The evolution of the statehood of Kievan Rus (9th-12th centuries)

The Old Russian state can be characterized as an early feudal monarchy. The head of state was the Grand Duke of Kyiv. His brothers, sons and warriors carried out the administration of the country, the court, the collection of tribute and duties. The income of the princes and their entourage was then still largely determined by the tribute from the subordinate tribes, the possibility of exporting it to other countries for sale. The young state faced major foreign policy tasks related to the protection of its borders: repulsing the raids of the nomadic Pechenegs, fighting the expansion of Byzantium, Khazar Khaganate. Volga Bulgaria. It is from these positions that the domestic and foreign policy of the Kievan grand dukes should be considered.

Early feudal monarchy IX-XII centuries.

Grand Duke of Kyiv

Squad Older squad. Boyars (nobility) Junior squad (gridi)

Local (specific) princes Posadniks, volostels

local squad

Graveyards, settlements, volosts

The history of Kievan Rus, whose chronological framework is defined by most historians as the 9th to the beginning of the 12th centuries, can be conditionally divided into three large periods. The first (IX - the middle of the X century) is the time of the first Kyiv princes. The second (the second half of the 10th and first half of the 11th century) is the time of Vladimir I and Yaroslav the Wise), the heyday of the Kievan state; the third period, the second half of the 11th and beginning of the 12th centuries, the transition to territorial and political fragmentation. 25

The first Kyiv princes (IX - the middle of the X century)

Unification of Novgorod and Kyiv. Since 862, Rurik, according to The Tale of Bygone Years, established himself in Novgorod. According to tradition, from that time they lead the beginning of Russian statehood. (In 1862, a monument to the millennium of Russia was erected in the Novgorod Kremlin, sculptor M.O. Mikeshin.) Some historians believe that Rurik was a real historical figure, identifying him with Rurik Friesland, who, at the head of his squad, repeatedly made trips to Western Europe . Rurik settled in Novgorod, one of his brothers, Sineus, on the White Lake (now Belozersk, Vologda region), the other, Truvor, in Izborsk (near Pskov). Historians consider the names of the “brothers” to be a distortion of the ancient Swedish words: “sineus” “with their families”, “truvor” a faithful squad. This usually serves as one of the arguments against the authenticity of the Varangian legend. Two years later, according to chronicles, the brothers died, and Rurik handed over the most important cities to his husbands. Two of them, Askold and Dir, who made an unsuccessful campaign against Byzantium, occupied Kyiv and freed the people of Kiev from the Khazar tribute.

After the death of Rurik in 879, who did not leave behind an heir (according to another version, he was Igor, which later gave grounds in the historical literature to call the dynasty of Kievan princes "Rurikovich", and Kievan Rus "the power of Rurikovich"), the leader seized power in Novgorod one of the Varangian detachments Oleg (879-911).

Unification of Kyiv and Novgorod. Treaty of Russia with the Greeks. In 882

Oleg undertook a campaign against Kyiv, where Askold and Dir reigned at that time (some historians consider these princes to be the last representatives of the Kiya family). Posing as merchants, Oleg's warriors killed Askold and Dir with the help of deceit and captured the city. Kyiv became the center of the united state.

Russia's trading partner was the mighty Byzantine Empire. Kyiv princes repeatedly made campaigns against their southern neighbor. So, back in 860, Askold and Dir undertook this time a successful campaign against Byzantium. (Even more famous was the agreement between Russia and Byzantium, concluded by Oleg.

In 907 and 911, Oleg and his army fought twice successfully under the walls of Constantinople (Tsargrad). As a result of these campaigns, agreements were concluded with the Greeks, drawn up, as the chronicler wrote, “for two charatia”, i.e. in two copies in Russian and Greek. This confirms that Russian writing appeared long before the adoption of Christianity. Before the advent of Russkaya Pravda, legislation was also taking shape (in the agreement with the Greeks, the Russian Law was mentioned, with which the inhabitants of Kievan Rus were judged).

According to the agreements, Russian merchants had the right to live for a month at the expense of the Greeks in Constantinople, but they were obliged to walk around the city without weapons. At the same time, the merchants had to carry written documents with them and warn the Byzantine emperor in advance about their arrival. Oleg's agreement with the Greeks made it possible to export the tribute collected in Russia and sell it in the markets of Byzantium.

Under Oleg, the Drevlyans, northerners, and Radimichi were included in his state and began to pay tribute to Kyiv. However, the process of incorporating various tribal unions into Kievan Rus was not a one-time action.

Prince Igor. Revolt of the ancients. After the death of Oleg, Igor (912-945) began to reign in Kyiv. During his reign in 944, an agreement with Byzantium was confirmed on less favorable terms. Under Igor, the first popular indignation described in the annals took place - the uprising of the Drevlyans in 945. The collection of tribute in the conquered lands was carried out by the Varangian Sveneld with his detachment. Their enrichment caused a murmur in Igor's squad. “Prince,” said Igor’s warriors, the warriors of Sveneld were richly dressed in weapons and ports, and we were impoverished. Let's go collect tribute, and you will get a lot and we will.

Having collected tribute and sent carts to Kyiv, Igor returned with a small detachment, "desiring more estates." The Drevlyans gathered at a veche (the presence of their own principalities in separate Slavic lands, as well as veche gatherings, indicates that the formation of statehood continued in Kievan Rus). The veche decided: "If a wolf gets into the sheep, then he will drag everything, if not to kill him." Igor's squad was killed, and the prince was executed.

Lessons and graveyards. After the death of Igor, his wife Olga (945-964) cruelly avenged the Drevlyans for the murder of her husband. The first embassy of the Drevlyans, which offered Olga instead of Igor as the husband of their prince Mal, was buried alive in the ground, the second was burned. At the funeral feast (feast), on the orders of Olga, drunken Drevlyans were killed. According to the chronicle, Olga suggested that the Drevlyans give three pigeons and three sparrows from each yard as a tribute. A burning tow with sulfur was tied to the legs of the pigeons; when they flew into their old nests, a fire broke out in the Drevlyansk capital. As a result, the capital of the Drevlyans Iskorosten (now the city of Korosten) burned out. According to the annals, about 5 thousand people died in the fire.

Having brutally avenged the Drevlyans, Olga was forced to go to streamline the collection of tribute. She established the "lessons" of the amount of tribute and the "graveyards" of the place of tribute collection. Along with the camps (places where there was shelter and the necessary food supplies were stored and where the princely squad stopped during the collection of tribute), graveyards appeared, apparently fortified courts of princely stewards, where tribute was brought. These graveyards then became the supporting centers of princely power.

During the reign of Igor and Olga, the lands of the Tivertsy, the streets, and finally the Drevlyans were annexed to Kyiv.

Campaigns of Svyatoslav. Some historians consider Svyatoslav (964-972), the son of Olga and Igor, a talented commander and statesman, others argue that he was an adventurer prince who saw the goal of his life in war. Svyatoslav was faced with the task of protecting Russia from nomadic raids and clearing trade routes to other countries. Svyatoslav coped with this task successfully, which confirms the validity of the first point of view.

Svyatoslav, in the course of his numerous campaigns, began to annex the lands of the Vyatichi, defeated the Volga Bulgaria, conquered the Mordovian tribes, defeated the Khazar Khaganate, successfully fought in the North Caucasus and the Azov coast, having captured Tmutarakan on the Taman Peninsula, repelled the onslaught of the Pechenegs. He tried to bring the borders of Russia closer to Byzantium and joined the Bulgarian-Byzantine conflict, and then led a stubborn struggle with the Emperor of Constantinople for the Balkan Peninsula. During the period of successful hostilities, Svyatoslav even thought about moving the capital of his state on the Danube to the city of Pereyaslavets, where, as he believed, “goods from different countries would converge”; silk, gold, Byzantine utensils, silver and horses from Hungary and the Czech Republic, wax, honey, furs and captive slaves from Russia. However, the struggle with Byzantium ended unsuccessfully, Svyatoslav was surrounded by a hundred thousandth Greek army. With great difficulty he managed to escape to Russia. A non-aggression pact was concluded with Byzantium, but the Danubian lands had to be returned.

On the way to Kyiv, Svyatoslav in 972 was ambushed by the Pechenegs at the Dnieper rapids and was killed. The Pecheneg Khan ordered to make a cup from the skull of Svyatoslav, bound with gold, and drank from it at feasts, believing that the glory of the murdered would pass to him. (In the 30s of the 20th century, during the construction of the Dneproges, steel swords were discovered at the bottom of the Dnieper, which, presumably, belonged to Svyatoslav and his combatants.)

Rise of Kievan Rus

Vladimir I. After the death of Svyatoslav, his eldest son Yaropolk (972-980) became the Grand Prince of Kyiv. His brother Oleg received Drev29

lan land. The third son of Svyatoslav Vladimir, born from his slave Malusha, the housekeeper of Princess Olga (Dobrynya's sister), received Novgorod. In the civil strife that began five years later between the brothers, Yaropolk defeated the Drevlyansk squads of Oleg. Oleg himself died in battle.

Vladimir, together with Dobrynya, fled "overseas", from where he returned two years later with a hired Varangian squad. Yaropolk was killed. Vladimir occupied the grand-ducal throne.

Under Vladimir I (980-1015), all the lands of the Eastern Slavs united as part of Kievan Rus. The Vyatichi, lands on both sides of the Carpathians, Chervlensky cities were finally annexed. There was a further strengthening of the state apparatus. The prince's sons and senior combatants were given control major centers. One of the most important tasks of that time was solved: ensuring the protection of Russian lands from the raids of numerous Pecheneg tribes. For this purpose, a number of fortresses were built along the rivers Desna, Osetr, Suda, Stugna. Apparently, here, on the border with the steppe, there were “heroic outposts” that protected Russia from raids, where the legendary Ilya Muromets and other epic heroes stood for their native land.

Acceptance of Christianity. In 988, under Vladimir I, Christianity was adopted as the state religion. Christianity, as the chronicler narrates, has been spread in Russia since ancient times. It was preached by the Apostle Andrew the First-Called, one of the disciples of Christ. At the beginning of our era, the Apostle Andrew, the elder brother of the Apostle Peter, went to Scythia. As the "Tale of Bygone Years" testifies, the Apostle Andrew rose to the middle reaches of the Dnieper, set up a cross on the Kyiv hills and predicted that Kyiv would be "the mother of Russian cities." The further path of the apostle lay through Novgorod, where, according to the chronicler, he was amazed by the Russian bath, to the Baltic and further around Europe to Rome. The stories about the subsequent baptisms of certain groups of the population of Russia (at the time of Askold and Dir, Cyril and Methodius, Princess Olga, etc.) show that Christianity gradually entered the life of ancient Russian society.

The baptism of Vladimir and his entourage took place in the city of Korsun (Chersonese), the center of the Byzantine possessions in the Crimea (Chersonesos is located within the boundaries of present-day Sevastopol). It was preceded by the participation of the Kyiv squad in the struggle of the Byzantine emperor Vasily II with the rebellion of the commander Varda Foki. The emperor won, but did not fulfill his obligation to give his daughter Anna for Vladimir. Then Vladimir besieged Korsun and forced the Byzantine princess to marry in exchange for the baptism of the "barbarian", who had long been attracted to the Greek faith.

Vladimir, having baptized himself, baptized his boyars, and then all the people. The spread of Christianity often met with resistance from the population, who revered their pagan gods. Christianity established itself slowly. On the outlying lands of Kievan Rus, it was established much later than in Kyiv and Novgorod.

The adoption of Christianity was great importance for further development Russia. Christianity with its idea of ​​eternity human life(mortal earthly life precedes the eternal stay in heaven or hell of the human soul after his death) asserted the idea of ​​equality of people before God.

The adoption of Christianity strengthened state power and the territorial unity of Kievan Rus. It had great international significance, which consisted in the fact that Russia, having rejected "primitive" paganism, now became equal to other Christian countries, ties with which expanded significantly. Finally, the adoption of Christianity played a large role in the development of Russian culture, which was influenced by Byzantine, and through it, ancient culture.

A metropolitan appointed by the Patriarch of Constantinople was placed at the head of the Russian Orthodox Church; separate regions of Russia were headed by bishops, to whom priests in cities and villages were subordinate.

The entire population of the country was obliged to pay a tax in favor of the church "tithe" (the term comes from the size of the tax, which at first amounted to a tenth of the income of the population). Subsequently, the size of this tax has changed, but its name has remained the same. The metropolitan cathedra, bishops, monasteries (the first of them was the Kiev-Pechersk, founded in the first half of the 11th century, got its name from the caves of the caves, in which the monks originally settled) soon turned into the largest landowners who had a huge impact on the course of the historical development of the country. In pre-Mongolian times, there were up to 80 monasteries in Russia. In the hands of the church was the court, which was in charge of cases of anti-religious crimes, violations of moral and family norms.

The adoption of Christianity in the Orthodox tradition has become one of the determining factors in our further historical development.

Vladimir was canonized by the church as a saint, and for his merits in the baptism of Russia, he is called "equal to the apostles."

Yaroslav the Wise. Twelve sons of Vladimir I from several marriages ruled the largest volosts of Russia. After his death, the throne of Kyiv passed to the eldest in the family Svyatopolk (1015-1019). In the civil strife that broke out, on the orders of the new Grand Duke, the favorite brothers of Vladimir and his squads, Boris Rostovsky and Gleb Muromsky, were innocently killed. Boris and Gleb were canonized by the Russian Church as saints. Svyatopolk was nicknamed the Accursed for his crime.

Svyatopolk the Accursed was opposed by his brother Yaroslav, who reigned in Novgorod the Great. Shortly before the death of his father, Yaroslav made an attempt not to submit to Kyiv, which indicates the emergence of tendencies towards the fragmentation of the state. Relying on the help of the Novgorodians and Varangians, Yaroslav, in the most severe strife, managed to expel the “Holy Accursed” son-in-law of the Polish king Boleslav the Brave from Kyiv to Poland, where Svyatopolk went missing.

Under Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054) Kievan Rus reached its highest power. He, like Vladimir I, managed to protect Russia from Pecheneg raids. In 1030, after a successful campaign against the Baltic Chud, Yaroslav founded not far from Lake Peipus Yuryev (now the city of Tartu in Estonia), having approved the Russian positions in the Baltic states. After the death of his brother Mstislav Tmutarakansky in 1035, who had owned the lands east of the Dnieper since 1024, Yaroslav finally became the sovereign prince of Kievan Rus.

Under Yaroslav Murom, Kyiv turned into one of the largest cities Europe, competing with Constantinople. According to reports, there were about four hundred churches and eight markets in the city. According to legend, in 1037, on the site where Yaroslav had previously defeated the Pechenegs, the St. Sophia Cathedral was erected - a temple dedicated to wisdom, the divine mind that rules the world. At the same time, under Yaroslav, the Golden Gate was built in Kyiv - the main entrance to the capital of Ancient Russia. Extensive work was carried out on the correspondence and translation of books into Russian, teaching literacy.

The growth of the power and authority of Russia allowed Yaroslav to appoint for the first time the statesman and writer Hilarion of Russian origin as the Metropolitan of Kyiv. The prince himself was called, like the Byzantine rulers, the king, as evidenced by the inscription of the XI century. on the wall of St. Sophia Cathedral. Above the sarcophagus, made of a whole piece of marble, in which Yaroslav is buried, one can read a solemn record "on the Assumption (death. - Auth.) of our Tsar." 32

Under Yaroslav the Wise, Russia achieved wide international recognition. The largest royal courts of Europe sought to intermarry with the family of the Kievan prince. Yaroslav himself was married to a Swedish princess. His daughters were married to French, Hungarian and Norwegian kings. The Polish king married the sister of the Grand Duke, and Yaroslav's granddaughter married the German emperor. The son of Yaroslav Vsevolod married the daughter of the Byzantine emperor Constantine Monomakh. Hence the nickname that Vsevolod's son received, Vladimir Monomakh. Metropolitan Hilarion rightly wrote about the princes of Kyiv: "They were not rulers in a bad country, but in Russia, which is known and heard in all ends of the earth."

Socio-economic structure of Kievan Rus. Land was in those days the main wealth, the main means of production.

A common form of organization of production has become a feudal patrimony, or fatherland, i.e. paternal property passed from father to son by inheritance. The owner of the estate was a prince or boyar. In Kievan Rus, along with the princely and boyar estates, there was a significant number of communal peasants who were not yet subject to private feudal lords. Such peasant communities independent of the boyars paid tribute in favor of the state to the Grand Duke.

All the free population of Kievan Rus was called "people". Hence the term, meaning the collection of tribute, "polyudye". The bulk of the rural population, dependent on the prince, was called "smerds". They could live both in peasant communities, which carried duties in favor of the state, and in estates. Those smerds who lived in estates were in a more severe form of dependence and lost their personal freedom. Purchasing was one of the ways to enslave the free population. Ruined or impoverished peasants borrowed from the feudal lords part of the harvest, livestock, and money. Hence the name of this category of population purchases. The purchase had to work for and obey its creditor until it paid back the debt.

In addition to smerds and purchases, there were slaves in the princely and boyar estates, called serfs or servants, who were replenished from among the captives and from among the ruined tribesmen. The slave-owning way of life, as well as the remnants of the primitive system, had quite wide use in Kievan Rus. However, the dominant system of production relations was feudalism.

The process of economic life of Kievan Rus is poorly reflected in historical sources. The differences between the feudal system of Russia and the "classical" Western European models are obvious. They lie in the huge role of the public sector in the country's economy, the presence of a significant number of free peasant communities, who were in feudal dependence on the grand duke's power.

As noted above, in the economy of Ancient Russia, the feudal structure existed along with slavery and primitive patriarchal relations. A number of historians call the state of Russia a country with a multiform, transitional economy. Such historians emphasize the early class nature of the Kievan state, close to the barbarian states of Europe.

"Russian Truth". Tradition links the compilation of Russkaya Pravda with the name of Yaroslav the Wise. This is a complex legal monument, based on customary law and on previous legislation. For that time, the most important sign of the strength of a document was a legal precedent and a reference to antiquity. Although Russkaya Pravda is attributed to Yaroslav the Wise, many of its articles and sections were adopted later, after his death. Yaroslav owns only the first 17 articles of Russkaya Pravda (“Ancient Truth” or “Yaroslav’s Truth”),

Pravda Yaroslava limited blood feuds to the immediate family. This suggests that the norms of the primitive system already existed under Yaroslav the Wise as remnants. Yaroslav's laws sorted out disputes between free people, primarily among the princely squad. Novgorod men began to enjoy the same rights as Kyiv.

Popular uprisings in the 60-70s. 11th century Mass popular demonstrations swept through Kievan Rus in 1068-1072. The most powerful was the uprising in Kyiv in 1068. It broke out as a result of the defeat suffered by the sons of Yaroslav (Yaroslavichi) - Izyaslav (d. 1078), Svyatoslav (d. 1076) and Vsevolod (d. 1093) from the Polovtsy.

In Kyiv, on Podil, in the handicraft part of the city, a veche was held. The Kievans asked the princes to issue weapons in order to fight the Polovtsy again. The Yaroslavichi refused to hand over their weapons, fearing that the people would use them against them. Then the people defeated the yards of the rich boyars. The Grand Duke Izyaslav fled to Poland and only with the help of the Polish feudal lords returned to the throne of Kyiv in 1069. Mass popular uprisings took place in Novgorod, in the Rostov-Suzdal land.

True Yaroslavich. The uprisings of the late 60s and early 70s of the XI century. demanded vigorous action from the princes and boyars. "Russian Pravda" was supplemented by a number of articles called "Pravda Yaroslavichi" (in contrast to the first part of the code - "Pravda Yaroslav"). The meaning of the additions is to protect the property of the feudal lord and his fiefdom. From Pravda Yaroslavichi, we learn about the structure of the patrimony. Its center was the princely or boyar court. It housed the mansions of a prince or boyar, the houses of his entourage, stables, and a barnyard. At the head of the administration of the patrimony was the princely butler ognischanin (from the word "fire" - house). In addition to it, there was a princely entrance, appointed to collect taxes.

The wealth of the patrimony was land, so the princely boundary was guarded by an extremely high fine. Dependent smerds and slaves (serfs, servants) worked on this land. The work was supervised by the ratai (field) elders, to whom the slaves obeyed, and the village elders, who monitored the performance of the work by the serfs. There were also artisans and artisans in the patrimony.

Pravda Yaroslavichi abolished blood feuds and increased the difference in payment for the murder of various categories of the population, reflecting the state's concern for protecting the property, life and property of the feudal lords. The largest fine was paid for the murder of senior combatants, firefighters, princely porches, whose life was estimated at 80 hryvnias. The life of the free population - people (husbands) - was estimated at 40 hryvnias; the life of village and ratay elders, as well as artisans, was estimated at 12 hryvnias; the life of smerds who lived in estates, and slaves in 5 hryvnias.

Transition to specific fragmentation (second half of the 11th - beginning of the 20th century)

"Next" order of succession to the throne. Dying, Yaroslav the Wise divided the territory of the state between his five sons and a nephew from the deceased eldest son Vladimir. He bequeathed to the heirs to live in peace and love and obey his elder brother Izyaslav in everything. This procedure for the transfer of the throne to the eldest in the family, i.e. from brother to brother, and after the death of the last of the reigning brothers to his eldest nephew, he received the name "next" or "ladder" (from the word "ladder"). The throne of Kyiv, therefore, was to be occupied by the eldest prince in the Rurik family.

The complexity of dynastic accounts, on the one hand, the growth of the power of each individual principality, on the other, personal ambitions, on the third, inevitably led to princely strife. The wealth of individual principalities was based primarily on the wealth of the local landowners of the boyars, as well as the income collected by the prince from the peasant communities subordinate to him.

Lubech Congress. With the death in 1093 of the last of the Yaroslavichs, Vsevolod, in accordance with the ladder order of succession to the throne, power over Kyiv passed to the oldest in the family, Svyatopolk II Izyaslavich (1093-1113). The new prince was unable to cope with the strife, to resist the Polovtsy. Moreover, he was a self-serving man, very unscrupulous in the means of strengthening power. So, under him, speculation in bread and salt was widely conducted, uncontrolled usury flourished.

The most popular in Russia at that time was Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh. On his initiative, in 1097, the Lubech Congress of Princes took place. It was decided to stop the strife and proclaimed the principle "Everyone keeps his fatherland." However, the strife continued even after the Lyubech Congress.

An external factor, namely the need for an otior that appeared by the middle of the 11th century. in the southern Russian steppes to the Polovtsy nomads, still kept Kievan Rus from disintegrating into separate principalities for some time. The fight was not easy. Historians count about 50 Polovtsian invasions from the middle of the 11th century to the beginning of the 13th century.

Vladimir Monomakh. After the death of Svyatopolk II in 1113, an uprising broke out in Kyiv. The people smashed the courts of princely rulers, large feudal lords and usurers. The uprising raged for four days. The Kievan boyars summoned Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125) to the grand-ducal throne.

Vladimir Monomakh was forced to make certain concessions, issuing the so-called "Charter of Vladimir Monomakh", which became another part of the "Russian Truth". The charter streamlined the collection of interest by usurers, improved the legal status of the merchants, and regulated the transition to servitude. Monomakh gave a great place in this legislation to legal status purchases, which suggests that purchasing became a very common institution and the enslavement of smerds proceeded at a more decisive pace.

Vladimir Monomakh managed to keep the entire Russian land under his rule, despite the fact that signs of fragmentation intensified, which was facilitated by a lull in the fight against the Polovtsians. Under Monomakh, the international prestige of Russia was strengthened. The prince himself was the grandson of the Byzantine emperor Constantine Monomakh. His wife was an English princess. It is no coincidence that Ivan III, the Grand Duke of Moscow, who loved to “stir up the chroniclers”, often turned to the reign of Vladimir

Monomakh. The appearance in Russia of the crown of Russian tsars, the cap of Monomakh, and the succession of the power of Russian tsars from the emperors of Constantinople were associated with his name. Under Vladimir Monomakh, the initial Russian chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years" was compiled. He entered our history as a major politician, military leader and writer.

The son of Vladimir Monomakh, Mstislav I the Great (1125-1132), managed to keep the unity of the Russian lands for some time. After the death of Mstislav, Kievan Rus finally disintegrated into a dozen and a half principalities-states. A period has come that has received in history the name of the period of fragmentation or specific period.

ethnogenesis slav rus prince

Kievan Rus 9-12 centuries.

Plan:

Origin of Russia

The first Russian princes

Baptism of Russia

First civil strife

The heyday of Russia under Yaroslav the Wise (1020-1054)

Origin of Russia. The question of the origin of the state among the Eastern Slavs has always been a political issue. The basis of the discussion about the origin of the state was laid in the middle of the 18th century in the writings of the German historians Bayer, Miller and Schlozer. These scientists were invited by the Empress Elizabeth to work in the Russian archives. By that time, the archives had not been dismantled, and German scientists actually opened them for public use.

The Norman theory was based on the story of the chronicler Nestor, who wrote that in 862, in order to end the strife among the Slavs, the Varangian prince Rurik was invited with the brothers Sineus and Truvor.

By the time of the creation of The Tale of Bygone Years, more than 300 years had passed from the calling of Rurik, and, as a result of this, gross errors got into Nestor's story.

The Norman theory was accepted by the entire scientific community. Later, on the basis of this theory, conclusions were drawn about the insufficient level of development of the Slavs, allegedly incapable of creating a state on their own. Lomonosov immediately came out with a refutation of the Norman theory, arguing that Rurik never existed in Russia, and the statehood of the Slavs appeared much earlier than the Varangians in Russia.

The modern approach to the creation of our state considers Rurik historical character, and the very fact of calling a foreign ruler is quite common. In the same way, Great Britain was created after the campaigns of William the Conqueror.

Foreigners acted as the third saga, standing above local disputes, but the influence of the Varangians must be reconsidered.

According to archaeological data, there were very few Varangians in Russia, their number hardly exceeded several hundred people. Their activities were specific: they were naval mercenaries, and almost all maritime terms are rooted in Scandinavian words (boat, sail, anchor, etc.).

They had a slight influence on the life and character of the Slavs. Only three names, and then heavily distorted, came into use in Russia - Oleg, Olga (Helga) and Igor (Ingvar). As for The Tale of Bygone Years, studies have shown the fallacy of many of Nestor's statements: the story about Rurik and his brothers, after a detailed analysis, looks a little different: the Scandinavian words "blue" and "hus" mean "squad" and "home", and the word " truve" - ​​"treasury". Thus, Rurik did not have any brothers, but he came to Russia with his squad, house and treasury, that is, forever.

The only thing that reminds us of the calling of the Varangians now is the outdated name of our state: Rus. Probably, this was the name of the genus Rurik. But even here we are not original: the modern name of France goes back to the name of the Franco-Germanic tribe. In the 5th - 6th centuries in Germany, the tribes pushed the Slavs to the east and forced most of them to leave for Eastern Europe. Here, at the turn of the 7th century, a single Slavic people is divided into three branches: one part of the Slavs crossed along the Baltic coast to Lake Ilmen, where a “new city” was formed - Novgorod; the second part settled in the middle Dnieper region, where the legendary prince Kiy with the brothers Shchek, Khoriv and sister Lybid founded the city of Kyiv; a third of the Slavs went to the Balkans. Then, in the 8th-9th centuries, settlement began between the Oka and Volga rivers, as well as the extreme southern point of Kievan Rus - the Tmutarakan principality.

First princes. Rule of Rurik. According to the chronicle, in 862 Rurik arrived in Novgorod at the invitation of the Novgorodians, and most likely headed the naval service. Nothing more is known about Rurik, but he managed to retain the title of prince, becoming the ancestor of the grand-ducal, and then the royal dynasty, which will rule our country from 862 to 1598, and will be interrupted by the last Rurikovich - the son of Ivan the Terrible Fyodor Ioannovich.

Dying, in 880, Rurik leaves his son and heir - the young prince Igor, due to his infancy, power passes to Oleg, nicknamed "Prophetic".

Oleg's board(880 - 920). In 882, Prince Oleg gathers a squad and leads it south to Kyiv, where two Varangians rule - Askold and Dir. Oleg ordered to kill them and proclaimed Igor a Russian prince. Thus, having united southern and northern Russia, Oleg creates the first state of the Eastern Slavs - Kievan Rus, which formally will exist from 882 to 1097, until the descendants of Yaroslav the Wise at the congress in Lyubich make a decision: "Everyone keeps his fatherland." This will become the legal formalization of feudal fragmentation.

Prince Oleg the Prophet pursued a policy typical of the Varangian prince, i.e. engaged in the organization and conduct of military campaigns against close neighbors.

The largest and richest state was the Byzantine Empire, which became the target of the military campaigns of the Russian princes. Twice in 907 and 911 Oleg went to Byzantium. Unable to take the heavily fortified Constantinople, the prince, however, twice received a rich ransom. He died in 920 during a campaign against the Khazars.

Igor's reign. After the death of Oleg, Igor becomes the Grand Duke. Very little is known about him, but for sure: he was not interested in domestic politics. He was engaged in the same thing as his predecessors - the war. Most likely, Igor did not have the talents of a conqueror: two campaigns organized by him in 941 and 914 ended in complete failure, especially the last one, in which he lost the fleet and most of the squad. Faced with the need to pay the mercenaries, Igor discovered the lack of money and went personally to collect tribute. In the Drevlyane land, he was killed, according to legend, after demanding too much tribute.

Igor's widow, Olga, cruelly took revenge on the murderers of her husband, and in view of the infancy of her son and heir Svyatoslav, she herself began to rule the state. She is carrying out the first reform in the history of Russia: she introduces a pogost-lesson system, where lessons are a predetermined amount of tribute, which can neither be raised nor lowered, and a graveyard is a place for collecting tribute at a clearly agreed time (November - March). The introduction of this system significantly strengthened the power of Kyiv over the surrounding peoples, while Olga herself was the first of the Russian princes to accept Christianity (955, the city of Constantinople). Her godfather was the Byzantine Emperor Constantine IX Porphyrogenitus. Olga was canonized and for her role in the spread of Christianity, she was glorified as Equal-to-the-Apostles.

The reign of Svyatoslav. After 962, Olga retires from active affairs, and all power passes to her son Svyatoslav Igorevich. Svyatoslav also does not want to deal with internal affairs, preferring war.

In the period from 962 to 972, Svyatoslav made very daring military campaigns. His first campaign was directed against the Khazar Kaganate. Svyatoslav recaptured the Belaya Vezha fortress from the Khazars, turning it into his stronghold. This was important, because The Khazars attacked Russia almost every year, and it was difficult to contain them.

In 966, Svyatoslav left Kyiv in the direction of the land of the Vyatichi, subjugating whom he forced to pay tribute. Then the prince defeated the Volga Bulgars, and, going down the Volga, unexpectedly attacked the Khazar Kaganate. In the battle near the city of Itil, the great kagan died, the Khazar Kaganate ceased to exist.

But Svyatoslav's main goal was the Balkans. He dreamed of moving his capital there, uniting all the Slavs under his own rule. In this aspiration, he was opposed by the Byzantine Empire, and it was the Byzantine campaign that became the last for Svyatoslav.

In the spring of 969, Svyatoslav crosses the Danube. The Bulgarian tsar promises support, but betrays him, leaving the Russian squad alone with the soldiers of the Byzantine emperor John Tzimisces. In an open battle, a small Russian squad was defeated, but managed to hide behind the walls of the city of Dorostol. For a whole year, Svyatoslav sat outside its walls, until in the fall of 971 he concluded a truce, received a ransom and took his squad to Russia. In the region of the Dnepropetrovsk rapids, in March 972, his small detachment fell into a Pecheneg ambush, in which Svyatoslav died.

First civil strife(972 - 980). Going on a Balkan campaign, Svyatoslav seated his children in principalities: the eldest son Yaropolk remained in Kyiv, the middle one, Oleg, went to the Drevlyans, and the younger Vladimir went to Novgorod.

After the death of Svyatoslav, the younger brothers refused to obey Yaropolk, announcing their claims to the throne.

Oleg attacked first, but died in battle. The younger Vladimir managed to drive Yaropolk out of Kyiv, he fled to his father-in-law, the Czech king, where he soon died under unclear circumstances. So Vladimir I the Red Sun became the sole ruler of Russia.

He adopts the newly born son of Yaropolk - Svyatopolk. The reign of Vladimir I begins (980-1015). This one will go down in Russian history as a saint equal to the apostles and with the popular nickname "Red Sun".

The most famous event during the reign of this prince was his baptism, moreover, Vladimir baptized Russia. The traditional date of the Baptism of Russia is considered to be 988. Vladimir was baptized in Chersonese, which at that moment was a Byzantine colony. After baptism, Vladimir I married the sister of the Byzantine emperor Anna.

Second strife. Officially, Prince Vladimir I was married three times (the chronicle indicates that he had 600 wives), officially he had nine children, whom he seated to reign in different cities. Vladimir himself planned to transfer the principality to his beloved son Boris, who at the time of his father's death was on a military campaign and commanded his squad. Thus, Svyatopolk ended up in Kyiv, who declared himself the Grand Duke.

Svyatopolk was not loved, but feared. He ordered his younger brothers Boris and Gleb to come to Kyiv. The squad dissuaded them, but they nevertheless obeyed and arrived. Boris was killed first, followed by Gleb.

The murder of two young and innocent princes outraged Russian society, they were canonized, and Svyatopolk was nicknamed "Cursed". Soon Yaroslav, the youngest of the brothers, will expel Svyatopolk from Kyiv, he flees to Poland, where he will die under unclear circumstances.

The reign of Yaroslav the Wise. 1020 - 1054 became the heyday of Kievan Rus. Under Yaroslav the Wise, the first collection of laws "Russian Truth" appears.

Having defeated the Pechenegs, Yaroslav built the main Russian Cathedral of St. Sophia on this site.

He died in 1054 at the zenith of his fame and European prominence. The restoration of his sarcophagus made it possible to discover the official title of the ruler of Kievan Rus - the king.

Ancient Russia (9-12 centuries) was a proto-state (early), which was just beginning to take shape as a political system. Former scattered communities began to gradually unite into a single state, headed by the Rurik dynasty.

Scientists agree that Ancient Russia was an early feudal monarchy.

The origin of the socio-political system of Ancient Russia

The state (Ancient Russia) was formed at the end of the 10th century on the territory of the Eastern Slavs. At the head is a prince from the Rurik dynasty, who promises patronage and protection to the surrounding feudal lords. In exchange for this, the feudal lords give parts of their lands to the use of the prince as a payment.

At the same time, part of the lands conquered during wars and military campaigns is given to the use of the boyars, who receive the right to collect tribute from these lands. To remove the tribute, combatants are hired who could settle in the territory to which they were attached. Thus, the feudal hierarchy begins to take shape.

Prince –> estates –> boyars –> petty holders of land.

Such a system contributes to the fact that the prince from an exclusively military leader (4-7 centuries) turns into a political figure. The beginnings of a monarchy appear. Feudalism develops.

Socio-political system of Ancient Russia

The first legal document was adopted by Yaroslav the Wise in the 11th century and was called "Russian Truth".

The main objective of this document is to protect people from unrest and regulate social relations. In "Russian Truth" various types of crimes and punishments for them were prescribed.

In addition, the document divided society into several social categories. In particular, there were free community members and dependents. Dependents were considered to be citizens without full rights, had no freedoms and could not serve in the army. They were divided into smerds (commoners), serfs (servants) and temporarily dependents.

Free community members were divided into smerds and people. They had rights and served in the army.

Features of the political system of Ancient Russia

In the 10-12th century, the head of the state (which united several principalities) was the prince. The council of boyars and warriors were subordinate to him, with the help of which he carried out government.

The state was an association of city-states, since life outside the cities was poorly developed. City-states were ruled by princely posadniks.

Rural lands were ruled by boyars and votchinniki, to whom these lands belonged.

The prince's squad was divided into old and younger. The old one included boyars and older men. The squad was engaged in the collection of tribute, the implementation of trials and local administration. The younger squad included young people and less noble people. The prince also had a personal squad.

Legislative, executive, military and judicial branch were in the hands of the prince. With the development of the state, these branches of government began to separate into separate institutions.

Also in Ancient Russia there were the beginnings of democracy, which were expressed in holding popular assemblies- veche.

The final formation of the political system in Russia was completed by the end of the 12th century.

The ancient Russian state of Kievan Rus arose in Eastern Europe in the last quarter of the 9th century. In the period of its highest prosperity, it occupied the territory from the Taman Peninsula in the south, the Dniester and the upper reaches of the Vistula in the west to the upper reaches of the Northern Dvina in the north.

There are two main hypotheses for the formation of the Old Russian state. According to the Norman theory, based on the Tale of Bygone Years of the XII century and numerous Western European and Byzantine sources, statehood in Russia was introduced from outside by the Varangians - the brothers Rurik, Sineus and Truvor in 862.

The anti-Norman theory is based on the idea of ​​the emergence of the state as a stage in the internal development of society. Mikhail Lomonosov was considered the founder of this theory in Russian historiography. In addition, there are different points of view on the origin of the Varangians themselves. Scientists classified as Normanists considered them Scandinavians (usually Swedes), some anti-Normanists, starting with Lomonosov, suggest their origin from West Slavic lands. There are also intermediate versions of localization - in Finland, Prussia, and another part of the Baltic states. The problem of the ethnicity of the Varangians is independent of the question of the emergence of statehood.

The first information about the state of the Rus dates back to the first third of the 9th century: in 839, the ambassadors of the kagan of the Ros people are mentioned, who first arrived in Constantinople, and from there to the court of the Frankish emperor Louis the Pious. The term "Kievan Rus" appears for the first time in historical studies of the 18th - 19th centuries.

Kievan Rus arose on the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks" on the lands of the East Slavic tribes - the Ilmen Slovenes, Krivichi, Polyans, then embracing the Drevlyans, Dregovichi, Polochans, Radimichi, Severyans, Vyatichi.

1. The emergence of the Old Russian state

Kievan Rus of the 9th-12th centuries is a huge feudal state stretching from the Baltic to the Black Sea and from the Western Bug to the Volga.

The chronicle legend considers the founders of Kyiv to be the rulers of the Polyan tribe - the brothers Kyi, Shchek and Khoriv. According to archaeological excavations conducted in Kyiv in the 19th-20th centuries, already in the middle of the 1st millennium AD. there was a settlement on the site of Kyiv.

Kievan Rus is one of the largest states medieval Europe- developed in the ninth century. as a result of a long internal development of the East Slavic tribes. Its historical core was the Middle Dnieper region, where new social phenomena characteristic of a class society arose very early.

In the northeast, the Slavs delved into the lands of the Finno-Ugric peoples and settled along the banks of the Oka and the upper Volga; in the west reached the Elbe River in Northern Germany. And yet most of them stretched to the south, to the Balkans - with their warm climate, fertile lands, rich cities.

The existence of Kievan Rus covers the period from the 9th century to the 30s of the 12th century. The Old Russian state can be characterized as an early feudal monarchy. The head of state was the Grand Duke of Kyiv. His brothers, sons and warriors carried out the administration of the country, the court, the collection of tribute and duties.

The young state faced major foreign policy tasks related to protecting its borders: repelling the raids of the nomadic Pechenegs, fighting the expansion of Byzantium, the Khazar Khaganate, and Volga Bulgaria.

Since 862, Rurik, according to The Tale of Bygone Years, established himself in Novgorod.

During that period, the Slavs were subjected to constant raids by nomads. Prince Oleg conquered Kyiv, having killed Rurik, expanded the Russian borders, conquering the Drevlyans, Northerners, Radimichi.

Prince Igor conquered Kyiv and became famous for his campaigns in Byzantium. Killed by the Drevlyans while collecting tribute. After him, his wife Olga ruled, who cruelly avenged her husband's death.

Then the throne of Kyiv was occupied by Svyatoslav, who devoted his whole life to campaigns.

Prince Yaropolk was conquered by Vladimir (Saint). He converted to Christianity and baptized Russia in 988.

During the reign of Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054), the period of the highest flowering of Kievan Rus begins. Prince Yaroslav the Wise expelled Yaropolk the Accursed, fought with his brother Mstislav, established family ties with many European countries. But already in the second half of the 11th century, the so-called princely relationship began between the princes, which led to the weakening of Kievan Rus.

In the second half of the 12th century, Russia breaks up into independent principalities.

2. Socio-economic structure of Kievan Rus

Kievan Rus took shape as an early feudal monarchy. Feudal society is characterized by the division of the population into estates. An estate is a closed social group that has rights and obligations defined by law. In Kievan Rus, the process of formation of estates had just begun.

At the top of state power stood the Grand Duke. The authorities also included the boyar council (council under the prince), the veche.

Prince. It could only be a member of the family of Vladimir the Great. Kievan Rus did not have a clearly defined right of succession to the throne. At first, the Grand Duke ruled with the help of his sons, who were completely subordinate to him. After Yaroslav, the right of all the sons of the prince to inherit in the Russian land was established, but for two centuries there was a struggle between two approaches to inheritance: in the order of all brothers (from the eldest to the youngest), and then in the order of the sons of the elder brother, or only along the line of the elder sons.

The competence and power of the prince were unlimited and depended on his authority and the real power on which he relied. First of all, the prince was a military leader, he owned the initiative of military campaigns and their organization. The prince headed the administration and the court. He had to "rule and judge." He had the right to pass new laws, change old ones.

The prince collected taxes from the population, court fees and criminal fines. Prince of Kyiv had influence on church affairs.

The Boyar Council, and at first - the council of the prince's squad, was an integral part of the mechanism of power. It was the moral duty of the prince to consult with the squad, and later with the boyars.

Veche. Veche was a body of power that has been preserved since the time of the tribal system. With the growth of the power of the prince, the veche loses its significance, and only when the power of the Kievan princes declines does it increase again. Veche had the right to elect the prince or refuse him to reign. The prince elected by the population had to conclude an agreement with the veche - a “row”.

Veche in Kievan Rus did not have a certain competence, the order of convocation. Sometimes the veche was convened by the prince, more often it was assembled without his will.

Governing bodies. There were no clearly defined governing bodies in Kievan Rus. long time there was a tithe system (thousands, hundredths, foremen), which was preserved from military democracy and performed administrative, financial and other functions. Over time, it is supplanted by the palace and patrimonial system of government, i.e. such a system of government in which princely servants eventually turned into state officials who performed various functions of government.

The division of principalities into administrative units was not clear. The chronicles mention the parish, churchyard. The princes exercised local government in cities and volosts through posadniks and volosts, who were representatives of the prince. From the middle of the XII century, instead of posadniks, the position of governors was introduced.

Officials of the local administration did not receive a salary from the Grand Duke, but were kept at the expense of extortions from the population. Such a system is called a feeding system.

The body of local peasant self-government was a verv - a rural territorial community.

The power of the prince and his administration extended to cities and the population of lands that were not the property of the boyars. Boyar estates gradually acquire immunity and are exempted from princely jurisdiction. The population of these estates becomes completely subject to the boyars-proprietors.

The entire population of Kievan Rus can be conditionally divided into three categories: free, semi-dependent and dependent people. The top of the free people were the prince and his squad (princes men). Of these, the prince chose the governor and other officials. At first legal status"Princely husbands" was different from the Zemstvo elite - well-born, noble, of local origin. But in the XI century, these two groups are combined into one - the boyars.

The boyars took part in the work of the boyar councils, veche, administration, where they occupied the highest positions. The boyars were not homogeneous and were divided into different groups, belonging to which gave the right to be a privileged part of society, and all crimes against the boyars were punished more severely. So, according to Russkaya Pravda, the life of the boyars was guarded by a double vira (vira is the highest criminal fine). The boyars were also exempted from paying taxes.

The boyars were not a closed caste. For certain merits, a smerd could get into the boyar, and even a foreigner - a Varangian, a Polovtsian, etc. In the Kyiv land, the boyars were not separated from the merchants, from the urban elite. Over time, a patriciate was created in the cities, which was more connected with the city than with the personality of the prince.

Russian cities, especially Kyiv, experienced an acute process of struggle of the urban population, both with the princely power and with the urban patriciate. So, the usury of Svyatopolk and the extortion of the city patriciate led in 1113 to an uprising in Kyiv.

The free population also included the clergy, which was a separate group of the population and was divided into black and white. At that time, the leading role in the state was played by the black clergy - monastics. The best scientists (Nestor, Hilarion, Nikon), doctors (Agapit), artists (Alimpiy) lived and worked in the monasteries, who kept chronicles, rewrote books, organized various schools. The first place among the monasteries of Kievan Rus belonged to the Kiev-Pechersk. He became an example for other monasteries and had a huge moral influence on the princes and the whole society.

Churchmen belonged to the white clergy: priests, deacons, clerks, palamari, clerks. The number of white clergy was very large. According to some sources, there were more than 400 churches in Kyiv at the beginning of the 11th century.

middle group cities provided free people. The inhabitants of the cities were legally free, even equal to the boyars, but in fact they depended on the feudal elite.

The lowest group of the free population was represented by peasants - smerds. They owned land and livestock. Smerdy made up the vast majority of the population of Kievan Rus, paid the established taxes and served military service with personal weapons and horses. Smerd could inherit his property to his sons. Russkaya Pravda protected the personality and economy of the smerd as free, but the punishment for the crime against the smerd was less than for the crime against the boyars.

In the XII-XIII centuries, boyar land ownership increased throughout Russia, and in connection with this, the number of independent smerds decreased. The number of smerds who work on boyar land is growing, while remaining free.

Semi-dependent (semi-free) people. In Kievan Rus there was a fairly large group of semi-free people - purchases. So called smerds, who different reasons temporarily lost economic independence, but under certain conditions they had the opportunity to regain it again. Such a smerd borrowed a “kupa”, which could include money, grain, livestock, and until such time as he returned this “kupa”, he remained a purchase. A zakup could have his own farm, yard, property, or he could live on the land of the one who gave him the “kupa” and work on this land. The zakup was responsible for his own actions, the guilty person answered for the crime against him, as for the crime against the free. For the unfair punishment imposed by the creditor on the purchase, the latter could complain to the court, and then the creditor was liable. An attempt to sell the purchase into slaves freed him from debt, and the creditor paid a high fine for this. In the case of theft carried out by the purchase or his escape from the creditor without paying the debt, he turned into a serf.

Dependent (involuntary) people were called serfs. At first, this term was used to refer to males (boy - serf - serf), and eventually to all involuntary people.

The main sources of servility were: captivity in the war; marriage with an involuntary; birth from serfs; sale in front of witnesses; fraudulent bankruptcy; escape or theft by purchase. The law provided for the conditions under which a serf could become free: if he redeemed himself free, if the owner freed him. A slave woman, if her master raped her, after his death received a will with her children. Kholop actually had no rights. For the damage caused to the serf, the owner received compensation.

However, he also bore responsibility for the crime committed by the serf. The serf could not have his own property, he himself was the property of the owner. With the spread of Christianity, the position of the serfs improved. The Church called for softening in relations with serfs, advised letting them go free to "remember the soul." Such serfs passed into the category of outcasts.

Outcasts were people who, for various reasons, dropped out of that social group to which they previously belonged, but did not join the other.

The main wealth and the main means of production in Russia was land. First, a domain was formed - the personal possession of the prince. By the X - XII centuries. large private landholdings developed in Kievan Rus. The form of land ownership was the votchina - land, inherited with the right of full ownership. The patrimony could be princely, boyar, church. The peasants living on it became land dependent on the feudal lord. A common form of organization of production has become a feudal patrimony, or fatherland, i.e. paternal property passed from father to son by inheritance. The owner of the estate was a prince or boyar.

A characteristic feature of the Russian economy was the subordination of the peasants to the collective feudal lord - the state, which levied land tax from them in the form of tribute. At the initial stage of the development of Old Russian, tribute was collected from the entire free population and was called polyudye. This was the exercise of the supreme right to land, the establishment of allegiance to the prince.

The highest official posts in Kievan Rus were occupied by representatives of the retinue nobility. The council under the prince constituted the Duma. Military detachments were led by governors. The collection of tax was in charge of tributaries (land tax) and letniki (trade). There were court officials - swordsmen, virniki, zemstvo and petty officials - privet, sweepers. By the 10th century, the lands of tribal unions had turned into administrative units - volosts under the control of princes - governors of the Grand Duke.

The number of Russian cities continues to grow. It is known that in the 10th century 24 cities are mentioned in the chronicles, in the 11th century - 88 cities. In the 12th century alone, 119 of them were built in Russia.

The growth in the number of cities was facilitated by the development of handicrafts and trade. At that time, handicraft production included more than a dozen types of crafts, including weapons, jewelry, blacksmithing, foundry, pottery, leather and weaving. The center of the city was a trade where handicraft products were sold. Domestic trade, due to subsistence farming, was developed much weaker than external. Kievan Rus traded with Byzantium, Western Europe, Central Asia, Khazaria.

On the basis of Christianization, the formation of a new type of statehood in Kievan Rus took place.

In the first half of the 11th century, the formation of church jurisdiction begins. Matters of marriage, divorce, family, some inheritance cases are transferred to the jurisdiction of the church. By the end of the 12th century, the church began to oversee the service of weights and measures. A significant role was assigned to the church in international affairs related to the deepening of relations with Christian states and churches.

The metropolitan and the clergy ruled and judged the people subordinate to them in the same way as it was done in the Greek church, on the basis of a special collection of laws, the Nomocanon, which in Russia received the name Pilots.

This collection contained the church canons of the Apostolic and ecumenical councils, also civil laws Orthodox Byzantine emperors.

Thus, in Russia, along with the new dogma, new authorities, new enlightenment, new landowners, new landowning customs, new laws and courts appeared.

The princes had neither the inclination nor the ability to interfere in public life and maintain order when the population itself did not turn to them for this. The crime was then considered an “insult”, for which the offended person or his family had to repay, take revenge. The custom of "blood feud" and revenge in general was so strong and widespread that it was recognized even by the then legislation.

Family life was distinguished by rudeness, especially since the custom of polygamy existed everywhere. Tradition says that Prince Vladimir himself, before his baptism, also adhered to this custom. The position of a woman in the family, especially with polygamy, was very difficult.

Together with the Christian doctrine of love and mercy, the church brought to Russia the beginnings of culture. Teaching the pagans the faith, she sought to improve their worldly order. Through its hierarchy and the example of the zealots of the new faith, the church influenced the mores and institutions of Russia.

Having found a number of unions in Russia, tribal and tribal, the church formed a special union - a church society; it included the clergy, then the people whom the church took care of and nourished, and, finally, the people who served the church and depended on it. The Church gave shelter and patronage to all outcasts who lost the protection of worldly societies and unions. Outcasts and slaves became under the protection of the church and became its workers.

On the basis of the church law, adopted and confirmed by the first Russian princes in their church charters, all offenses and crimes against faith and morality were subject to the court not of the prince, but of the church.

The adoption of Christianity was of great importance for the entire Russian society. It created a broad basis for the unification of all peoples, gradually began to supplant pagan rites and traditions.

Christianity, having become the dominant religion, expressed itself in a whole series of new institutions and institutions. A hierarchy came to Russia from Greece, and a metropolitan, appointed by the Patriarch of Constantinople, began to live in Kyiv. He exercised his power with a council of bishops. As the highest pastors of the entire Russian land, the metropolitans had the right of administrative supervision over all the dioceses of the Russian Church.

Bishops subordinate to the metropolitan were placed in other cities. The diocesan bishop of Kievan Rus, as required by the canons, was the supreme teacher of the flock, the high priest and the main head of the clergy of his church. In addition, the bishop was usually an adviser to the specific prince in state affairs. In princely strife, bishops acted as guarantors of the inviolability of treaties. With their testimonies, they sealed the agreements, while usually giving the reconciling princes a kissing cross. The church, through the bishop, blessed the prince to reign.

The parish clergy in Russia a few decades after her baptism became very numerous. This can be judged by the number of churches that existed then.

And in Kyiv and in all the dioceses, monasteries were also arranged, which were the main suppliers of the Russian episcopate.

4. Characteristic features and features of the culture of Kievan Rus

The culture that developed in Kievan Rus differed in its originality from the eras that preceded it. The adoption of Christianity is the first attempt to "modernize" the culture of Russia, in which that spiritual, ideological culture was perceived, which to the greatest extent corresponded to the requirements of the new civilization.

The identity of Russian culture is manifested in a number of factors. This is primarily an agrarian, agricultural culture, and located in the zone of risky farming. Here periodically, once every 4-5 years, due to weather conditions the crop died almost completely: the cause was early frosts, prolonged rains, in the south - drought, locust invasions. This gave rise to the insecurity of existence, the threat of constant hunger, accompanying the entire history of Russia, Russia.

At first, the cities had an agrarian character and only with time turned into a center of crafts and trade. The cities also included lands administratively subordinated to them.

The most important achievement culture of Kievan Rus is the development of the vast expanse of the north-east of Europe, the establishment of agriculture here, the transformation of the natural landscape, giving it a cultural, civilized appearance: the construction of new cities - centers of culture, laying roads, building bridges, paths connecting the most distant corners of the once dense, "untrodden » forests with centers of culture.

With Orthodoxy, stone temple construction came to Russia. One of the first Christian churches was built in Pskov by Princess Olga around 965, that is, even before the baptism of Russia, and was dedicated to the Divine Trinity.

The cultural development of civilization is impossible without the appearance of writing, the spread of literacy, and book art. The Slavs had their own system of fixing information long before Orthodoxy. In addition to the method of "nodular" fixation of information, another recording system was used, known as "features and cuts", or Slavic runes. The texts of treaties concluded with the Greeks were also written in Russian. The merit of Orthodoxy, undoubtedly, was the help that Byzantium provided in giving Russian writing - the "Glagolitic", perfect forms, the creation of a "Cyrillic" alphabet that meets both the needs of the language of that time and the sound composition Slavic language, and even modern language norms.

The creation of modern writing contributed to the formation of a single Russian language. Russian as a national language began to take shape very early. It originates from the "Slovenian", "Slavic" language. For writing, the Russians used a specific material - birch bark.

The early formation of a single language gave rise to an extensive Russian literature. It was preceded by rich folk art, the creation of epics. In the IX - X centuries. epics were created about Mikhail Potok, about Ilya Muromets, about Stavr Godinovich, about Danil Lovchanin, about the Danube, about Ivan Godinovich, about Volga and Mikul, about Dobryn, about the marriage of Vladimir, etc.

The first chronicle records appeared around 872 in Kyiv. The first Chronicles are based on oral traditions, Slavic myths, and epic tales. They are dominated by the pagan principle.

Kievan Rus was famous for the art of gunsmiths. It was in Russia that the first appeared: a six-blade, a bracer, a hook for pulling a crossbow, chain mail with flat rings, a steel horse mask, spurs with a plate peak and spurs with a wheel, plate armor.

5. Foreign policy of the Kyiv princes

The object of the foreign policy of the princes was all matters related to dynastic relations, issues of war and peace, foreign trade, the attitude of the Grand Duke and his state to foreign religious organizations. All these problems required the personal participation of the head of state, because the affairs of the dynasty, military affairs, taxes, like the rest of the treasury, were concentrated in the hands of the prince.

Kievan Rus' had foreign policy relations with three types of states during its existence:

1. Russian independent or specific and related (dynastic) dependent on the Grand Duke of the Kyiv principality and land.

2. Non-Russians public entities and the lands that were the closest neighbors of Kievan Rus, bordering on it, entering into wars, alliances, contractual relations with it.

3. Western European states that did not have direct borders with Kievan Rus.

Thus, Kievan Rus had complex relations with almost four dozen foreign policy objects.

The concentration of all foreign policy, its leadership in the hands of one person - the Grand Duke - created favorable conditions to strengthen the tactics of caution, provided the greatest secret, the surprise of all the most important decisions of the head of state. And this was a huge advantage of the Kyiv princes over other European monarchs.

In the foreign policy of the princes of Kievan Rus, the following periods can be distinguished:

1. From Rurik to Yaroslav the Wise (862 - 1054) The main feature is the accumulation of land, the expansion of the state at the expense of internal resources - the lot of weakened and impoverished princes - relatives of the Grand Duke.

2. From Yaroslav the Wise to Vladimir Monomakh (1054 - 1125) The period of stabilization of foreign policy advances, the period of consolidating the successes of foreign policy and protecting other Rurikovichs, appanage princes from interference in it, attempts to defend and canonize the individuality of the foreign policy line as a personal policy prince, or at least as a single national policy.

3. From Mstislav I to Daniil Romanovich of Galicia (1126 - 1237) The period of defensive foreign policy, the main task of which is to preserve the gains of previous centuries, to prevent the strengthening of regional principalities from weakening the Kiev state. During this period, the weakened Kyiv princes had to share their monopoly on foreign policy with their relatives, the Monomakhoviches. And it leads to the fact that the continuity of the foreign policy line, which was preserved during the personal foreign policy of the prince, disappears. Often replaced, ruling for a year or two, the grand dukes can no longer see foreign policy prospects. As a result, at the first strong external pressure of the Tatar-Mongols, the whole of Russia falls apart.

Beginning in 1125, a new dynasty, the Vladimirovich-Monomakhovichi, was established on the throne of Kiev. The impact of the Grand Dukes on foreign policy after Vladimir Monomakh is weakening. The reason is not only the short tenure of the princes in their positions, but also the need to reckon with the opinion of the entire Monomakhovich clan. Together with the liquidation of the independence (political) of Kievan Rus, its independent foreign policy, determined in the Horde by the great khan.

However, the very state unity of Russia was not strong. Signs of the fragility of unity were revealed after the death of Svyatoslav, when the young Yaropolk took power in Kyiv. Yaropolk relied on the Varangians - mercenaries hired by his father. The Varangians behaved arrogantly. The second son of Svyatoslav Oleg began a fight with them and sought to replenish his squad with peasants - Oleg died in this strife, but Vladimir (3rd son) began to reign over the walls of Kyiv. After the death of Grand Duke Vladimir in 1015, difficult times came for Russia: his sons (there are 12 of them) began long strife, in which Pechenegs, Poles, and Varangian detachments were involved. Warriors violated the barely - barely established order in the state. The year 1073 came, and a new internecine struggle. This time, feuds took place between the sons of Yaroslav the Wise. If Yaroslav the Wise managed to maintain the unity of Russia for a long time, then it turned out to be more difficult for his sons and grandsons to do this. This is due to many reasons.

Firstly, the order of succession to the throne established by Yaroslav turned out to be unsuccessful. The sons of the deceased Grand Duke did not want to give power to their elders, their uncles, and they did not let their nephews into power, putting their sons in their place, although they were younger.

Secondly, among the successors of Yaroslav the Wise, there was no purposeful and strong-willed personality, such as Vladimir I and Yaroslav himself.

Thirdly, gain strength big cities and earth. The emergence of large patrimonial farms, including church estates, contributed to the overall progress of economic life and the desire for independence from Kyiv.

Fourthly, the constant interference of the Polovtsy in the internal affairs of Russia. History of the Russian State.

In 1068, when the Polovtsian Khan Shakuran invaded Russian lands, the sons of Yaroslav the Wise took refuge in their fortresses. The people of Kyiv overthrew Izyaslav and proclaimed the Polovtsian prince Vseslav to the throne, who left a grateful memory for seven years. Having expelled Vseslav, the Yaroslavichi continued to quarrel among themselves for eight years. During these years, popular uprisings broke out in the Volga region and in the distant Belozero, in Rostov land, Novgorod against the feudal nobility, which increased taxes: vira and sales (court fees), food (delivery for officials). Since the anti-feudal movements were also directed against the Church, the Magi sometimes turned out to be at the head of the rebels. The movement took the form of being anti-Christian, appealing to the return of the old pagan religion.

Since 1125, after the death of Monomakh, the son of Monomakh, nicknamed the Great, was established on the throne of Kiev. He ruled Russia as menacingly as his father. Under him, the Polotsk Vseslavichs were expelled from their possessions. Due to internal strife, the Chernigov Svyatoslavichs weakened: the Muromo-Ryazan land was separated from Chernigov. None of the princes dared to confront Mstislav. But after his death in 1132, strife began already among the descendants of Monomakh. The Olegovichs immediately took advantage of this, and the relative calm in Russia came to an end.

Thus, we can conclude that after the death of Svyatoslav, a new political situation arose in Russia: after the death of the ruler, several sons remained who shared power. The new situation gave rise to a new event - the princely strife, the purpose of which was the struggle for power.

Conclusion

The existence of Kievan Rus covers the period from the 9th century to the 30s of the 12th century. The Old Russian state was one of the largest European states. The struggle of Russia against the raids of nomads was of great importance for the security of the countries of both Western Asia and Europe. Trade relations of Russia were wide. Russia maintained political, trade and cultural relations with the Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary and Bulgaria, had diplomatic ties with Byzantium, Germany, Norway and Sweden, and also established ties with France and England. The international significance of Russia is evidenced by dynastic marriages concluded by Russian princes. Treaties with Byzantium keep valuable evidence of social relations in Kievan Rus and its international significance.

However, already in the XII century. a number of principalities separated from the ancient Russian state. Along with the economic prerequisites for fragmentation, there were also socio-political ones. Representatives of the feudal elite, having turned from the military elite (combatants, princely people) into landowners, strove for political independence. There was a process of settling the squad on the ground . In the financial field, it was accompanied by the transformation of tribute into feudal rent.

During this period, the system of public administration also changed. . Two control centers are being formed - the palace and the patrimony. All court ranks are simultaneously government positions within a separate principality, land, inheritance, etc. Finally, foreign policy factors played an important role in the process of disintegration of the relatively unified Kievan state. The invasion of the Tatar-Mongols and the disappearance of the ancient trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks", which united the Slavic tribes around itself, completed the collapse.

Kiev principality seriously affected by Mongol invasion, lost its significance as a Slavic state center.

List of used literature

1. Georgieva T.S. History of Russia: textbook. – M.: Unity, 2001

2. Isaev I.A. History of the State and Law of Russia: A Complete Course of Lectures. - 2nd ed. revised and additional - M.: Lawyer, 1998

3. History of the Russian State: tutorial\ A.M. Pushkarev. – M.: Pravda, 2003

4. Kondakov I.V. New history of Russia: textbook. - M.: University, 2000

5. Lyubimov L.D. Art of Ancient Russia. - M.: Enlightenment, 1991

6. Pavlov A.P. History: a textbook for universities. - St. Petersburg, 2005

7. Russia in the 9th-20th centuries: textbook \ under. ed. A.F. Pokrapivny. - M.: Unity, 2004

8. Rybakov B.A. Birth of Russia. - M.: "AiF Print", 2003

9. Reader on the history of Russia: In 4 volumes, - Vol. 1. From ancient times to the 17th century. / Comp.: I. V. Babich, V. N. Zakharov, I. E. Ukolova. - M.: MIROS, International relations, 1994

History as a science, methodology and theory of historical science.

Story is the science of the past of human society and its present, the laws of development public life in concrete forms, in spatio-temporal dimensions.
The content of the story serves as a historical process, which is revealed in the phenomena of human life, information about which has been preserved in historical monuments and sources.

History is a diversified science, it is composed of a number of independent branches of historical knowledge, namely: economic history; political; social; civil; military; state and law; Religions, etc.

The historical sciences also include ethnography, which studies the life and culture of peoples, and archeology, which studies history based on material sources of antiquity.

History is also subdivided according to the breadth of the study of the object: · the history of the world as a whole(world or general history); · history of continents(for example, the history of Asia and Africa); · history of individual countries and peoples or groups of peoples(Russian history). Exist auxiliary historical disciplines having a relatively narrow subject of study, studying it in detail and thus contributing to a deeper understanding of the historical process as a whole: chronology- studies time reference systems; · paleography- handwritten monuments and ancient writing; · diplomatics- historical acts; · numismatics- coins, medals, orders, monetary systems, trade history; · metrology- a system of measures; · flag science- flags; · heraldry- coats of arms of countries, cities, individual families; · sphragistics– printing; · epigraphy- inscriptions on stone, clay, metal; · genealogy- the origin of cities and surnames; · toponymy– origin geographical names; · local history- the history of the area, region, region; · source study- a significant auxiliary historical discipline, exploring historical sources; · historiography- description and analysis of the views, ideas and concepts of historians and the study of patterns in the development of historical science.

But unlike them, history considers the process of development of society as a whole, analyzes the totality of the phenomena of social life, all its aspects of their interconnection and interdependence.

Theory and methodology of historical science

Idealistic understanding of history- idealists conclude that the basis of the historical process is the spiritual moral perfection of people, and human society is developed by the person himself, while the abilities of man are given by God

Materialistic understanding of history- since material life is primary in relation to the consciousness of people, it is economic structures, processes and phenomena in society that determine everything spiritual development and other human relationships
Exist special-historical research methods: - chronological- provides for the presentation of historical material in chronological order; - synchronous- involves the simultaneous study of various events occurring in society; - dichronous– periodization method; - historical simulation; - statistical method.
Principles of studying historical data
1. The principle of historicism- any historical phenomenon should be studied in development: how it arose, what stages it passed in its development, what it eventually became. It is impossible to consider an event or a person simultaneously or abstractly, outside of time positions.

2. The principle of objectivity- this principle requires considering each phenomenon in its versatility and inconsistency, in the aggregate of both positive and negative sides.

3. The principle of social approach- involves consideration of historical and economic processes, taking into account the social interests of various segments of the population, various forms their expression in society.

4. The principle of alternativeness- determines the degree of probability of the implementation of an event, phenomenon, process based on an analysis of objective realities and possibilities.
Essence, forms and functions of historical knowledge

History performs several socially significant functions.

1. Cognitive- study of historical path countries, peoples and in the objectively true, from the position of historicism, reflection of all the phenomena and processes that make up the history of mankind.

2. Practical-political function- history as a science, revealing the patterns of development of society on the basis of theoretical understanding of historical facts, helps to develop a scientifically based political course, to avoid subjective decisions.

3. Worldview function- history creates documentary accurate stories about outstanding events of the past, about thinkers to whom society owes its development.

4. educational function- knowledge of the history of their people and world history forms civic qualities - patriotism and internationalism; shows the role of the people and individuals in the development of society.

The development of Russian statehood in the 9th-12th centuries. Kievan Rus.

Ex. several prerequisites for the formation of the state. activities, there was a process of formation of social. groups. polit. - tribal unions, began to conclude temporary political unions among themselves. outwardly polit. the presence of external danger. The final fact was connected with the Varangians. They also had decay. in the 9th century Novgorodians and some Sev. the tribes fell under the influence of the Varangians and began to pay tribute to them. But in 859, the Novgos drove out the Varangians and stopped paying tribute to them, but the question arose about who should rule, so they turned to the Varangians to send someone to rule. Then Rurik came to power, after his death Oleg came to power. There is a chronicle created by him. scientists. Norman theory. this theory has both parties. and against.. Prot. believe that the arrival of the Varangian is a legend, because it is not known who the first princes were and where they came from, although archaeologists. Excavations show that the Varangians still existed in Russia, but their number. it wasn't great. Varangians laid the foundation for the first dynasty in Russia
The political development of Kievan Rus in the 9-12th century. In 862, Rurik came to power, but after his death, Oleg came to power, tried to seize Kyiv, which became the center of the united state, by deceit. In 991 Oleg signed with Byzantium international treaty. And already in 988 Vladimir converted to Christianity. In the 11th century, popular uprisings took place in Kyiv and Novgorod, caused by feudal exploitation. But I, the wise, was able to suppress the uprising. This contributed to the creation of a code of laws "pravdayaroslav". After the death of the wise. The sons at first managed to coordinate everything. But due to the fact that certain areas of the country grew rich, fragmentation occurred.

Socio-economic structure of Ancient Russia. The main form of org. Pro-va was a feudal patrimony or fatherland, i.e. hereditary possession. The population engaged in agriculture. were called labor stinks, they lived both in peasant communities and in estates, the smerds who lived in estates were deprived of personal freedom. In addition to them, purchases, ryadovichi and serfs lived in the estates. Procurement- these are the people who borrowed from the owner and worked for their creditor until they worked off the debt. Ryadovichi concluded a contract under which they performed the work, and serfs, were on a par with slaves, replenished at the expense of captives. With the deepening of social labor in Russia, the number of cities grew. The city was administrative, commercial and handicraft center. They were formed on the site of feudal castles, graveyards at the intersection of trade routes.

3. Formation of civilizations. Russia's place in world civilization.
The emergence of civilization is a natural result of the development of human society after the transition to a productive economy. Firstly, agriculture contributed to the sedentary nature of the “village. Secondly, it was the productive economy that made it possible to obtain sufficient yields so that a part of society could not engage in constant physical labor to obtain food. An opportunity arose to expand the scope of human society beyond the limits of agriculture.

The emergence of the first civilization. Until now, the problem of the very first center of the origin of civilization remains largely controversial. Almost simultaneously in several areas the globe, especially favorable for agriculture, several centers are formed. In the 4th millennium BC. the first two centers of civilization appeared: Sumerian - in the lower reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates (Mesopotamia) and Egyptian - in the Nile Valley. In the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. in India and at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. Civilizations are being formed in China on their own.

Slavophiles

Russian civilization is characterized by high spirituality, based on an ascetic worldview, and a collectivist, communal structure of social life. From the point of view of the Slavophiles, it was Orthodoxy that gave rise to a specific, social organization - the rural community, the "world", which has economic and moral significance. Slavophilism is based on the ideology of pan-Slavism. At the heart of their idea of ​​the special fate of Russia lies the idea of ​​the exclusivity, the peculiarity of the Slavs.

Eurasians

The Eurasians, unlike the Slavophiles, insisted on the exclusivity of Russia and the Russian ethnos. This exclusivity, in their opinion, was determined by the synthetic nature of the Russian ethnos. Russia is a special type of civilization that differs from both the West and the East. This particular type of civilization they called Eurasian.

In the Eurasian concept of the civilizational process special place was assigned to the geographical factor (natural environment) - the "place of development" of the people. This environment, in their opinion, determines the characteristics of various countries and peoples, their self-consciousness and destiny. Russia occupies the middle space of Asia and Europe,

It should be noted that each of the concepts that determine the place of Russia in world civilization is based on certain historical facts. At the same time, a one-sided ideological orientation clearly shines through in these concepts.