus to road construction. In the US, it unfolded in the 20s, when the number of cars exceeded 10.5 million, and roads with hard clothes made up only 12% of their total length.
7. Modern stage of road construction
Before the advent of automobiles, there were limited requirements for the route of roads, arising from the peculiarities of horse traction on the slopes. The horse can, working with a short-term overload, develop a traction force on the hook that is 2-3 times higher than normal, which is approximately 1/3 from her weight. Therefore, the steeper the climb, the shorter its length should be. The construction of roads, intended mainly for cars, made this requirement inappropriate, but gave rise to a number of requirements of a different nature.
As the number of cars increased and their dynamic qualities increased, the requirements for taking into account the peculiarities of their movement in the norms for the design of the plan and the longitudinal profile of roads increased.
Already in the first period of the appearance of cars, a number of proposals were made, which are currently taken into account when developing technical requirements to track elements. In the book of I.M. Ivanov pointed out the need to ensure visibility on the curves in the plan so that the driver's line of sight does not go beyond the roadbed. Without mentioning the length of the braking distance, the author noted that "the period of time required for drivers to notice each other is 3 seconds." This value is close to the currently recommended reaction time for motorways. The radii of the curves were proposed to rely on stability against capsizing, since "the lateral force tends to move the carriage to the side, and with a sharp transverse slope, and especially on curves, it can overturn it." It was noted that “fast car traffic is inconvenient and dangerous along the streets of the villages. In view of this, it was recognized as necessary to lay the main roads outside the villages, bypassing them.
The development of motorization in countries with a dense road network with a predominance of cars personal use, a sharp increase passenger traffic and the widespread use of autotourism made it necessary to impose the same high architectural and aesthetic requirements on highways as on any engineering structure for mass use. By the beginning of the Second World War, a new direction had emerged in road design, combining landscape design, clothoid tracing, and spatial smoothness. The development of high-speed automobile traffic has shown the importance of smoothly fitting the route into the landscape and for ensuring high transport and operational qualities of roads.
The idea arose to find ways to preserve during periods of waterlogging the properties of soils that they have in the dry season, by strengthening soils - the so-called "soil stabilization". According to prof. MM. Filatov, the goal of stabilization was “to make road soil sufficiently resistant to shear and abrasion. Stabilization was supposed to prevent harmful effect increase in soil moisture, destroying its connectivity. To increase adhesion, water-resistant binders of organic and inorganic origin or skeletal additives - coarse sand, gravel or crushed stone, which increase the internal friction of the soil, were introduced into the soil. The first successes in soil stabilization during the period of low traffic volumes led to the emergence of the slogan "soil not as a foundation, but as clothing." "It was proposed" to take soil - the ubiquitous soil, as the main material for pavement, but not to take it in a natural or mechanically improved state, but by turning it through various physicochemical and technological processes and impacts into a mass sufficiently elastic and strong for passage.
Conflict between by car and the roads of the period of predominant horse traffic was short-lived and was a stimulus for further progress in road construction technology - the mass appearance of improved coatings based on organic binders.
Rapid progress in expanding the use of organic binders in road construction is associated with the name of the Swiss physician E. Guglilminetti (1862-1943). For 12 years, starting in 1902, to combat dust on a 20-kilometer section of the Nice - Monte Carlo road with almost 1,000 vehicles daily and in large numbers horse-drawn carts, E. Guglilminetti successfully used heated coal tar from a gas plant. Tar was used for the annual restoration of the surface treatment of the crushed stone coating, followed by backfilling with sand.
The experience of surface treatment devices showed that they not only lead to dust removal of coatings, but also significantly reduce their wear. As a result of repeated surface treatments, a kind of mat is formed on the roads - a thin layer of asphalt pavement. Initially, the filling of bitumen and tar was carried out manually from watering cans, followed by distribution over the coating with brushes. Then there were boilers with a capacity of 250-350 liters on carts, from which the binder flowed through holes in a horizontal tube. The cart was carried by two workers. The next step was horse-drawn distributors. They had containers for 1200-1500 liters, from which bitumen was supplied under pressure up to 8 atm. if it is possible to regulate the amount of binder supplied. Distributors on cars - asphalt distributors in the USSR began to be produced in 1931.
The positive effect of bitumen and tar on the strength of pavements caused the gradual emergence of new structures over the years. It was associated with the development scientific research, and mainly with the improvement of manufactured road machines. Schematically, this process can be described as follows.
Surface treatment captured only the top layer of the coating. The crushed stone located below was held only by the forces of the wedge, and therefore, when the surface treatment was worn, the rapidly progressive destruction of the coating resumed. The task of binding crushed stone to a greater thickness was solved by the advent of the impregnation method.
The desire to create a more uniform material for the surface layer gave rise to the idea of making pavements from stone material pre-treated with a binder. The method originated from the simplest drying of crushed stone on iron sheets and shifting with tar by hand.
Gradually, it became clear that with the appropriate selection of the mineralogical composition of stone material and bitumen or tar of low viscosity, the storage period of the "ripened" mixture can be significantly extended, and it does not cake. This made it possible to harvest processed crushed stone for future use, manufacture it at factories, including in winter, and transport it to construction over long distances, reducing the process of building a coating only to distribution over a prepared base and rolling. A number of methods for preparing "thermacadama" were patented, of which the most famous in the early 30s was "sessen asphalt", or "dammanasfalt", named after the specialist who proposed it, engineer. Damman. This asphalt was prepared from stone material in the form of blast-furnace slag crushed to sand size and a minimum amount of liquid bitumen. For the construction of crushed stone coatings by the impregnation method and a surface treatment device using hot viscous bitumen, it was imperative that the crushed stone be in a dry state and that there was no dust on the crushed stones.
The next stage in the development of technology for the construction of improved road surfaces was the use of bitumen and tar emulsions and liquefied bitumens, which were first tested in the USSR in 1928 and 1930. Bitumen and tar emulsions, consisting of approximately 50% water, included 2% emulsifier and dispersed bitumen or tar. They made it possible to perform work at lower positive temperatures and wet rubble. Disintegrating upon contact with the surface of the stone material, they left a bituminous film adhering to it.
Binders thinned with volatile solvents also more easily penetrated into the spaces between the gravel, binding the dust to the surface of the stone particles. Liquid bitumen was especially widely used in the construction of gravel coatings on roads of lower categories by the displacement method on the road, since gravel materials containing a large percentage of dusty and sandy particles could be moved on the roadbed with a small number of passes of a grader or disc harrow with only low-viscosity material. Such methods were widely used in the USA and the USSR before the Second World War when creating a grassroots network of highways in the conditions of a rapid increase in motorization.
The increase in traffic intensity and the appearance of heavy vehicles on the roads required a further increase in the strength of road surfaces compared to crushed stone pavements treated with binders. In road construction, asphalt and cement concrete began to become widespread. Asphalt concrete arose as a development of crushed stone pavements from materials treated with binders in special installations. The fundamental difference between asphalt concrete and crushed stone treated with a binder was the mandatory presence in its composition of a fine mineral powder with a particle size of less than 0.1 mm. At the first stage of designing asphalt concrete compositions, it was assigned the role of filling the pores between sand particles, from which its original name “aggregate” was born, later replaced by the term “mineral powder”. Depending on the ratio of mineral powder and binder, the coating turned out to be too brittle or too ductile, especially in hot weather, when it left traces from the wheels and shifted when braking. Clothes with a low binder content quickly collapsed.
Bibliography
1. Kudryavtsev A.S. "On the History of the Tresage Highway: Theses". USSR Academy of Sciences, 1936
2. Kudryavtsev A.S. “Technology of highways. Essays on the history of technology in Russia. Moscow: Nauka 1975
3. Lomonosov M.V. "About the layers of the earth". Moscow: Gosgeolisdat, 1949
4. V.F. Babkov "Development of road construction technology", Transport, 1988
5. V.F. Babkov "Mac-Adam and his system of construction and repair of roads", Tr. MADI 1979
6. V.F. Babkov " landscape design highways”, M.: Transport 1980
7. Ivanov N.N. "Introduction of road achievements into the practice of road construction". Dorstroy, 1949, No. 6.
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September 21 marks the 260th anniversary of the birth of Scottish engineer John Loudon McAdam. Exactly 200 years ago, he wrote "Notes on modern system road construction. Surprisingly, the basic principles are still relevant today.
And the book, published in 1816, said that the foundation of the road should be laid out from large stones, and several layers of gravel crumbs, filled with tar, were applied on top of them. For adhesion of the layers to each other, they should be compacted with a roller, and the size of the gravel crumb should decrease from the lower layer to the upper one. The roadbed must be raised above ground level, and the profile of the roadbed must be made convex - in order to rainwater ran down the curb.
In fact, they tried to develop and apply such methods even before McAdam, but he was the first who brought the entire body of knowledge to a coherent theory and gave it a powerful practical impetus. In 1828, crushed stone rollers were introduced in Great Britain (steam rollers would appear much later, in 1859) - the year before, McAdam had been appointed chief inspector of roads in Great Britain. Subsequently, he also became the chief engineer of Great Britain, his theory quickly became universally recognized in all developed countries, and then the start of the automobile era arrived in time. In honor of the anniversary of the publication of a book so significant for modern motorists, we decided to collect in one material Interesting Facts about how roads are now being built in different countries of the world. So what do we see 200 years later?
USA
IN North America all roads are divided into groups according to their importance, and we are especially interested in the two highest ones - Interstate Highways (indicated by the index I) and US Highways (US), the so-called highways (the fastest of them are also called freeways), in our way. All highways in the USA are made of concrete, and even if there is an asphalt coating, it is temporary - in the States, “concrete” is covered with asphalt in order to delay the overhaul.
Such a trick is not without reason - the overhaul of a concrete highway is identical to the construction of a new one, but with the addition of work to dismantle the old highway. Concrete is difficult to repair and difficult to lay – while an asphalt pavement is ready for use after 8 hours, concrete takes 28 days to reach its final strength, and it takes several months of continuous work to open a concrete road. Why such difficulties?
Goes on highways maximum flow vehicles and cargo, and concrete is strong, durable and resistant to high loads arising from the overweight of trucks. The guaranteed service life of a concrete highway is 25 years, but in practice they serve for 30-40 years, and the cost of maintaining the highway is minimized. Until now, there are sites put into operation in the 1960s and are in excellent condition.
During the construction process, a meter of soil is selected under the future route, a pillow of gravel, sand and clay is laid in layers and rammed into the resulting trench, then it is poured with lime mortar or calcium chloride solution, loosened and rammed again. As a result, the pillow is able to retain a constant percentage of moisture almost forever, which means it does not sag or swell. Further, two layers of asphalt with a total thickness of 5-7 cm are laid on the pillow, but the asphalt in this case is only a flat platform for a layer of concrete, as well as waterproofing, which does not allow water to flow under the concrete sheet through thermal seams that connect the fragments of the sheet to each other. A reinforcing mesh is laid on the asphalt, which the concrete paver pours with a layer of concrete 30 cm from one thermal seam to the other to obtain a monolithic canvas. And then follows almost a month of waiting until the concrete "gets up".
At overhaul the track is not blocked, but temporary understudies are made of asphalt on the sides of the road, or first one side of the track is repaired, and then the second, but strictly observing the rule - throughput should not decrease by more than 30%. Repair zones are fenced off with curbs, marked with signs, cones and constantly updated information boards, and temporary understudies are provided with markings from convex glow-in-the-dark chips. Penalties for non-compliance with traffic rules in repair zones have been doubled, violation of the speed limit is especially severely punished.
The finished highway includes at least two lanes in each direction, oncoming lanes have a constructive separator and do not fit closer than 10 meters to each other. The right side of the road has a width of at least 6 meters, the left (yes, there is one, but it is forbidden to move onto it) - at least 3 meters. According to safety requirements, the maximum angle of ascents and descents on the highway is 6%, maximum load- 36 tons. There are no roundabouts or loopholes familiar to us, there are understudies for exits to minor roads. Speed limit on highways: minimum 30-40 mph (60-80 km/h), maximum 60-80 mph (100-130 km/h).
Road construction in the USA is profitable state business. The Federal Highway Fund is filled with auto taxes, tolls, private investment, stock sales, and through fuel sales - 2.5 cents goes into the fund for every gallon (4 liters) of gasoline poured into a car tank. This last article alone brings in tens of billions of dollars annually for the foundation.
Roads transport $6 billion more cargo a year than railroads – it’s more profitable that way. The entire transportation infrastructure is valued at over $2 trillion—more than 15% of the value of all US manufacturing assets. Today, more than 300,000 people are employed in the US transportation infrastructure, and every billion dollars invested in it creates 35,000 more jobs, and also avoids more than 1,500 deaths and 50,000 injuries in road accidents. Over the past 40 years, every dollar invested in road construction has saved two in health care, insurance, unemployment supplies, and increased productivity.
Great Britain
Gradually, the American experience in the construction of "concrete" migrates to Australia, Asia and Europe. At the beginning of 2016 in Scotland, in the homeland of John McAdam, two mobile concrete plants, performance respectively 90 and 140 cubic meters concrete per hour. These factories beautiful names, Mobile Master-100 Lion and Mobile Master-150 Elephant, and a wheeled chassis that allows them to move from one site to another, constantly supplying the construction site with concrete. This is especially important as Lev and Elephant are building a transport route in the Aberdeen Western Peripheral Route project, which includes 58 kilometers of new highway, 40 kilometers of bypasses, 30 kilometers of ramps, two bridges across the Dee and Don rivers, and about 100 more structures. and objects.
There are about 344,000 kilometers of paved roads in the UK, and at the moment most of them are asphalt. As a more traditional and familiar variant of road construction, let us consider the arrangement of streets in the cities of England. Let it be London, although travelers say that the quality of roads in England is more or less the same everywhere. The pavement of the streets is asphalt, and it is subject to trivial pitting and cosmetic repairs, but not at the moment when the road becomes unusable, but at certain intervals - that is, simply according to plan.
England is one of the rainiest places on Earth, but, oddly enough, it is impossible to even imagine that the asphalt of the city streets here collapsed after the rain. English asphalt is very durable, although in most cases, due to the mildness of the climate, it is not subject to severe frosts. If a hole appears, employees circle it with red chalk and immediately roll it into it new asphalt. There can be many patches in a limited area, but all of them are perfectly (and for a long time) “fitted” into the roadbed.
Another feature of English roads is the transverse slope. It is always there, because it is an easy way to ensure the flow of water. Draining from the canvas, the water reaches the curb, and from there it enters storm drain. Leaves and other debris remain at the curb, from where they are raked by a harvester.
The infrastructure of the streets also deserves attention. As they say, it is unbelievable, but true - bus stops are installed with glass to the roadway so that passengers are protected from dust and splashes. On wide streets, safety islands for pedestrians, enclosed by a fence, are obligatory. At pedestrian crossings, in the exit area to carriageway, a special tile with an anti-slip coating is laid. And themselves pedestrian crossings for motorists are indicated by two orange lights on striped poles - they are clearly visible both day and night.
Germany
Fast forward to Germany, famous for its autobahns. The surface of the autobahn can be either asphalt or concrete. But underneath it top layer- a multilayer pressed "pillow", similar in structure to the American one and having a depth of up to two meters.
During the construction of a concrete autobahn, the road is covered with a special film that protects the drying concrete from the sun and precipitation. In the event of rain, when creating an asphalt road, builders simply stop work until the site is completely dry.
All roads have a warranty period of operation, and during this period, road companies eliminate all deviations from the norms at their own expense. patching it’s not in use here - a large section of the road is completely measured at once, because any inaccuracies, errors and further destruction of the canvas are fraught with huge lawsuits.
A significant part of modern roads in Germany was built back in the days of the Third Reich and is designed for the movement of columns of heavy military equipment, so these roads still successfully cope with the huge traffic of trucks. And the first German autobahn, still in operation, is over 80 years old.
Finland
Finland, along with the UAE, France, the mentioned Germany and a number of other European countries, regularly enters the top ten countries with the best roads despite the harsh climate. Here, too, much attention is paid to the multi-layer rammed cushion, which serves as the basis for the future road.
The Finns have learned how to build roads even on unstable soils - special stabilizing additives are introduced into the substrate of peat or clay. In this Scandinavian country, even dirt roads are maintained in a stable condition.
Helsinki was one of the first places in the world to have heated pavements that keep them dry during the winter - the first time this was done in the Finnish capital in 1998. Over the years, the road construction experience of developed countries has come to the conclusion that it is often much more profitable to heat the canvas than to sprinkle with reagents, and to date, heated sidewalks, bus stops, railway platforms and roads, in addition to Finland and other Scandinavian countries, are in the USA , Canada, even in Russia (however, an experimental site with a heated sidewalk near the Moscow City Hall, launched in 2003, can hardly be considered a serious achievement) and, of course, in Japan.
Japan
In Japan, sidewalks and roads are heated in absolutely all cities where snow falls in winter. By the way, the climate of some regions of Japan is also not very mild - for example, in Hokkaido the average annual temperature is only +8 °C. There is also heating on the tracks, so even in heavy snowfalls, there are usually no snowflakes on these roads.
Concrete also serves as the main material for pavement of roads here - due to reasons already known to us: durability, strength, resistance to high loads. The construction technology repeats the American one, but in Japan another plus of concrete is also actively used - it allows you to translate the most complex multi-level interchanges into reality.
Specialists working on the construction different profile, and each bears full responsibility for his site. Takes a lot of time preparatory stage, because on it the plan of the future road is being worked out to the smallest detail. In addition, if the road must pass through private territory, lawyers and the government need to successfully negotiate the purchase of a piece of property.
China
The Chinese, in their eternal desire to overtake their neighbors, have reached unprecedented rates of road construction. Chinese companies are able to provide a construction speed of 750 meters per hour, and with a quality that is not inferior to the best in Europe.
Following the American model of road construction, over the past decade and a half, the Chinese have built over 70,000 kilometers of freeways, and to date, the pace has approached the mark of 30,000 kilometers of freeways per year. The warranty for roads in China is 20-25 years.
Georgia
In the second part of the story, we turn to some countries former USSR. Their culture of road construction after the collapse of the Union was formed in different ways. In Georgia, for example, the roads have always been relatively good - partly due to the stable rocky ground.
IN last years a widespread restoration of old roads and the construction of new ones are being carried out: secondary rural roads are covered with asphalt, and intercity highways are made according to the American scheme - from concrete. Although they call it in the German manner - autobahns. Speed limit repeats Russian rules: on highways (autobahns) 110 km / h, on other country roads - 90 km / h.
Since 2012, the Batumi-Tbilisi highway has been under construction in Georgia, and part of this expressway with lighting, cameras, light panels and recreation areas has already been put into operation. Ultimately, the path between the capital and Batumi (about 380 km) should be reduced to three hours. And not so long ago, another autobahn, 17.4 km long, built by the Chinese company Sinohydro Corporation Ltd, was put into operation on the Rustavi-Tbilisi section.
Latvia
Latvia found itself in a completely different situation. This country has always been a little more "Soviet" than neighboring Lithuania and Estonia, and in many ways - in particular, in terms of road construction - this did not serve well.
Until 2003, there was a special road fund in the country, which was supposed to accumulate funds for road construction, but neither its liquidation due to "non-transparency" nor its restoration in a new format, which is currently being discussed, give a clear answer to the question: why are the funds collected by the state taxes do not properly fall into the scope of road construction? What a familiar situation!
Since 2004, Latvia has been a member of the European Union, which allocates money to improve the quality of roads, but by 2018 most of these funds will be spent, and there has been no real progress. The worst situation has developed with local roads, for which it is forbidden to use European funds. Another painful (and also very familiar) issue is the quality of road repairs. It is natural that the cost of maintaining roads in Latvia is higher than that of its neighbors.
By 2015, out of more than 20,000 km of state roads in Latvia, only 9,000 km were paved, of which over 4,000 km were in poor or very poor condition, according to Neatkariga. In 2013, the World Economic Forum conducted a study of the quality of roads in the world, and among 144 participating countries, Latvia was in 99th place, next to Zambia and Zimbabwe. Estonia ranked 61st, Lithuania - 32nd.
Russia
In the 2013 ranking, the countries with the best roads were recognized (places from one to ten): France, UAE, Singapore, Portugal, Oman, Switzerland, Austria, Hong Kong, Finland and Germany. If we continue talking about the former union republics, then Belarus, with its good quality of asphalt and the traffic payment system adopted from the UAE country roads with the help of devices installed on cars and reading "frames" on the tracks, was not included in the rating. But Russia got into the rating and ended up in ... 136th place, next to Ukraine and Central African Gabon. Only East Timor, Guinea, Mongolia, Romania, Haiti and Moldova could “boast” with roads worse than in Russia.
In 2015, the alignment of the leaders changed slightly: the UAE came out on top, followed by Portugal, Austria, France and the Netherlands. Closed the list of 141 countries this time Guinea. The United States, from which we began the story, was only in 16th place, and as for Russia, it slightly improved its position, taking 124th place in the list of 141 countries. But, as we understand, such progress does not in any way attract a cause for national pride.
The United States has almost 6.5 million kilometers of roads, including highways, paved and unpaved roads. In Russia - six times less, about 1,400,000 km, and this despite the fact that the territory of Russia is almost twice the size of the United States. Moreover, Japan has almost the same number, 1,200,000 km, and the country's area is 45 times smaller than Russia's!
The length of North American highways (highways and freeways) is over 77,000 km, and in Russia there are barely a thousand kilometers of such. The highways of Finland have approximately the same mileage, which has almost ten times fewer roads than in Russia, not to mention the country's area.
And here is another “territorial” example: what if we compare, say, the roads of Russia and Great Britain and take into account only paved roads? There are 984,000 kilometers of such cars in Russia, according to Rosavtodor. And in the UK - about 344,000 kilometers, that is, about three times less. But this is at total area country is 70 times smaller than the area of Russia! And with a completely different quality of this very hard coating.
We can also recall the 70,000 kilometers of highways built in China over the past 15 years, and the fact that in Russia all federal highways are not highways, but simply "federal roads", where there are places that locals lovingly call "graviyechka" - only about 51,000 km.
The main binding material in the asphalt mix is bitumen, which is produced in oil refineries. According to some reports, the demand for high-quality bitumen in Russia is falling, and its production is declining catastrophically. The road business in the Russian Federation is arranged in such a way that it is unprofitable for a road construction company to buy high-quality bitumen - this negatively affects the volume of orders in the future.
It is better to buy a material similar to normal bitumen, which is essentially oil refining waste with an added binder additive and costs several times cheaper. This circumstance serves as an additional trump card when participating in a tender for road works, because the contractor who offers the lowest price wins. Asphalt obtained using this "bypass" technology has a shelf life of up to 1 year, after which it is destroyed, and the company has the opportunity to receive a new work order.
In 2011, the website of the RosYama project was launched in Russia, which allows users to file a complaint with the traffic police about a road defect that does not comply with GOST. If after 37 days the complaint is not given a move, the site generates an application to the prosecutor's office. Now the project has mobile app, and since 2015, the complaint is filled not by the user, but by the site team. At the time of writing, almost 86,000 holes have been added to the site, of which about 23,500 have already been fixed thanks to the efforts of users.
As for the fight against road defects not in the virtual, but in the real Russian space, in recent years it has turned into a kind of the new kind protest art: if at the end of the “zero” activists in different cities of Russia simply circled the road pits with bright paint, then a few years later they used them, for example, to create whole paintings depicting famous officials, and also planted plants in the potholes - bushes and small trees .
However, this is a completely different story. And today's story, dedicated to how the followers of John Loudon McAdam disposed of his legacy, is over.
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