Insect class classification (Insecta-Ectognatha)

The division of the class of insects into large systematic categories - subclasses, infraclasses, orders - is based on such important features as the structure of wings, mouth apparatus, and the type of postembryonic development. Other diagnostic features are also used.

For the taxonomic characterization of genera and species of insects, a full arsenal of morphological characters is used, but wing venation, variations in the structure of the mouth apparatus, limbs, and genitalia are of leading importance. Recently, micromorphological features have been more widely used: the composition and structure of setae (chaetae), sensilla, cuticle structures, etc.

According to modern views, the class of insects is divided into two subclasses: the subclass Primary wingless (Apterygota) and the subclass Winged (Pterygota).

Insects are characterized by primitive organizational traits. They lack wings. Their winglessness is primary, since their ancestors were also wingless. The mouth apparatus is gnawing, poorly specialized. The mouthparts are open, not retracted into the head capsule. Development is direct, without metamorphosis (ametabolism). Larvae differ from adults only in size, body proportions, and hetome. Molting continues into adulthood. The subclass includes two groups. The most common members of the order Thysanura are bristletails. A representative of this order is the sugar silverfish (Fig. 344).

These insects have wings. Flightless species have rudiments of wings, indicative of their secondary winglessness. The oral apparatus is varied. Development with metamorphosis, incomplete or complete.

Among the winged insects (Pterygota), two infraclasses are distinguished: the infraclass Ancient-winged (Palaeoptera) and the infraclass New-winged (Neoptera). Representatives of the most important orders of winged insects are shown in Fig. 345.

The infraclass Ancient-winged Palaeoptera includes more ancient representatives of winged insects. Of modern insects, they include two orders: the order of the Dragonfly (Odonata) and the order of the Mayfly (Ephemeroptera). Their wings cannot fold over their backs and have primitive reticulate venation. In flight, the movement of the wings occurs in one plane. The oral apparatus is gnawing. Development with incomplete transformation. The larvae develop in water and are called naiads, which have provisional organs (tracheal gills and some other features).

Mayflies have preserved an ancient sign - molting in the imaginal state. Larvae of the last age molt on subimago, and the latter - on adults, which begin to reproduce.

Infraclass Neoptera Neoptera are more highly organized insects. Their wings can fold and lie flat on their backs. This feature allowed winged insects to hide in cracks and holes in the substrate, which expanded their ecological capabilities. When flying, the wings move, describing a complex trajectory with a change in planes at the top. The mouthparts are varied. Development with complete and incomplete transformation. Newwings (Neoptera) are divided into two series of orders with incomplete and complete metamorphosis: Hemimetabola and Holometabola.

Subclass Primary wingless insects (Apterygota)

Order Bristletail (Thysanura). These are small wingless insects from 8 to 20 mm with three jointed tail filaments. The covers are thin, delicate, sometimes with silvery scales. Hence another name for the representatives of the detachment - silverfish. Ocelli simple, rarely compound. There are several pairs of styli on the ventral segments below. These are vestiges of the abdominal limbs. They lead a hidden lifestyle in stumps, forest litter. Development - amebolism (protomorphosis). In human dwellings, sugar silverfish (Lepisma sacharina, Fig. 344) is found, which can damage paper and food supplies. In our country, there are 20 species of bristletails.

Subclass Winged insects (Pterygota)

Infraclass Ancient-winged (Palaeoptera)

Order of the Mayfly (Ephemeroptera). Mayflies are so named because winged adults live only a few hours and die off after breeding. These are graceful insects with mesh wings of unequal length, with underdeveloped mouthparts and three long tail filaments (Fig. 345, 346).

Mayflies lay eggs in the water, from which larvae develop with tracheal gills on the abdominal segments. Larvae develop for 2-3 years in water and feed on plant debris. Unlike adults, they have well-developed gnawing mouthparts. From the larva of the last stage, the subimago first hatches, and from the last - the imago. The flight of mayflies is usually massive and occurs at dusk along the banks of rivers and lakes. The most common mayfly (Ephemera vulgata).

Order Dragonfly (Odonata). Dragonflies are actively flying insects with an elongated, sometimes brightly colored body, with long transparent wings pierced by a dense network of veins, with a moving head.

(Fig. 347). On the head of dragonflies are very large eyes, which sometimes close at the crown. Antennae are short. The oral apparatus is gnawing. Adult dragonflies hunt mosquitoes and other insects in flight.

Rice. 347. Dragonfly beauty Calopteryx splendens (from Natalie): A - adult, B - lower lip of the larva, C - larva

Dragonflies develop in water. Dragonfly females lay their eggs in water or on aquatic plants. Predatory larvae emerge from the eggs - naiads, little resembling adults (Fig. 347, B). They have a special organ for capturing food - a mask. This is a modified lower lip. In the inactive state, the mask covers the entire lower part of the larva's head, and during the hunt, it is thrown forward. At the end of the mask there are interlocking hooks that capture prey. After capturing the prey, the articulated joint of the base of the mask is folded and the food is brought to the jaws. Dragonfly larvae feed on mosquito larvae, mayflies and other aquatic invertebrates. Dragonfly larvae breathe oxygen dissolved in water using tracheal gills. In the larvae of some species of dragonflies, the tracheal gills are external in the form of three leaf-shaped appendages at the posterior end of the abdomen, while others have internal tracheal gills. The function of the internal tracheal gills is performed by the posterior intestine, braided by tracheae. The larvae draw water into the hindgut, which corresponds to inhalation, and then expel it through the anal

hole that corresponds to the exhalation. Oxygen from the water enters the tracheal system through the walls of the hindgut. Dragonfly larvae move along the substrate with the help of their legs, and swim by bending the body or "reactively" by pushing out a jet of water from the hindgut. Larvae of the last age crawl out of the water, molt, and adult dragonflies emerge from the larval exuvia. Young adults spread their soft wings, their covers harden, and a few hours after hatching they are ready to fly.

In total, about 4500 species of dragonflies are known. About 160 species are found in Russia. Dragonflies are one of the oldest groups of insects known from fossils from the Carboniferous. Close to them are extinct ancient-winged insects - paleodictyopters, reaching 90 cm in wingspan.

Modern dragonflies are divided into suborders of homoptera and heteroptera. Equipterans are slender dragonflies with a narrow abdomen, folding their wings upwards. These include bright blue beauty dragonflies (Calopteryx), green buttercups (Lestes) and modestly colored arrowheads (Agrion). Different-winged dragonflies - with a thick abdomen, do not fold their wings when landing. These include the largest dragonflies: yoke (Aeschna), grandmas (Cordulia), etc. This group of dragonflies is capable of migrating over long distances.

The practical importance of dragonflies is small. At the same time, their role in the destruction of blood-sucking mosquitoes and midges is noticeable.

Infraclass Neoptera (Neoptcra)

Insects with incomplete transformation of Hemimetabola.

This series of orders of new-winged insects includes the most primitive representatives of the infraclass along with highly specialized ones. The characteristic phases of development are: egg - nymph - imago. The mouthparts are predominantly gnawing or piercing-sucking.

Among the Hemimetabola, an orthopteroid group of orders (superorder Orthopteroidea) is distinguished with a gnawing mouth apparatus, an initially serrated ovipositor, and complete venation. This group is named after the most typical Orthoptera order, the Orthoptera. The group includes detachments: cockroaches, praying mantises, termites, orthoptera, stick insects, earwigs.

The second - hemipteroid group of orders (superorder Hemipteroidea) consists of insects with gnawing-sucking and piercing-sucking mouthparts and with secondarily simplified wings. The central detachment in this group is represented by hemipterans (Hemiptera), and therefore

The group was named "hemipteroid". These include such orders as hay-eaters, lice-eaters, lice-eaters, lice, thrips, semi-bugs (bugs) and homoptera.

Order Cockroaches (Blattodea). Cockroaches have a flattened body, a head bent under the prothorax, long antennae, and a well-developed gnawing mouth apparatus. The front pair of wings are leathery, and the hind wings are membranous, folding in a fan shape. Often the wings are underdeveloped, especially in females. At the rear end of the body there are cerci, and males also have styli.

Cockroaches lay their eggs in ootheca, that is, in a shell that is secreted by the adnexal glands of females. Each ootheca holds several dozen eggs. Ootheca can remain dormant for a long time and survive adverse conditions.

In total, 2500 species of cockroaches are known. They are mainly inhabitants of the tropics, but some synanthropic species are found everywhere in human dwellings. There are about 50 species of cockroaches in our country, most of which live in southern latitudes.

IN natural conditions cockroaches feed like saprophages and live in forest litter, decaying wood, and soil. In the forests of Europe, the Lapland cockroach (Ectobius lapponicus, Fig. 348) is widely found. This species is found from the tundra to the forest-steppe. Outwardly, this species is similar to the red house cockroach.

In human dwellings, a black cockroach (Blatta orientalis) and a red cockroach, or Prussian (Blatella germanica, Fig. 349) are usually found. The first type is larger (18-13 mm), black in color. Female black cockroach with underdeveloped wings. Development takes about four years. Introduced to Europe from the tropics about 300 years ago. The red cockroach is smaller (10-13 mm). Wings are developed in males and females. Development lasts about 5-6 months. In America, a very large synanthropic species is widespread - the American cockroach (Periplaneta americana). Synanthropic cockroaches are dangerous to humans, as they contaminate food, spread pathogenic bacteria and helminth eggs. Therefore, it is important to carry out sanitary and epidemiological measures to combat cockroaches.

Mantis order (Mantodea). A peculiar group of predatory insects found in southern latitudes. These are stalking predators. They are called praying mantises because, while watching for prey, they take a "praying posture" - with their forelimbs folded together. They have a well-defined mimetism - similarity with the environment. The praying mantis looks like a green or brown shoot. The limbs resemble leaf petioles or twigs, and the wings resemble leaves.

In praying mantises, the front pair of legs are prehensile. The shins are inserted into the grooves on the thighs, like the blades of a penknife. The wings of praying mantises are developed in different ways. There are winged and wingless species. Praying mantises are characterized by cannibalism. It is common for a female to eat a male after mating. Eggs are laid in ootheca, which are attached by females to plant stems. In our country, the common praying mantis (Mantis religiosa, Fig. 350) is the most common species in the south.

Order Termites (Isoptera). Termites are called "white ants". This is due to the fact that termites, like ants, are social insects and build nests - termite mounds. They, like ants, exhibit polymorphism of individuals (Fig. 351). The termite family includes winged males, females, and wingless immature male and female workers and soldiers. However, this similarity is superficial. Termites, unlike ants, are insects with incomplete transformation, with a hidden lifestyle and feed mainly on wood and mold fungi. And ants, as you know, develop with complete transformation and usually feed on animal food.

Winged termites (males and females) have two pairs of identical long wings with a dense network of veins. The mouthparts are gnawing. There are cerci at the posterior end of the body. The integuments of termites are weakly sclerotized and depigmented.

The formation of a termite mound begins with the fact that a pair of winged sexual individuals, after mating, break off their wings, dig passages in the soil in which the female lays eggs. The first generation of larvae is fed by the parents. Of these, working individuals are formed, which then take all the care of the termite family upon themselves. The female increases in size, becomes motionless. Its function is only in the constant laying of eggs. Females of some species of termites can lay up to 2-3 thousand eggs per day. Female termites are called "queens". In the large chamber of the termite mound there is a queen and a male - the king, who are looked after by working individuals. Workers perform many functions: caring for offspring, building a nest, breeding a culture of mushrooms that serve them as food. The nest is defended by specialized individuals - soldiers with a large head and strong jaws (Fig. 351).

Females secrete substances licked by nymphs. These secretions contain pheromones that inhibit the development of nymphs (termite workers). In the event of the death of sexual individuals, the inhibitory effect of pheromones is removed and some of the nymphs develop into sexually mature males and females.

Termites are inhabitants of tropical regions. In total, 2500 species are known, of which five species of termites are found in the south of Ukraine, the Caucasus, Central Asia and the Far East. In Central Asia, the Turkestan termite (Acanthotermes turkestanicus) damages wooden buildings.

In humid tropical areas, termites build tall mounds of cemented clay. Such buildings save the colony from rains. In countries with dry and hot climates, termites live deep in the soil. Underground termite mound burrows can penetrate up to 12 m deep. This adaptation saves them from drying out.

Order Orthoptera. These are medium to large sized insects. The oral apparatus is gnawing. Antennae filiform. The front wings are leathery, with direct venation, forming elytra. The second pair of wings is membranous, folded like a fan, at rest covered with elytra. Often the hind legs are hopping. At the end of the body, cerci are attached, usually non-segmented. Females with ovipositor, sometimes long. Many have organs of sound and hearing. Development with incomplete transformation.

In total, more than 20 thousand species of orthoptera are known, and more than 700 species are found in our country.

The Orthoptera include several families, of which the most common are: the Grasshopper family (Tettigonidae), the Cricket family (Gryllidae), the Medvedka family (Gryllotalpidae), the Locust family (Acrididae, Fig. 352).

Grasshoppers are characterized by very long antennae, often exceeding their own body in length, four-segmented legs, and a well-defined ovipositor. Males have chirring organs on the elytra. The hearing organs are located on the front legs. Grasshoppers feed on plant food or predation. Eggs are laid in the stems of plants. Most often grasshoppers are found in meadows, keep on plants and usually have a green color. Grasshoppers make beautiful musical trills. The common grasshopper (Tettigonia viridis), which is often found in the middle lane, is predatory.

Crickets differ from grasshoppers in their three-segmented legs and darker coloration. They eat plants. Eggs are laid in stems or soil. In our country, the most harmful is the steppe cricket (Gryllus desertus). House crickets (Acheta domestica) are often found in houses, feeding on food residues.

The cricket family is adjacent to the bear family (Gryllotalpidae). They are burrowing orthopterans with digging forelegs and a valky body. They dig passages in the soil and eat the roots, root crops of plants. Often cause significant damage to vegetable crops. The common bear (Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa) is the most common.

Locusts are the largest family of Orthoptera. About 10 thousand species are known, including about 500 species in our country. These are herbivorous insects, among which there are many agricultural pests. They differ from other Orthopterans in having short antennae and a short, hook-shaped ovipositor. Their hearing organs are located on the first segment of the abdomen. Sounds are made by males by rubbing the hind thighs against the elytra. The eggs are laid in the soil in holes dug by the ovipositor. The egg-laying is in the form of a bag with earthen walls and is called a egg-pod (Fig. 353). In the formation of egg capsules, they play the role of secreting the accessory glands of females. Foamy secretions hold the soil particles around the eggs and form the earthy walls of the egg-pod.

The most harmful locusts include: migratory, or Asian, locust (Locusta migratoria), common in Eurasia, Africa,

Rice. 353. Locust capsules (according to Zimin): 1 - cap, 2 - earthy walls, 3 - membranous partitions, 4 - membranous walls, 5 - eggs

Australia; desert locust - Schistocerca (Schistocerca gregaria), living in Western Asia, India, Africa; Italian filly (Calliptamus italicus).

In the recent past, the Asian locust was the most common and dangerous pest in our country. Subsequently, a systematic fight against locusts was established, mainly in the floodplains of the rivers, where locusts hatch from egg-pods.

Locust control is carried out in a multifaceted way: egg-pods and clusters of nymphs (walking locusts) are destroyed by mechanical and chemical methods, and wetlands favorable for the reproduction of locusts are drained. Thanks to the control over the number of locusts and the measures taken, the migratory locust has ceased to be a dangerous pest in our country. However, in the neighboring countries of Asia and Africa, migratory locusts cause enormous losses to agriculture. The Russian Plant Protection Service provides assistance to other countries in the fight against harmful locusts.

In the 1980s, powerful outbreaks of migratory locusts were recorded in Arabia and northeast Africa, where they completely destroyed crops. cultivated plants. In our country, local outbreaks of non-gregarious locusts are sometimes observed in the Volga steppe region and Central Asia.

Human louse transmits dangerous diseases - typhus and relapsing fever. In the First World War and the Civil War, the losses of people from typhus were great. The sanitary service in Russia averted the danger of a typhus epidemic during the Great Patriotic War.

The fight against lice is carried out primarily by observing personal hygiene. Head lice are easy to get rid of by rubbing in a kerosene emulsion before washing your head. Clothing infested with body lice must be processed at high temperatures (boiling and ironing). In hospitals, hospitals, the clothes of patients for prevention are treated with insecticides in special pest control chambers.

Order Homoptera. Homoptera - terrestrial insects with piercing-sucking mouthparts in the form of a jointed proboscis, with two pairs of thin wings. Wings at rest fold roof-like. The hind wings are sometimes reduced. feed on cell sap plants.

More than 30 thousand species belong to the equal-winged proboscideans. There are 4 thousand species in our country. Among them are many pests of cultivated plants. The order is subdivided into six main suborders. Of these, the most important are: cycads, psyllids, aphids, coccids.

TO cicadas(Auchenorrhyncha) belong to the families of true song cicadas (Cicadidae), cicadas (Jassidae) and pennits (Cercopidae).

Song cicadas are large insects that live mainly in the tropics. About 2 thousand species of cicadas are found, in particular, in the Caucasus, the Crimea, and Central Asia.

The oak cicada (Tibicen haematodes) is widespread in our southern oak forests.

Mountain cicada (Cicadetta montana) comes north to the south of the Moscow region (Fig. 355). Its distribution is associated with oak forests. Nymphs of cicadas develop in the soil for several years. Nymphs dig vertical burrows and feed on the sap of tree roots. Adult insects live only one season, stay on trees, feeding on the juices of the stems.

Cicadas make chirping sounds. Their organs of sound and hearing are located on the lower surface of the metathorax.

Pennitsy, or saliva (Cercopidae), are small sucking insects that feed on plant stems. Their larvae secrete foam from the anus, which protects their delicate body from drying out and from enemies. Often on the grass there are accumulations of foam secreted by pennit larvae,

resembling accumulations of saliva. Therefore, among the people they received the name "cuckoo saliva". In our meadows, the common saliva (Philaenus spumarius) is especially common.

True leafhoppers (Psylloidea) are numerous on herbaceous plants. They quickly fly from place to place. These are small sucking insects, similar in habitus to song cicadas. Among leafhoppers there are pests of agriculture, some of them carry viral diseases of plants.

Suborder Psylloidea (Psylloidea) combines small winged insects with delicate covers. In our country, there are about 100 species of psyllids. The psyllids suck the juices from the plants, but do not absorb all the sugar contained in the food, and therefore their excrement is sweet. The shoots of plants on which psyllids develop are often sticky from their sweet secretions, which ants, flies and even bees often feast on.

On an apple tree, an apple leaf blotch is often found - a sucker. Their nymphs damage the buds and buds of the apple tree. Alder psyllid develops on alder. Her nymphs secrete wax threads, and they look like fluffs.

Suborder Aphids (Aphidodea) - an extensive group of homoptera proboscis, which is of significant importance as pests of plants.

Aphids are small sucking insects that look like psyllids (Fig. 356). But unlike psyllids, they are not able to jump - the hips of their legs are not thickened. Usually, aphids have a pair of wax tubules on the fifth abdominal segment. Aphids are characterized by a complex life cycle with a change of generations.

Consider the typical life cycle of aphids using the example of the bird cherry-oat aphid. Fertilized eggs of this species overwinter on bird cherry branches. Of these, a wingless generation of parthenogenetic females - founders develops. They give birth to the second generation of parthenogenetic females, which take wings and fly to another food plant - oats. This generation of females is called emigrants. On oats they again produce a wingless generation of parthenogenetic females. By autumn, these female stripes lay two types of eggs. Large eggs develop into winged panmictic females, while small eggs develop into winged males. After mating, the females fly to the bird cherry and lay fertilized eggs.

The life cycle of a dangerous pest - grape phylloxera (Viteus vitifolii) is peculiar. In this species, instead of changing the host plant during the life cycle, migration from the above-ground parts of the vine to the roots is observed (Fig. 357). Such a cycle in phylloxera is observed only in its homeland - in America, and in Europe, where this species was introduced, only the root form develops.

Rice. 356. Representatives of the aphid suborder A - cabbage aphid Brevicoryne brassicae (from Natali): 1 - wingless female, 2 - winged female, 3 - nymph, 4, 5 - larvae different ages; B - bird cherry-oat aphid Siphonaphis padi; 1 - wingless female, 2 - winged female

More than 1000 species of aphids are known in our country. The greatest harm is caused by such types of aphids as apple, cabbage, beet, peach, cotton. Of the imported species, the blood aphid is a dangerous pest of the apple tree. A special group among aphids are Hermes, damaging conifers. cone-like gall at shoot apex

Rice. 357. Development cycle of phylloxera (from Natali): 1 - egg, 2 - founding female, 3 - oviparous female, 4 - larva, 5 - wintering larva, 6 - oviparous female root aphid, 7 - larva of root phylloxera, 8 - nymph , 9 - winged form, 10 - its eggs, 11 - mating

Rice. 358. Scale insects and scale insects (from Natalie): A - cochineal Dactylopius coccus: 1 - male, 2 - female from the ventral side, 3 - female from the dorsal side; B - comma-shaped mealybug Lepidosaphes ulmi: 1 - female from the ventral side, 2 - female on the dorsal side, 3 - twig with females, 4 - male, 5 - twig with males

The mealybugs often secrete waxy or varnish secretions on their backs. Useful bugs include the lac bug, which is cultivated in South Asia to obtain shellac. Some bugs produce paint - carmine. In the south, subtropical crops are harmed by the California scale insect and the Australian scale insect - iteria.

Order Hemiptera, or Bedbugs (Hemiptera). According to the structural features, the Hemiptera are close to the Homoptera, but differ in semi-rigid front wings, a piercing jointed proboscis extending from the front of the head. The wings at rest are folded flat on the back (Fig. 359). Development with incomplete transformation.

Hemiptera feed on plant sap or prey by sucking hemolymph from insects, less often they are bloodsuckers of birds or mammals.

For bedbugs, odorous glands are characteristic, the ducts of which open on the metathorax in adults and on the abdominal segments in nymphs. The poisonous secret of these glands has a protective value.

Rice. 359. Hemiptera (from Natalie): A - turtle bug Eurygaster integriceps, B - berry bug Dolycoris baccarum, C - bed bug Cimex lectularius, D - water striders Gerris and Naucoris

In total, more than 30 thousand species of bedbugs are known. Among the bugs there are many open-living herbivorous forms (bugs, horseflies). On plants there are predatory bugs - predators. Water bugs are predators that prey on insects and other small invertebrates. These include water striders that hunt on the surface of the water, as well as smooth and water scorpions that overtake prey in the water column. Some water striders live on the surface of the water in the seas.

Small bugs are agricultural pests. The most dangerous bug (Eurygaster integriceps), causing damage to crops, cruciferous bugs of the genus Eurydema. Some types of predatory bugs are used in biological control. So, for example, the American bug (Perilus bioculatus) is cultivated as a fighter of the Colorado potato beetle.

A special family is formed by bloodsucking bugs (Cimicidae), which include the bed bug (Cimex lectularius), which feeds on human blood. These are flat, secondarily wingless insects. During the day, they hide in the crevices of walls, furniture, and at night they attack a person. The female bed bug lays up to 200 eggs. Bed bugs are an indicator of the unsanitary state of housing conditions. Bedbugs are subjected to chemical control and preventive sanitary measures.

Insects with full metamorphosis
(Holometabola)

Order Reticulate (Neuroptera). These are large and medium-sized predatory insects with two pairs of reticulated wings, gnawing mouthparts. Larvae with three pairs of legs ending in a five-segmented tarsus with two claws. Pupae are free, sometimes in a fibrous cocoon.

About 3.5 thousand species belong to the lacewings. The most important families are represented by golden eyes (Chrysopidae) and antlions (Myrmeleonidae, Fig. 360).

Golden eyes are often found on flowers. The most common golden eyes of the genus Chrysopa (Fig. 360). They have a pale green body, golden eyes, and a foul smell. Eggs on stalks attached to plants. Goldeneye larvae are considered active entomophages that reduce the number of Homoptera proboscis.

Antlions are outwardly similar to dragonflies (Fig. 360), but differ in flapping flight, club-shaped antennae, and other features. Their sac-shaped larvae live in the sand. A funnel is formed above their mink, into which ants and other insects fall into a trap. Antlion larvae sit in the sand at the bottom of the funnel and eat insects that fall into it. For the predatory nature of the larvae, these insects were called "lions".

Order Coleoptera, or Beetles (Coleoptera). In beetles, unlike other insects, the front wings are turned into rigid elytra without veins, which at rest cover the hind membranous wings. Functionally, they can be considered dipteran insects, as they fly with only one (hind) pair of wings. The mouthparts of the beetles are gnawing, and they feed on solid food. The eyes are only faceted.

Rice. 360. Reticulates (from Bei-Bienko): A - Chrysopa lacewing, B - Mantispa mantispa, C - Totateres ant lion

Beetle larvae with a large sclerotized head and three pairs of legs that can be reduced. Abdominal pseudopods do not exist in beetle larvae.

Often beetle larvae live in a different environment than adults. For example, in beetles living on plants, the larvae develop in the soil and feed on roots, in longhorn beetles found on leaves and flowers, the larvae live in wood, and in leaf beetles, ladybugs, adults and larvae live in a similar environment. , and they have common food items.

Beetles are the largest group of insects, numbering about 250 thousand species. Their sizes vary from a few fractions of a millimeter to 15 cm. The largest beetles are found in tropical areas. Giant beetles include, for example, the goliath beetle (Goliathus).

Biologically, Coleoptera are diverse. They are found in all landscape zones, in all tiers of land biocenoses. Among beetles there are predators, phytophages, saprophages, necrophages, coprophages.

Beetles play an essential role in the biological cycle of substances in nature. Phytophagous beetles utilize plant debris. Soil-dwelling beetle larvae - saprophages contribute to the soil-forming process. Predatory beetles regulate the number of invertebrates in biocenoses. But among the beetles there are many serious pests of agriculture ( Colorado beetle, beet weevil, apple beetle, beetles, etc.), as well as forests (bark beetles, barbels, gold beetles, weevils).

The order of beetles includes more than 100 families belonging to four suborders (Fig. 361).

Suborder Carnivorous beetles (Adephaga) includes only eight families, among which the most numerous are: terrestrial - the Carabidae family and aquatic - the Dytiscidae family, the Gyrinidae family. Carnivorous beetles are mostly predators. They have immovable coxae hind legs, five-segmented tarsi, filiform antennae.

Ground beetles are actively running ground beetles that feed on other insects and other invertebrates. Especially useful in the extermination of caterpillars of butterflies on the soil and trees are beauty beetles (Calosoma). Large carabus beetles (Carabus) actively destroy slugs and snails. Some ground beetles switched to feeding on plant foods. The grain beetle of the genus Zabms is harmful to wheat. Ground beetle larvae develop in the soil. Predatory ground beetles of the genera Pterostichus, Agonum and species with mixed feeding: Pseudophonus, Harpalus, Amara are the most numerous in the fields.

Swimmers live in stagnant and slow-flowing fresh water bodies. These are active predators feeding on dragonfly larvae, mayflies and other

invertebrates. They have swimming hind legs. The larvae of swimming swimmers are also predatory. The larvae of swimmers pupate in the soil on the shore. There are about 300 species in our fauna. The largest species in the fauna of our country is the fringed swimmer (Dytiscus marginalis).

Spinners are surface inhabitants of fresh water bodies with two pairs of flipper-like hind legs. They commit circular motions, eating prey, both on the surface of the water and under water. Their eyes are divided into upper and lower parts, adapted for vision above water and under water. There are about 20 types of worms known.

Suborder Multi-eating beetles (Polyphaga). This suborder includes most beetle families. They are extremely diverse in terms of food types and other ecological features. Polyphaga differ from Adephaga in the movable coxae of the hind legs and a different number of tarsal segments (from 4 to 5). Among the most extensive and practically important families of polyphagous beetles are the following.

Aquarius family(Hydrophilidae) combines aquatic beetles with club-shaped antennae, pubescent underside of the body. Water lovers feed mainly on plant foods. Aquatic larvae are predatory, their body with gill outgrowths on the abdomen. The most common is the black water lover (Hydrous piceus).

Family Staphylinidae, or short-winged(Staphylinidae). This is an extensive family of beetles with a narrow body, short elytra that do not cover the abdomen. Their wings are folded in transverse folds under the elytra. The narrow body allows them to penetrate the soil, rotting wood, porous substrates, where they prey on other insects. Among the rove beetles, in addition to predators, there are many saprophages and even herbivorous species. Most rove beetles are important as entomophages that regulate the number of other insects, or as soil formers.

Superfamily Lamellar(Lamellicornia) includes the families of stags and true lamellar. They have antennae with a lamellar or comb club, which is the reason for the name of the superfamily.

Family Lamellar(Scarabaedae) - with a dense lamellar mace. It includes Khrushchev, dung beetles, bronzes.

Beetles are phytophages, and among them there are many pests of agriculture and forestry: May beetle (Melolontha hippocastani), June beetle (Amphimallon solstitialis), bread beetles (Anisoplia austriaca). They harm in the phase of adults and larvae. Bronzovki harm roses and other flowering horticultural crops. Dung beetles that feed on manure utilize organic residues and promote soil formation. These include the common dung beetle (Geotrupes stercorarius), the sacred scarab (Srarabaeus sacer), which rolls dung balls to feed its larvae.

The dung beetle also includes the rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes nasicornis). They live in the tropics giant views dung beetles, such as the goliath beetle (Goliathus).

To the Horn family(Lucanidae) include the largest species of beetles in our fauna - stag beetles (Lucanus cervus). They have antennae with a comb-shaped mace. Sexual dimorphism is pronounced. Males with "horns" - modified mandibles, and females "hornless", i.e. with normal mandibles. Their larvae develop in rotten oak stumps. The distribution of stag beetles is mainly associated with oak forests.

Nutcracker family(Elateridae) includes a large group of phytophagous beetles. These are narrow-bodied beetles with short legs. They have a jumping apparatus on the chest (a protrusion on the prothorax and a notch on the middle chest). If the beetle is in a position with its back down, it bends the pronotum, a click is heard - the beetle jumps and turns over with its feet down.

Especially harmful are the larvae of click beetles, which are called wireworms. They have hard integuments and a round body in diameter. Wireworms live in the soil, gnaw the roots of plants and often completely destroy crops. Click beetles of the genera Agriotes and Selatosomus are especially widespread in the fields.

Family Coccinellidae, or ladybugs (Coccinellidae). These are small rounded beetles, convex from above, usually brightly colored. For example, the seven-spot ladybird is red with black spots (Coccinella septempunctata). The contrasting coloration of coccinellids warns insectivorous birds of their inedibility. They got the name "cows" for the fact that, when threatened, they secrete a yellow liquid (hemolymph). Due to the causticity of the hemolymph, they are inedible.

Coccinellids and their larvae live on plants and feed on aphids. Coccinellide is used in the biological control of harmful homoptera proboscis: aphids, mealybugs, psyllids.

A species of coccinellid rhodolia (Rodolia cardinalis) was brought to us from Australia to combat the mealybug Iceria (Iceria), which damages citrus crops. The species of our fauna - seven-spot (Coccinella septempunctata) and two-spot (Adalia bipunctata) ladybugs reduce the number of aphids in gardens and orchards.

Chernotelki family(Tenebrionidae) includes mainly species living in steppe zone and deserts. These are mostly terrestrial beetles, often flightless, with hard covers. Their larvae are worm-like, with digging legs, with strong integument sclerotization. For external resemblance to the larvae of click beetles, they are called false wireworms. Most species are herbivores. Larvae often harm seedlings in the fields. Products are harmed by types of hruschaks: flour

(Tenebrio molitor) and small (Tribolium confusum). Darklings from the anal glands spray a caustic odorous liquid. Therefore, the contamination of products with flour beetles is easy to recognize by a specific smell. Darkling beetles are most common in the steppe: lingerlings of the Blaps genus and sandy lingerlings (Opatrum sabulosum).

The Mustache family (Cerambycidae) is characterized by a long body, climbing legs with wide segments and long whiskers. Beetles feed on leaves, flowers, and their larvae develop under the bark, in the wood of tree trunks, less often in the stems of herbaceous plants. Many barbels are wood destroyers. They mainly develop in dying trees and stumps. However, some species can damage timber, such as black pine barbel (Monochamus galloprovincialis). In the steppe zone, field crops and forest plantations can be harmed by soil-dwelling larvae of longhorn beetles of the genus Dorcadion.

Among the barbels there are many species that are closely related to any one tree species. Deforestation leads to the impoverishment of the barbel fauna. A number of barbel species are listed in the Red Book as rare and subject to protection.

Leaf beetle family(Chrysomelidae). Leaf beetles include herbivorous beetles of small size, bright or shiny color. Their larvae are also herbivorous. The family includes many pests of agriculture and forestry: Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa ​​decemlineata), poplar leaf beetle (Melasoma populi), garden fleas (Phyllotreta), etc.

Weevil family(Curculionidae) is the most numerous in terms of the number of species. More than 40 thousand species of weevils are known. These are herbivorous beetles that damage various parts of plants: seeds, buds, leaves, stems, roots. Their larvae are white, legless, hidden in plant tissues. Weevils are easily distinguished from other beetles by the shape of the head with an elongated rostrum, at the end of which the oral apparatus is located. With the help of the rostrum, beetles can penetrate deep into the tissues of plants, and then lay their eggs there. The acorn weevil (Curculio glandium) has a particularly long rostrum, which drills deep passages in the stomach. There are many harmful species among weevils. For example, the beet weevil harms sugar beet, the apple flower beetle harms apple buds, and the clover seed-eaters reduce the yield of clover.

Family Bark beetles(Ipidae) is characterized by a cylindrical body, a bent head with a club-shaped antennae. At the posterior end of the body there is a "wheelbarrow" formed by a platform of elytra sloping down, framed by denticles. Bark beetles gnaw passages under the bark, and with the help of a wheelbarrow they push the bitten wood particles out of the passages. The passages of bark beetles have a specific structure, specific for each species (Fig. 361, 3). There is a uterine passage, gnawed by the female,

in the walls of which eggs are laid. Numerous larval passages depart from the uterine passage, ending in a pupal cradle. Young beetles emerging from pupae gnaw holes and leave the place of hatching.

In most cases, bark beetles attack weakened or felled trees. The most common bark beetle typographer (Ips typographus), damaging coniferous trees. Among other bark beetles, large and small beetles, birch sapwood are often found.

Order Hymenoptera (Hymenoptera). This is one of the largest orders of insects, which includes more than 300 thousand species.

Hymenoptera have two pairs of transparent wings with large cells. The hindwings are smaller than the forewings and are linked with them, forming a common wing surface. Therefore, we can assume that they are functionally dipteran. The mouthparts are gnawing, like those of ants, or gnawing-licking, like those of bees. The first segment of the abdomen is part of the chest. The second and third segments of the abdomen often form a stalk and provide the mobility of the abdomen. Many have an ovipositor or stinger at the end of the body. On the head, in addition to compound eyes, there are usually simple parietal ocelli. Hymenoptera larvae are legless or caterpillar-like. Pupae are free, often in a fibrous cocoon.

The order is divided into two suborders: Sessile-bellied and Stalk-bellied. They include many families. Let's consider the most important among them.

Suborder sessile belly , or Phytophages (Phytophaga). These are the most primitive Hymenoptera with gnawing mouthparts, without a stalk between the thorax and abdomen, with a full set of veins on the wings. The life of adults is shorter than that of larvae. Larvae and adults are phytophages. The larval phase is similar to that of butterflies. They are called false caterpillars. They pupate in fibrous cocoons. Several families belong to the sessile belly.

Family Sawflies(Tenthredinidae). In sawflies, the ovipositor is serrate, not protruding. The mouthparts are gnawing. There is no stalk on the abdomen. The larvae are caterpillar-like, with pairs of thoracic legs and ventral legs (Fig. 362, B). Unlike caterpillars, butterflies, sawfly larvae have simple eyes on their heads, and 6-8 pairs of ventral legs, and not 2-5 pairs, like butterflies, and without hooks. Many sawflies harm plants: pine, gooseberry, cherry, grain.

Horntail family(Siricidae) includes large insects up to 40 mm in length (Fig. 362, A). Female horntails have a very large

ovipositor, with which they lay their eggs under the bark of deciduous trees. Horntail larvae are cylindrical, without legs. They make large moves in tree trunks.

Suborder Stalk-bellied (Apocryta). In stalked-bellies, the first two segments of the abdomen form a narrow stalk between the thorax and abdomen, providing the mobility of the abdomen. The mouthparts are gnawing or gnawing-licking. Among the stalked bellies there are phytophages, zoophages and nectarophages. Many have a well-developed ovipositor. The larvae are legless. Pupae with and without cocoons.

Nutworms lay their eggs in leaves by piercing them with their ovipositor. From the prick of the ovipositor, the leaf tissues grow and the larvae of the gall wasps developing from the eggs find themselves inside the gall. Older larvae pupate. Young adults gnaw through exit holes and leave the gall.

Superfamily Wasps(Vespoidea) includes a number of wasp families. These are stinging hymenoptera. The most diverse are the folded wasps (family Vespidae), which include the largest species - the hornet and the common wasp (Vespa vespa). Wasps are social and solitary. An ordinary wasp makes a "paper" nest from chewed wood and hangs it from trees or under the roof of human dwellings. The wasp lays eggs in the combs, from which worm-like larvae develop, which the wasps feed, passing them semi-digested food. Wasps are predatory, and also willingly eat sweet fruits.

Burrowing bees are of great biological interest. They prey on various insects, which they sting and paralyze. Paralyzed insects were dragged into soil minks and fed with their offspring. Such complex behavior is determined by the developed instinct for caring for offspring.

Superfamily Bees(Apoidea) includes six families and has more than 30 thousand species. This is a specialized group of anthophiles that feed on nectar and pollen from flowers.

Bees are characterized by the presence of a gnawing-licking mouth apparatus, dense pubescence of the body and an enlarged first segment of the hind paw, turned into an apparatus for collecting pollen - a brush.

This group of Hymenoptera is evolutionarily related to flowering plants. flowering plants developed in the process of evolution adaptations to attract pollinating insects: a bright color of the corolla, nectar and aromatic substances. Flowering plants provide food for bees - pollen, nectar, and the latter carry out their cross-pollination.

Bees can lead a solitary or social lifestyle. Solitary bee species consist only of males and females. Females of solitary bees themselves build a nest with honeycombs, take care of their offspring, collect honey and pollen. In social bees, in addition to males and females, there are also working individuals (immature females) that perform a building function, collect nectar and pollen, and take care of the offspring. These types of bees are polymorphic. Their individuals differ morphologically and functionally. In colonies of social bees are observed

complex relationships between individuals with division of functions. Social bees include honey bees (Apis mellifera, Fig. 365) and bumblebees (Bombus). Several species of wild bees are cultivated by humans for honey and wax. The role of all bees in the pollination of wild and cultivated plants is great. Currently, measures are being taken to preserve the fauna of bees and bumblebees as plant pollinators.

Superfamily Ants (Formicoidea) represented by only one family, Formicidae. In total, more than 5 thousand species of ants are known. These are social insects with complex behavior. They build nests - anthills. Ants have a pronounced caste polymorphism: there are winged males and females that perform the function of reproduction, and wingless workers (sterile females) that build a nest, take care of their offspring, get food, and protect the nest from enemies (Fig. 366).

Morphologically, ants are characterized by a gnawing mouth apparatus, geniculate antennae, and a ventral stalk consisting of 1-2 segments.

Rice. 365. Honey bee Apis mellifera (from Natalie): A - queen and her head, B - worker bee and her head, B - drone

The life cycles of ants are similar to those of bees. Once a year they have swarming: winged males and females fly out of the nest. After mating, the males die, and the females bite off their wings and begin to build a nest. In some species, the female herself feeds the first generation of worker ants, and only workers care for subsequent generations. In other species, workers transfer a fertilized female to an already existing nest, where there are usually several breeding females, or establish a new nest.

Predatory ants are bred and guarded as exterminators of harmful insects in forests and gardens. Species of the genus Formica are especially useful in our forests: red forest ants (F.rufa and F.polyctena). Reaper ants (Messor) harm crops in the south. In a human dwelling, a small house ant (Monomorium pharaonis), brought to Europe 200 years ago, harms food. Many soil-dwelling ants play an essential role in soil formation.

Order Diptera (Diptera). This is one of the largest orders of insects, including about 80 thousand species.

The main features of the detachment are: piercing or licking mouthparts, the presence of only one - the first pair of wings and the reduction of the second pair, as well as a worm-like larva without legs, and in the higher representatives of the detachment even without a head.

This is a specialized order of insects. Adult forms feed only on liquid food of animal or vegetable origin.

Among Diptera there are bloodsuckers (mosquitoes, midges, horseflies), pollinators that feed on the nectar of flowers (bee species, bumblebee species), etc. Diptera larvae develop in soil, water and decaying substrates, in the tissues of animals and plants. Many of them have developed extraintestinal digestion.

Unlike Hymenoptera, Diptera do not have such complex instincts for caring for offspring, nest building, and intraspecific relationships. However, morphologically Diptera are the most advanced in comparison with other orders. They achieved great perfection in flight. They have the most highly specialized oral apparatus, and the processes of metamorphosis proceed most radically - from a worm-like larva to a complexly organized adult.

The detachment is divided into three suborders: the suborder Long-whiskered, or Mosquitoes (Nematocera), the suborder Short-whiskered straight-lined (Brachycera-Orthorrhapha) and the suborder Short-whiskered round-seam (Brachycera-Cyclorhapha). The suborders differ in the shape of the antennae, the venation of the wings, the mouthparts, and the type of larvae and pupae.

Suborder Long-whiskers (Nematocera). It differs from the other two suborders of Diptera in having long multisegmented antennae, a larva with a head capsule, and a covered pupa. Long-whiskers include many families of mosquitoes and midges (Fig. 367). Let's take a look at some of them.

Family Mosquito centipedes(Tipulidae). These are the largest mosquitoes in our fauna. The length of their body can reach 2-3 cm, and the legs are even longer, they are capable of autotomy, like haymakers. The weevils feed on the nectar of the flowers. Their larvae develop in the soil, feed as saprophages and play an essential role in soil formation.

Family True mosquitoes(Culicidae) is widespread in all natural areas and especially numerous in places with

Rice. 367. Long-whiskered Diptera (from Bei-Bienko): A - mosquito Phlebotomus, B - malarial mosquito (male) Anopheles maculipennis, C - midge Simulium

humid climate. They have a perfect piercing-sucking apparatus, but not all species of mosquitoes feed on blood, and in blood-sucking species only females feed on blood. Larvae and pupae develop in water or moist soil. The most common blood-sucking mosquitoes of the genera Culex and Anopheles. The common mosquito (Culex pipiens, fig. 368, I) and the malarial mosquito (Anopheles maculipennis, fig. 368, II), which are the carriers of the malarial plasmodium, disturb us most often. You can distinguish a malarial mosquito from an ordinary mosquito by four brown spots on the wings, by long legs (twice as long as the body) and by landing with the belly up. The larvae of the malarial mosquito are distinguished by short respiratory tubes and a horizontal position of the body, while in the common mosquito the larvae with long tubes are kept inclined to the surface of the water upside down (Fig. 368, B). The pupae of the common mosquito have longer respiratory tubes than those of the pupae of the malarial mosquito (Fig. 368, B).

Rice. 368. Mosquitoes: I - common mosquito Cutex pipiens, II - malarial mosquito Anopheles maculipennis; A - imago, B - larva, C - pupa (from Natalie)

Various species of mosquitoes can carry pathogens such as serious illnesses like malaria, yellow fever, Japanese encephalitis, etc.

Mosquito family(Chironomidae) - inhabitants of the shores of water bodies. They fly in swarms and make melodic sounds. For this they are sometimes called bells. Their mouthparts are underdeveloped. Imagoes do not live long and do not feed. The front legs of adults are long, similar to antennae and perform the function of touch.

Their larvae develop in water and are known as bloodworms. Bloodworms are usually fed to aquarium fish. They are red in color, since their hemolymph contains hemoglobin, which provides skin respiration when living at the bottom of water bodies in conditions of oxygen deficiency. Bloodworm larvae feed on microorganisms and hide their body in spider webs.

Families Mocretsy(Ceratopogonidae) and Midges (Simulidae). These include small blood-sucking mosquitoes 3-6 mm long, which, together with mosquitoes, form hordes of bloodsuckers called midges. Biting larvae develop in water or in a humid environment, and midges always develop in water.

The most widespread biting biting is the common biting biting (Culicoides pulicaris), which gives several generations during the summer. Blackflies-bloodsuckers in Russia are most diverse in the taiga zone, where they are a scourge for deer and humans. But they are also numerous in other latitudes. Midges can carry pathogens of tularemia, plague, leprosy, glanders and other diseases.

Butterfly family(Psychodidae) are small mosquitoes with fluffy wings and dense venation. Among them there are bloodsuckers - mosquitoes (Phlebotomus), common in Central Asia, Transcaucasia. Their larvae develop in damp places: caves, pits, animal burrows, as well as cattle yards, garbage pits. Female mosquitoes attack mammals, birds and humans. They can carry pathogens of dangerous diseases: papatachi fever virus and leishmaniasis (Pendin ulcer and visceral leishmaniasis that affects the liver, spleen, bone marrow).

Gallic family(Cecidomyidae). This is a large group of small mosquitoes, whose adults do not feed, and the larvae develop in plant tissues, causing the formation of galls (tissue growth). For example, the aspen petiolate gall midge forms a reddish, rounded gall on the petiole of an aspen. Wheat pest - the Hessian fly develops in the axils of the leaves of cereals, the stems of which then break off.

Family Fungus mosquitoes(Mycetophilidae) is notable for the fact that their larvae predominantly develop in fungi. Their white, black-headed larvae literally teem on the rift. worm mushrooms. A number of species of fungal mosquitoes develop in rotting wood.

Suborder Short-legged Diptera (Brachycera-Orthorrhapha) . These are typical flies with short, three-segmented antennae. In larvae, the head is strongly reduced, and the pupae are of a covered type, without a puparia. When molting to adults, the integument of the pupa cracks along a T-shaped line in the region of the pronotum. The longitudinal seam of the tear line is especially long, hence the name - straight-line seam.

This suborder includes widespread families of Diptera: horseflies, lions, ktyrs, buzzers, pushers, greenfinches.

Horsefly family(Tabanidae) includes large blood-sucking flies. They cause suffering to many pets, reduce their productivity. Horseflies attack humans and can carry pathogens: anthrax, tularemia, poliomyelitis.

Horseflies are easily recognizable by their large golden eyes and often colorful wings (Fig. 369, 1). Horsefly bites are very painful. Only females bite, while males feed on nectar. Horsefly larvae develop in water and in moist soil along the banks.

Lvinki family(Stratiomyiidae) includes many species found in the tropics. There are only about a hundred species of lion cubs in our fauna. Lions are usually brightly colored flies, often reminiscent of stinging bees, wasps in color. This is a manifestation of protective coloration - mimicry. Lionfly larvae develop in soil, manure and polluted water bodies. Larvae of the common soldier fly are found in ponds and are distinguished by an elongated posterior end of the body, on which spiracles are located, surrounded by a halo of hairs. The larva is suspended by the rear end of the body to the surface of the water and so breathes. Having inhaled, it folds the hairs of the corolla, closing the spiracles, and sinks to the bottom, where it feeds on organic remains.

The family Ktyri (Asilidae) unites about 5 thousand species of predatory flies. They have a slender body, long wings (Fig. 369, 2). When they bite their prey, they inject poison. They hunt on the fly for various well-flying insects. The larvae of ktyre are predators that live in the soil.

Bumblebee family(Bombyliidae) includes flies, specialized pollinators. They feed on the nectar of flowers with deep nectaries. Buzzed by appearance reminiscent of bumblebees. They have a compact, pubescent body with a long proboscis (Fig. 369, 3).

Crusher family(Empididae) - predatory flies whose larvae develop in the soil. By habitus, they are similar to mosquitoes, but they have short antennae, and a long proboscis differs in structure and is adapted for sucking both insects and nectar and vegetable juices. Pushers have grasping front legs, with which they capture prey - small Diptera. Pushers are characterized by complex marital relationships. They perform special "dances" during their mating season. Males of some species offer the female a "gift" in the form of a dead fly enclosed in a fibrous sheath.

Greenfly family(Dolichopodidae) is close in ecology to the previous one. These are predatory flies with a metallic green body that prey on mosquitoes and midges. Greenfinches also have complex marital relationships. Males perform complex mating dances, playing with "mirrors" on extended front legs. Mirrors - reflective surfaces on the paws. Some species, as well as pushers, bring females a fly as a "gift".

Suborder Short-whiskered Diptera (Brachycera-Cyclorhapha). These are flies with very short, three-segmented antennae with a bristle on the third segment. In larvae, the head capsule is reduced; there are only mouth stylets. The pupa is free, enclosed in a puparia (a sheath of unshed larval skin - exuvia). When the fly exits, the puparium opens along a rounded line, therefore the suborder is called round-sutured. Consider the most important families of this suborder.

Hoverfly family(Syrphidae) includes many pollinating flower flies (Fig. 364, 4). They show mimicry with stinging hymenoptera. The color is predominantly yellow with black, the shape of the body imitates wasps, bees, bumblebees. Hoverfly flies are characterized by a "standing" flight, when the fly seems to hang in the air, continuously working its wings.

The larvae of most hoverflies are predators, crawling on the leaves of plants and eating aphids, psyllids. And the larvae of some species, such as the bee (Eristalis tenax), develop in polluted water bodies and sedimentation pits. They are called "rats" because they have a long "tail" representing the elongated last three segments of the abdomen with spiracles at the end. Eristalis larvae from time to time float to the surface of the water, expose their breathing tube to the outside and fill the tracheal system with air.

In general, the hoverfly family is a useful group of plant pollinators, and their predatory larvae exterminate herbivorous insects.

Family Cereal flies(Chloropidae) - pests of cereals and wild cereals. These are small flies (3-5 mm), often variegated in color. Larvae damage the top of the stem of cereals, which often causes their death. The swedish fly is a dangerous wheat pest.

Family Dung flies(Scatophagidae). The larvae of many dung flies develop in manure, where they feed on the larvae of other insects. But among the dung flies there are many species whose larvae harm cereals.

Family True flies(Muscidae) is one of the most numerous species (3000 species). Biologically, they are extremely diverse (Fig. 370).

There are many synanthropic species among the Muscidae. Houseflies (Musca domestica, Fig. 370, 1) are especially common in towns and cities. Its larvae develop in manure and sewage. This species is extremely prolific. The female can lay up to 600 eggs in several ovipositions. Housefly larvae have extraintestinal digestion. They secrete digestive juices onto the food substrate and absorb semi-digested food. In 1 dm 3 of manure, 1000-1500 fly larvae can develop. House flies spread various infections (dysentery, cholera, typhoid, tuberculosis), as well as helminth eggs.

Along with the housefly, in human dwellings there are outwardly similar small houseflies (Fannia camcularis) and autumn sturgeons (Stomoxys calcitrans, fig. 370, 5). Zhigalki differ in that they can bite through the skin of a person. These species are also distributed

infections. The fight against synanthropic flies is carried out by observing sanitary standards in settlements.

The blood-sucking species of this family include the tsetse fly (Glossina palpalis), which carries trypanosoma, the causative agent of sleeping sickness in humans in Africa.

Many types of muscids harm plants. The cabbage fly (Chortophila brassica) in the larval phase damages cabbage seedlings, and the larvae of the onion fly (Ch. antiqua) develop in onion leaves, causing them to dry out. Flies are also common, damaging beets, winter wheat.

Family Gray blowflies(Sarcophagidae) is most common in temperate countries. They are easy to recognize by the checkered pattern of the abdomen. The most common is the gray blowfly (Sarcophaga carnaria, Fig. 370, 4). This is a viviparous fly that lays not eggs on meat, but live larvae, which are characterized by rapid development.

Rice. 371. Gadflies (from Bei-Bienko): 1 - Hypoderma bovis, 2 - Gastrophilus intestinalis, 3 - larva

Rice. 372. Human flea Pulex irntans (from Gilyarov): A - adult, B - larva, B - pupa

To prevent plague epidemics among people in Russia, a system of anti-plague stations is operating that monitors the state of natural rodent populations in which plague outbreaks can occur.

Order Caddisflies (Trichoptera). Caddisflies are winged insects usually found near water. Imagoes do not live long and usually do not feed. They have underdeveloped gnawing mouthparts, two pairs of membranous wings covered with hairs. There are a pair of compound eyes on the head and usually 2-3 simple eyes on the crown. Antennae very long, filiform. In flight, they resemble night butterflies. During landing, the wings are folded roof-like. Larvae are caterpillar-shaped, develop in water for 1-3 years. Most of the time they are predators. Usually they build a house from grains of sand, small shells of mollusks, pebbles and other materials. These particles are glued together with a web, which is secreted from the silk glands (modified salivary glands). The larvae breathe with the help of tracheal gills, which are located in bundles on the sides of the abdomen. The larvae pupate in the houses. The matured pupa has powerful mandibles with which it gnaws its way out in the cocoon. Then she floats to the surface of the water, crawls out onto the shore and turns into an imago (Fig. 373).

Caddisfly larvae are food for many fish. Most caddisflies prefer to live in clear running water. The species composition of caddisfly larvae in water bodies is a good bioindicator of environmental pollution.

Order Lepidoptera, or Butterflies (Lepidoptera). Lepidoptera are characterized primarily by the presence of two pairs of wings covered with scales, which are modified hairs. Scales are often brightly colored. The oral apparatus is of a sucking type: the proboscis consists of elongated maxillae forming a tube and coils up. The rest of the oral parts are reduced. Butterfly larvae - caterpillars with chewing mouthparts, in addition to the thoracic legs, have abdominal pseudopods (usually five pairs). The pupae are covered, often in a cocoon.

This is a specialized order of insects. Imagoes of Lepidoptera feed on the nectar of flowers or sweet juices of plants, and their larvae are caterpillars, with rare exceptions, herbivores. Butterflies are an important group of pollinators angiosperms, and their caterpillars often cause significant damage to plants.

In total, about 140 thousand species of Lepidoptera are known. There are three suborders of butterflies in the detachment: the suborder Homoptera (Jugata), the suborder Hemoptera (Frenata) and the suborder Bulavous (Rhopalocera).

Suborder Homoptera (Jugata) . These are lower butterflies with wings of approximately the same size and venation. Forewings at the posterior margin with a jugal protrusion fastening them to the hindwings. Some lower butterflies have preserved mandibles, and the oral proboscis is not developed.

The suborder Homoptera includes the families of primary moths and fine-moths. We often meet the hop worm (Hepialus humuli), whose caterpillars develop on herbaceous plants.

Suborder Various (Frenata) . It includes many families of butterflies, which have wings of different shapes: the front wings are triangular, the hind wings are rounded. All have a typical proboscis of a sucking type.

The heteroptera include most species of butterflies from several dozen families. The division of the suborder into two groups is accepted: small (Microfrenata) and large (Macrofrenata) heteroptera.

The Microfrenata group is especially numerous in terms of the number of species. These include more primitive families of heteroptera. They have more primitive venation and the hindwings are often fringed with hairs along the posterior margin or very narrow. In size, these butterflies are mostly small, but among them there are quite large species.

Family Real moths(Tineidae). These are small, inconspicuous in color butterflies (Fig. 374). Their front wings are narrow, and the hind wings are fringed with hairs. The oral apparatus is often underdeveloped. Caterpillars live in spider webs.

The family of moths includes many species distributed in all latitudes. Most species develop on plants. There are many agricultural pests among the moths. So, the grain moth harms grain reserves, the apple moth damages the shoots of apple trees. Poplar moth in some years leads to a complete defeat of the leaves of poplars, which already in the middle of summer lose their foliage.

Leaf Roller Family(Tortricidae) are morphologically similar to moths. But they have a thicker abdomen, often variegated wings that fold like a roof. Caterpillars are 16-legged, often twist leaves into tubules using a spider web.

Leaf rollers harm trees in forests, gardens and parks. Especially dangerous is the oak leafworm, which exposes forests during the years of mass reproduction.

Leafworms include pests of conifers - shoots. Caterpillars of pine shoots bore through the stems and often cause resin drips. The resin shoot (Evetria resinella) is especially common. Shooting shoots cause significant damage to pine plantations.

Leafworms also include such a pest of gardens as codling moth(Laspeyresia pomonella). They infect the fruits of apple trees. Caterpillars gnaw holes in apples. Wormy apples affected by the codling moth quickly deteriorate.

Glassware family(Aegeriidae) - narrow-winged butterflies with scale-free wing areas ("windows"). Hence the name - glassware. They have mimicry with wasps in the shape and color of the body. Imagoes are fast-flying. Caterpillars gnaw their way through the stems, roots of trees or herbaceous plants. There are many harmful species among the glass cases, for example, a large poplar glass case (Sesia apiformis).

Firefly family(Pyralididae) - small butterflies, often brightly colored with a silky sheen. At rest, the wings fold into a triangle or tube around the body. Caterpillars are mostly herbivorous. A dangerous agricultural pest is the meadow moth (Pyrausta sticticalis), which damages many crops. This pest can produce 2-3 generations per season in the south. Grain stocks are harmed by flour moth (Pyralis farinalis). The wax moth (Galleria mellonella) feeds on beeswax, braiding the cells with cobwebs, and damages beekeeping. In gardens, gooseberry and currant moth caterpillars are often found, which gnaw out berries and entangle the shoots with cobwebs.

Group Large heteroptera (Macrofrenata). These are larger and more specialized representatives of the Homoptera. They are characterized by some peculiarities of venation, wide hindwings, short fringe along their posterior margin. Antennae filiform or pinnate. This includes several families.

Family Cocoonworms(Lasiocampidae) - large and medium-sized butterflies with a thick abdomen. The proboscis is reduced. The antennae are comb-like in females and feathery in males. Caterpillars are hairy with five pairs of ventral legs. Pupae in a web cocoon.

Harmful species include pine, Siberian and ringed cocoonworms. Unlike the first two species that damage pine forests, ringed silkworm is a pest of deciduous forests and gardens.

Especially large population outbreaks are characteristic of the ringed silkworm (Malacosoma neustria, Fig. 375). In some years, the ringed silkworm bares oak forests and gardens over vast areas.

Butterfly ringed silkworm with yellow-brown wings. Males are somewhat smaller than females, with feathery antennae. Oviposition has the form of a wide dense ring covering the shoot. The eggs hibernate. In the spring, caterpillars come out of them, which eat the leaves of trees. Caterpillars are gray-blue, with bright stripes: a median white and two pairs of lateral orange stripes. Pupae in cocoons.

Rice. 375. Ringed silkworm Malacosoma neustna: 1 - egg laying, 2 - adult, 3 - caterpillar, 4 - pupa

Family True silkworms(Bombycidae). The silkworm, Bombyx mori, belongs to this family. His homeland is the Himalayas. In China, they began to breed silkworms more than 4500 years ago and founded sericulture. Later, this industry began to develop in other countries.

Volnyanka family(Limantriidae). Butterflies of medium size with a hairy body, often with a sharp sexual dimorphism. Caterpillars with tufts of hairs. Pupae in a cocoon. In their development, they are associated with woody vegetation. There are many pests of forests and fruit crops among the wolnyankas. The most common are the gypsy moth (Limantria dispar), golden tail (Euproctis chrysorrhoea).

The gypsy moth has pronounced sexual dimorphism: the female is larger (wingspan up to 7.5 cm), with white wings, the male is smaller (wingspan up to 4.5 cm), with brownish-gray wings and feathery antennae. Caterpillars are grey, hairy, with three yellow stripes, five pairs of blue and six pairs of red warts on the back. Caterpillars make web nests and completely eat leaves, baring trees. Pupae in silky cocoons.

Gypsy moth often gives outbreaks of mass reproduction. The fight against it is difficult, as it is a polyphagous pest that damages more than 300 plant species. In addition, this species is extremely prolific, with each female laying 300-400 to 1000 eggs. Hairy silkworm caterpillars are reluctantly eaten by birds.

In the southern regions of the country, golden tail causes great harm to woody plants. Goldentail butterflies are medium in size with a bunch of silky hairs at the end of the abdomen. Males and females differ slightly. Caterpillars with poisonous hairs. They have a warning coloration: two red and two white stripes run along the back, and on

Segments 9-10 have orange tubercles with ducts of poisonous glands. Goldentail caterpillars often completely bare tree crowns.

Family Scoops (Noctuidae). The largest family of butterflies (30 thousand species). Scoops are usually painted in gray, brown tones. The abdomen is thick, pubescent, the antennae are filiform, and sometimes comb-shaped in males. Scoops have a certain type of wing venation. Caterpillars are naked, with five pairs of ventral legs, found on plants and in the soil. The pupae usually develop in the soil.

Among scoops there are many pests of agriculture and forestry. A group of nibbling scoops harms the roots of plants. The winter scoop (Scotia segetum), which is common in all climatic zones(Fig. 376). Females lay up to 2000 eggs on cultivated and weed plants. Caterpillars feed on plants from 15 families. Greatly harm the seedlings of grain crops.

Scoops-pests also include scoop-gamma, cabbage, pine scoops.

Moth family(Geometridae). Moths - butterflies with delicate wings, often white or with a light pattern, with thin or comb antennae, with a thin abdomen. Caterpillar with 2-3 pairs of ventral legs located on the posterior segments of the body. Caterpillars move with walking movements. They bend the body in a loop upwards, while the ventral legs of the posterior end of the body come off the substrate and are next to the pectoral legs, and then the caterpillar lifts up the anterior end of the body, throws it forward to its full length and descends onto the pectoral legs. Such a movement is reminiscent of measuring the length with spans (the distance between the index and thumb fingers). Hence the name of the family - moths.

Moths feed on many types of woody and herbaceous plants.

In the forests, a dangerous pest of pine is the pine moth (Bupalus piniaria), caterpillars

Rice. 376. Winter cutworm Agrotes segetum (from Natali): 1 - adult, 2 - eggs, 3 - caterpillar, 4 - pupa

which they eat needles. The pine moth pupates in the soil. Outbreaks of this pest often last several years.

Deciduous tree species are harmed by the winter moth (Operophtera brumata). During the period of mass reproduction, it causes great damage to apple trees, pears and other horticultural crops. The winter moth has pronounced sexual dimorphism: males with normally developed wings, and females with shortened ones.

Gooseberry moth (Abraxas grossulariata) is often found on gooseberries and currants. Its caterpillars eat the leaves of these berry bushes. They pupate on leaves and stems.

Peacock-eye family(Saturniidae). Large butterflies belong to this family. The largest butterfly - Atlas (Attacus atlas) from India and Indochina reaches 24 cm in wingspan. In total, about 1000 species are known, and we have only 20 species. Saturnian butterflies with a thick fluffy body, there are eye spots on the wings.

We have the largest peacock-eyes: the large nocturnal peacock-eye, the red peacock-eye, the oak peacock-eye, or the Chinese silkworm (Antheraea pernyi), which is used in sericulture.

Family Moths(Sphingidae). These are fast flying forms. Their body is streamlined, the front wings are narrow, long, and the hind wings are short. By habitus, they often resemble birds. In total, 1200 species are known, we have 50 species. Moth hawks have a very long proboscis, and they pollinate flowers with the deepest nectaries (tobacco, cloves, phlox, columbine).

Large representatives of hawks: oleander hawk, dead head. In the middle lane, the pine hawk moth (Sphinx pinastri, Fig. 377) is most common, the caterpillars of which eat pine needles. Some hawks imitate bumblebees, such as the bumblebee hawk.

Rice. 377. Pine hawk hawk Sphinx pinastri (from Bei-Bienko): A - imago, B - caterpillar

Suborder Club-whiskered (Rhopalocera) . This suborder is sometimes called diurnal butterflies, since most of them are diurnal and brightly colored. They have wings with a large discoidal cell, club-shaped antennae. At rest, the wings fold up over the back, and not roof-like and not flat like those of nocturnal butterflies.

This suborder includes many families, of which the most common are: fatheads, sailboats, whites, nymphalids, satyrids, pigeons.

Belyanki family(Pieridae) - white butterflies, rarely yellow, sometimes with dark veins. Adults are pollinators, and caterpillars develop on various types of plants. Garden whites: cabbage (Piens brassicae, Fig. 378), turnip (Rterae) and swede (Rnapi) develop on cruciferous crops and often cause significant damage to cultivated plants.

Rice. 378. Piens brassica (from Natalie): A - adult, B - oviposition, C - caterpillar, D - pupa

Nymphalidae family(Nymphalidae) is especially diverse. We often meet: urticaria (Aglais urticae), mourning (Nymphahs antiopa), peacock eye (Inachis yu), many types of mother-of-pearl, checkers (Fig. 379). Nymphalids sometimes gather in flocks and make flights.

Satyrid family(Satyridae). Butterflies of less variegated color. They are dominated by brown, brown tones, and they are often called chocolate. Satyrid wings often have eye spots.

Golubyanka family(Lycaemdae) - smaller butterflies, often with a sharp dimorphism in color, males are blue, females are brown

Diurnal butterflies are important in nature as pollinators. Their caterpillars in most cases develop on wild plants and do not cause them significant harm.

Diurnal butterflies have no rivals in the beauty of their forms in nature. Many species of nymphalids, sailboats and others are listed in the Red Book and are subject to protection. Currently, micro-reserves and sanctuaries are being created to protect rare and beautiful insects, including butterflies. In Europe, large insectariums are organized, where thousands of beautiful species of butterflies are bred. Numerous visitors can get acquainted with them by visiting floristic greenhouses, where live butterflies are kept.

When creating ecological parks, it is planned to breed beautiful forms butterflies that decorate landscapes.

Main tasks. Insects are the most numerous group of animals in the world. Currently, there are 1.5-2 million species. In order to understand this huge variety of species, it is necessary to systematize them, that is, to establish kinship relationships between different species, combine them according to the degree of kinship into subordinate systematic groups, or taxa, and arrange these groups in a certain ordered system. For this, special sections of entomology serve - the taxonomy and classification of insects.

The main task of insect taxonomy is to divide the vast diversity of individuals that exist in nature into easily recognizable groups, to identify diagnostic characters for these groups, and to establish permanent differences between similar groups. The task of classification is the creation and correct arrangement of various taxa in a single system of the animal world. If systematics represents the analytical stage of the work of a taxonomist, then classification is its synthetic stage.

The ultimate task of taxonomy and classification is the creation of not just a system, but a natural system of the animal world. Therefore, if earlier, when determining the relationship of organisms, taxonomists were based almost exclusively on morphological characters, then modern taxonomists comprehensively use all available criteria, up to molecular and cellular ones.

The concept of the form. The main taxonomic unit in taxonomy is a species, which, according to the definition of G. Ya. Bei-Bienko (1980), is a separate integral system of similar individuals that own a certain geographical area and, when crossed, give fertile offspring that retain similarities with their parents. If we compare this modern definition with. the one given to the mind by K. Linnaeus in the 18th century. (a species is a collection of individuals that differ from each other no more than children from parents), then a simplified interpretation of the latter is striking only by morphological criteria. At present, in addition to morphological (similarity of individuals), when characterizing a species, geographic (settlement of a certain part of the territory of the earth), physiological (fertile offspring when crossing), genetic (preservation of similarity with parents) and ecological (holistic system of similar individuals, i.e. e. polytypicity of the species) criteria.

intraspecific forms. Intraspecific forms arise under the influence of environmental variability. In accordance with the peculiarities and depth of this influence, a number of specific forms arise. In politically prosperous species, this internal structure is more complex than in monotypic, less prosperous and non-subspecies species. The main intraspecific forms include subspecies, ecotype and population.

A subspecies, sometimes also called a geographical race, represents a change in species associated with a mismatch in the conditions of existence in different parts of its range. Subspecies differ from each other in stable, but often indistinct morphological characters, and often in differences in the annual cycle and ecological reactions. In places where populations meet, the differences between subspecies are smoothed out and disappear. Such a gradual transition from one geographical form to another is called clinal variability. If a variable row, or wedge, is tied to a narrow territory with natural obstacles (mountains, water sources), then the subspecies are well separated; if the wedge is strongly stretched over a vast territory, then, in essence, there is no new subspecies, but there is only a gradual change in characters in the widespread subspecies.

To designate a species, a binary nomenclature is used, consisting of two words - genus and species. For example, Locusta migratoria L. is a migratory locust, and the letter L. is an accepted abbreviation of the name of a scientist, in this case K. Linnaeus, who first described this species. Trinary nomenclature is used to designate a subspecies. For example, five subspecies are known for the migratory locust: L. migratoria migratoria L. is the main subspecies, L. migratoria rossica Uv. et Zol. - Central Russian locust, L. migratoria gallica Rem. - Western European, L. migratoria migratoroides Reich, et Fairm - African, L. migratoria manilensis Mey. - Eastern migratory locust.

Ecotype - an ecological race that occurs when a species settles in new habitats that differ markedly in environmental conditions. Ecotypes, as a rule, are not morphologically isolated and differ only in ecological and physiological reactions, i.e., they have different threshold points of the photoperiodic reaction, have different cold resistance, change food specialization, etc. Thus, the mallow moth, whose caterpillars in the republics of Central Asia feed on wild mallows and have no economic importance, when moving to the Transcaucasus, it switched to cotton, formed a special cotton ecotype and became one of the serious pests of this crop. Blood aphid introduced at the beginning of the 19th century. from North America to Europe, populated an apple tree in a new place and lost the ability to develop on its primary host, the American elm.

A population is a collection of individuals of the same species that occupies a certain area for a long time and reproduces itself over a greater number of generations. A population is the basic unit of a species' existence.

Main taxa and their designation. Related species are grouped into genera, genera into families, families into orders, and orders into classes. As applied to insects, this series of taxa is insufficient. To more fully reflect the specifics of kinship relations between individual groups of insects, a number of additional systematic units are used. In general, the following series of taxa are used in the classification of insects: class, subclass, infraclass, division, superorder, order, suborder, superfamily, family, subfamily, tribe, genus, subgenus, species, subspecies.

To designate all these taxa, except for Russian, international Latin nomenclature is used, and, as noted above, it is binary for a species, and trinary for a subspecies. Close genera, for example, the already mentioned genus Locusta, as well as the genera Acrida, Dociostaurus, Calliptamus and many others, are united in the family of true locusts - Acrididae. In this case, the Latin name of the family is always formed from the root of the name of the type genus (in this case, Acrid) and the ending - idae, representing the plural ending, denoting "similar".

Uniform endings have also been introduced for other taxa. Thus, the names of orders of primary wingless insects end in yoke (oiga - in Greek tail), orders of winged insects - in ptero (ptero, pterus - wing), superorders and superfamilies - in oidea, subfamilies - in inae, etc.

At present, the class insects is usually divided into two subclasses, which, according to G. Ya. Bei-Bienko, include 34 orders.

Description of the presentation Classification and taxonomy of insects Basic principles of taxonomy by slides

Classification and taxonomy of insects Basic principles of taxonomy Insects are the largest group of animals on earth. There are about 2 million species of them. To understand this diversity of insects, it is necessary to systematize them, that is, to unite them according to the degree of kinship into groups and distribute these groups (taxa) in a certain ordered system. The main task of taxonomy is to divide the vast diversity of insect individuals into easily recognizable groups, to identify the diagnostic features of these groups, and to distinguish between similar groups. The main taxa are: species, genus, family, order, class and type. In the taxonomy of insects, a number of intermediate categories are also used: subgenus, tribe, subfamily, suborder, superorder, infraclass.

The most important taxonomic unit in taxonomy is VID - a set of similar individuals that own a certain geographical area and, when crossed, give fertile offspring that retain similarities with their parents. Under the influence of environmental variability, intraspecific forms arise. These include subspecies, ecotype, and population. A subspecies (geographic race) represents a species change associated with the peculiarities of the conditions of existence in various parts of its range. An ecotype is an ecological race that occurs when a species settles in new habitats that differ in environmental conditions. A population is a collection of individuals of the same species that occupies a certain area for a long time and reproduces itself over a large number of generations. To designate a species, a binary nomenclature is used, consisting of two Latin words - genus and species. The letter after the species name denotes the surname of the author who first described the species. For example, Bupalus piniarius L.

Classification At present, according to the “Guide to Insects of the European Part of the USSR”, G. Ya. Bei-Bienko proposes to divide the class of insects into two subclasses: primary wingless (Apterygota) and winged (Pterygota). Subclass 1. Lower, or primary wingless Insect orders included in the first subclass (seedless, springtails, two-tails, bristletails) are low organized, have no wings, and are very small. They are found in the forest floor and do not harm woody plants. Subclass 11. Higher, or winged The winged subclass is divided into two sections: with incomplete transformation (Hemimetabola) and complete transformation (Holometabola).

Order Orthoptera Large and medium-sized insects with jumping hind legs. There are two pairs of wings, the anterior parchment-shaped, the posterior wide, membranous with reticulate venation, fan-shaped. Mouth organs are gnawing. The females of many species have a saber-shaped ovipositor. There are families in the detachment: grasshoppers, crickets, bears, locusts. Many species are herbivorous, there are also predators. Pests of field crops are migratory locust, Moroccan locust, Italian locust. Species of the Medvedka family are distinguished by digging front legs, the head is directed forward with the mouth, and there is no egg hoard. They harm plant roots, including significant damage in forest nurseries.

Earwig squad Insects of medium size (5 -20 mm). Body elongated, flexible, head prognathic, antennae 8-50 segmented. The pronotum is small, the anterior pair of wings is turned into short leathery elytra, devoid of veins, the posterior pair is membranous, folded lengthwise and across at rest, walking legs, the female's abdomen carries a pair of cerci in the form of hard ticks, which are an organ of defense and attack. They feed on animal and plant foods, mostly polyphagous predators. Common and garden earwigs can harm plants, especially indoors, in greenhouses.

Order Homoptera Diverse in external structure and body size insects. The wings, if any, are folded like a roof, there are two pairs of them. Many representatives are characterized by polymorphism. The mouthparts are piercing-sucking. They feed on the cell sap of plants, which are often severely harmed. The intestines are arranged in a peculiar way: the end of the foregut is merged with the end of the middle or the beginning of the hindgut, forming a filtration chamber through which water with a solution of sugars enters the hindgut. The body gets rid of water ballast and sugars, which is why a sweet coating is formed on the plants - honeydew, or honeydew. Many representatives are carriers of viral and mycoplasmal diseases.

Suborder cycads cycads - insects of different sizes; have short, bristle-like antennae and legs with thickened hips, jump well. Small cicadas live among the herbage in the meadows and in crops of cultivated plants, sucking them out. Field crops are harmed by dark cicada, six-spotted, striped. In addition to direct harm, they are also carriers of viral diseases. Harm to tree species can be caused by mountain, white-winged, comb, song and other cicadas. Harm is caused by females at the time of oviposition, when they make deep cuts with their ovipositor on branches and shoots. The larvae live in the soil for several years and suck the roots of trees.

The suborder of psyllids Insects outwardly resemble small cicadas, but with long 10-segmented antennae, the front pair of wings with a thickened costal vein, just like cicadas are able to jump. The larvae are flattened, outwardly little similar to adult insects, when feeding on the leaves of woody and shrubby plants, they secrete honeydew. The psyllids often form mass clusters on plants. Most species have a narrow food specialization. Significant harm is caused by apple, pear and sucker psyllids.

Whitefly suborder Very small (less than 2 mm) insects resembling microscopic moths with wings and a body covered with white mealy pollen. There are two pairs of wings with strongly reduced venation, folded flat on the abdomen. The larvae are flat, the body is covered with a wax formation. Adults and larvae feed on the juice of various plants. The maple whitefly is often found in the forest. Keep more often on the underside of leaves, especially in damp and shady places; form clusters. The greenhouse whitefly damages greenhouse and indoor plants, and the citrus whitefly severely damages citrus fruits on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus.

Aphid suborder Insects of small size (0.5-7.5 mm), oval in shape, painted to match the color of the substrate. The covers are soft, often with a waxy coating. The wings, if they have, are transparent, folded like a roof. Abdomen with sap-like tubules. Aphids are characterized by polymorphism, alternation of bisexual and virgin generations. There are migratory and non-migratory species. Harm both woody and herbaceous plants. They usually inhabit young growing shoots and foliage, the cellular juice of which is rich in proteins; few species live on roots, others form galls. The suborder is divided into superfamilies: aphids and hermes proper. Harmful species: legume, blood, grape phylloxera, spruce-larch hermes, etc.

Suborder coccidae (worms and scale insects) Very small insects with sharp sexual demorphism. The body of the female is greatly reduced. They are wingless, motionless and resemble outgrowths on the bark. The secret of the wax-secreting glands goes to the formation of a shield or egg sac. Representatives of the mealybug family are covered with a powdery coating that resembles flour. Males have one pair of wings, mouthparts are reduced, legs are normally developed, and the body is smaller than that of females. Among them, parthenogenesis is widely developed. Many species are serious pests of fruit crops, shrubs and ornamental plants: willow, comma-shaped, California scale insects, Australian grooved scale insects, citrus mealybugs, soft-kay false scale insects.

Detachment Hemiptera, or bugs Mostly small and medium-sized insects with a flat body. There are two pairs of wings, the anterior ones are leathery at the base, membranous towards the apex, the posterior membranous are transparent, sometimes the wings are shortened or absent. The oral apparatus is piercing-sucking. Metasternum from below in adults often with odorous glands. They feed on the cell sap of plants, there are predators or bloodsuckers. In addition to land species, there are aquatic forms (smooth, water striders). Tree species are harmed by flat bugs (pine underroot bug), pests of cultivated plants are turtle bugs, alfalfa, sugar beet and other species.

Fringed-winged order, or thrips Very small insects (0.5-5 mm) with an elongated body. Wings with atrophied venation, narrow, fringed along the edges with a fringe of long cilia. The oral apparatus is of a piercing-sucking type. Paws of legs with a small vesicular sucker. They suck out plant juices. In the forests, young plantings are harmed by larch thrips. flower plants, especially in greenhouses, harm tobacco, greenhouse thrips, agricultural crops: pea, wheat, clover and others.

B. Infraclass Neoptera Division 11. Insects with complete metamorphosis Insects have four phases of development: egg, larva, pupa and adult insect (adult). Larvae are non-imago-like, differ sharply from adults in body structure and lifestyle, and lack compound eyes. The wings develop under the skin of the larva and only from the pupal stage become external formations. Therefore, insects with complete transformation are also called endopterygoths, that is, with internal rudiments of wings. The department is subdivided into 3 superorders - coleopteroid, neuropteroid and mecopteroid.

Superorder Coleopteroidea Mouthparts typically gnawing. The hindwings perform a flying function, while the forewings are turned into opaque elytra or are reduced. The abdomen is devoid of the church and the primary ovipositor. Larvae are always without ventral legs, worm-like or campodeoid. Coleoptera order, or beetles This is the largest of the orders in terms of the number of species. Insects are diverse in size, structure and lifestyle. Among beetles there are predators, herbivores, consumers of animal and plant residues, terrestrial, soil and aquatic forms.

The rove family Beetles have strongly shortened elytra. Campode larvae are ovoid. Beetles and larvae live in decaying organic matter, under the bark, in moss, etc. Many species are predators, for example, the aleochr beetle.

Family Lamellar Beetles have lamellar antennae. Larvae are thick, C-shaped with 3 pairs of legs, live in the soil. Forest pests are beetles: May, June and others.

Family of click beetles The body is flat. The pronotum is elongated with pointed lateral angles. Larvae with a solid thin body, called wireworms, live in the soil. Many types of phytophages are dark, striped, sowing, wide.

Darkling family Most beetles have sclerotinized integument and black body color. Often the elytra grow together and then there are no wings. The larvae have a long pair of forelegs, a convex head and are called false wireworms. Beetles and larvae are phytophages: sandy lingerling, steppe lingering, broad-breasted lingering.

Family ladybugs, or coccinellid beetles with a strongly convex rounded body. Many species are brightly colored with spots on the elytra. Larvae are campodeoid, covered with hairy warts. Predatory species (beetles and larvae) exterminate aphids, psyllids, coccid, spider mites. Useful species: semi-spotted cow, two-spotted adalia, rhodolia.

Family barbel, or lumberjacks The body of beetles is elongated. The antennae in most species are longer than half the body and are thrown back on the dorsal side of the body. Larvae are thick, soft, pectoral legs are absent and live under the bark, in wood, sometimes in plant stems. They do a lot of harm by making moves in the trunks and branches of trees. Black pine barbel, large oak barbel.

Ground beetle family Beetles with running legs, usually black in color, sometimes with a metallic coloration. Larvae are campodeoid. Most species lead a predatory lifestyle, exterminating caterpillars, larvae, eggs, pupae of other insects. Forest horse, beautiful fragrant, beautiful bronze, Shcheglov's beetle, flat beetle, convex, common platysma, etc.

The leaf beetle family Most have a short body, metallic-colored, the antennae are often shorter than half the body. Larvae are terete, with developed pectoral legs. Beetles and larvae feed on leaves, buds, annual shoots. Strongly harm in nurseries and young growth. Leaf beetles: poplar, viburnum, alder, birch bark, oak flea beetle.

Family weevils The head of beetles in the anterior part is elongated and forms a rostrum. Antennae geniculate and geniculate club-shaped. The larva is worm-like, legless, C-shaped and curved. Acorn weevil, gray and blue pine weevils, large pine elephant, dotted resin.

Family Tubkoverty Beetles are similar to weevils. They differ in non-articulated antennae, the body is shiny, naked, the elytra are almost quadrangular. The larvae are alive in the leaves of tree species rolled into a tube, including fruit trees. Black birch tube-vert, walnut tube-vert, cherry elephant, goose.

Bark beetle family Body of beetles is cylindrical, antennae with a short bulb, rostrum short, pronotum large, often longer than a third of the body. The larvae are legless, curved, and live in passages under the bark of trees. Large pine bast beetle, typographer, apex bark beetle, engraver, birch sapwood, ash sap beetle, pygmy sapwood.

Family of borers The body of beetles is flat, elongated, narrowed towards the end, metallic-shiny. The head is small, the antennae are serrated, and the legs are short. Larvae are solo elongated, legless, yellowish-white. Some of them live under the bark, feeding on bast and sapwood, others on wood. Blue pine, green narrow-bodied, bronze oak, etc.

Superorder Neuropteroid Mouth organs typically gnawing. Wings are mesh. The prothorax is well developed. The larvae are campodeoid, the pupa is free, without a cocoon. The larvae lead a predatory lifestyle, exterminate aphids, coccids, ticks and other insects.

Detachment Retinoptera Family Golden-eye Insects with a delicate body, filiform antennae and both pairs of reticulate wings equally developed. The body is painted in a greenish color, the eyes with a shimmering gold color. Eggs are laid on leaves on a stalk. The larvae are elongated, fusiform, feed on aphids, destroying up to 400 pcs. The golden eye is transparent.

Camel squad Insects of medium size with a large prognathic posteriorly narrowed head. The prothorax is very mobile, strongly elongated. Legs are thin. The wings are membranous. The abdomen is elongated, in the female with a clear ovipositor. Larvae are terrestrial with gnawing mouthparts. Imago live on trees, feeding on aphids, etc. The larvae exterminate bark beetles under the bark.

Superorder Mekopteroid Insects with mouthparts of a sucking or modified gnawing type, less often gnawing. The wings are reticulate or membranous, most with a reduced or reduced back pair. The prothorax is poorly developed. Larvae are worm-like or caterpillar-like. , often with labial silk secreting glands. The pupa is covered, in puparia or in a cocoon.

Lepidoptera order, or butterflies Diverse in size insects with two pairs of membranous wings, densely covered with scales, giving them a beautiful color. The mouth apparatus in the form of a spirally twisted proboscis is adapted for sucking nectar. Antennae are varied. Caterpillars have a head and a gnawing mouth organ, three pairs of thoracic and two to five pairs of abdominal legs, and are equipped with silk-secreting glands. Most caterpillars are herbivorous and harm crops and forests. The pupae are usually covered.

Ermine moth family Wingspan not more than 25 mm. The wings are narrow with a long fringe on the back of the wings. Caterpillars live secretly, eat leaves, braiding them with cobwebs. Bird cherry, apple, cabbage, potato moths.

Glass family Butterflies have transparent wings with scales only along the edges, as a result of which butterflies are similar to bees or wasps. Caterpillars live under the bark or in the wood, make moves and severely damage the wood. Harmful species: dark-winged, large poplar, spotted, currant glass.

Leaflet family, Butterflies with a wingspan of no more than 25 mm. The front wings of butterflies are elongated triangular, the rear ones are elongated oval without fringe. Caterpillars 10-20 mm long, very mobile. Pupae in web cocoons. Harmful species: cone, oak green, hawthorn, gray larch, shoots: wintering, summer, bud resinous.

The wood-borer family Butterflies have a wingspan of 23-110 mm, the hind wings are much shorter than the front ones. Caterpillars live in the trunks and branches of trees and greatly harm tree species. Corrosive woodworm, odorous woodworm, aspen woodworm.

Butterflies with a thin body and relatively long legs, the front wings are obliquely triangular, the hind wings are oval, at rest they usually fold into a flat triangle. Butterflies fly towards the light, hence the name of the family. Forestry is harmed by the following moths: cone, acacia

The whitefly family These are diurnal butterflies of white, yellow, orange color with club-shaped antennae. Caterpillars are covered with dense short hairs. The pupae are attached to the substrate with a silk belt. Harm: hawthorn, cabbage and turnip whites.

Family of cocoon weavers Butterflies with densely hairy body. The antennae of males are feathery, those of females are comb-shaped. The proboscis is underdeveloped and the butterflies do not feed. Caterpillars are large, up to 120 mm, covered with hairs of various lengths. Strongly harm tree and fruit species. Pine, Siberian, ringed silkworms.

Moth family Butterfly wings are wide, triangular in front, rounded in the back. The females of some species are wingless or with barely noticeable wings. Caterpillars are 10-legged and bend the body in an arc when moving, most species feed on foliage or needles. Dangerous types of moths: winter, pine, gooseberry, fir, poplar, brown striped, etc.

Butterfly family Butterflies with a thick hairy body and wide wings; the anterior ones are usually brownish-gray with dark jagged stripes along the outer edge, the posterior ones are lighter. Sometimes, females have wings that are absent or underdeveloped. The proboscis is underdeveloped. Caterpillars with warts. Pupae are brown. The oviposition is covered with hairs. Goldtail, unpaired scooper, nun, red-tail, willow, antique, larch volnyanka.

Scoop family Butterflies of various sizes with a thick body. Ho-botok is developed. On the front wings there are three transverse stripes, a sinuous under-marginal line and three spots: rounded, wedge-shaped, kidney-shaped. Caterpillars are naked, 16-legged. Pupae are yellowish brown or black with a developed proboscis. Pine, cabbage, winter-may, exclamation scoops and others.

The Butterfly hawk family is distinguished by a spindle-shaped antennae, a long proboscis, a strong body with a conically pointed belly at the back and long wings, the posterior pair of which is shorter than the anterior ones. The flight is fast, they fly in the evening. Slight harm can be caused by such types of hawks: pine, lilac, dead head.

A family of true sawflies. Mouth organs are gnawing. The abdomen is sessile, in females with a sawtooth ovipositor. Eggs are laid in leaves, needles, sometimes in shoots, buds. The larvae of the false senitsa. Many live in nests. Doll in a cocoon. Dangerous pests: common and red pine sawfly, star and red-headed weaver sawfly, gooseberry and currant.

Horntail family Insects with a long cylindrical body. Females sometimes have a long egg-hoard, with the help of which they drill through the bark and lay eggs in 1-3 pieces. The larvae make passages in the wood, tightly clogged with drill flour. Large coniferous, blue, purple, black horntails, alder and oak xifidria.

Family of real nutcrackers Small insects. They damage plants, forming galls, inside which all development takes place. Galls are formed on leaves, buds, shoots and roots. The largest number of gall wasps are found on oak and rosaceae. Harmful types of walnut-rock: grape-shaped, cone-shaped, apple-shaped, ordinary oak-way.

The suborder Long-whiskered Flies are distinguished by multi-segmented antennae, which are usually not shorter than the head with the chest. The legs are long and thin. Larvae with a small head, worm-like. The pupa is free, but usually without a cocoon. Many species live in damp places. Some species are serious plant pests. In nurseries, root systems of seedlings are damaged, and turf on lawns is caused by larvae of weevils; young tree and shrub species are harmed by gall midges: willow stem, larch-corolla bud, red pine, etc.

The suborder short-whiskered Flies are very diverse in their structure. The antennae are short, 3-segmented. Larvae without a head or with a rudimentary retractable head. Doll-ka in a false cocoon or without it. Pests of trees and shrubs are: spruce cone and larch flies, mining flies, onion hoverfly. Exterminators of harmful insects: ktyrs, aphids (tahini).

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education

"Bryansk State Engineering and Technology Academy"

Approved by scientific and methodological

Council of BGITA

Protocol #8

Forest entomology

Guidelines for laboratory classes and independent work of students studying in the direction

bachelor training

250100 – Forestry

SYSTEMATICS OF INSECTS

Bryansk 2012

Forest entomology. Guidelines for laboratory studies and independent work of students studying in the direction of bachelor's degree 250100 - Forestry. Systematics of insects. / Bryansk: BGITA, 2012. - 28 p.

Compiled by: Shelukho V.P.. – Doctor of Agricultural Sciences, Professor

Reviewer: Andryushin G.S. - Candidate of Agricultural Sciences Sci., Associate Professor, Department of Gardening and Landscape Construction, BGITA

Based on the experience of teaching the discipline, the basic classification of insects, indications and brief key tables of the most significant orders, families, genera and species of insects in forestry are given. Guidelines are given for conducting laboratory classes and independent work of students in forest entomology by determining the most common, harmful and beneficial forest insects by morphological features.

For the teaching staff of the Department of Forest Protection and Game Science of BGITA, for students of the Faculty of Forestry.

Doing

Effective forest management, cultivation of productive sustainable forest plantations is not possible without knowledge of the techniques and methods for managing the number of pathogenic entomobiota. Knowledge of the most common and harmful insects at each age stage of forest cultivation is necessary to improve the effectiveness of preventive and extermination measures in forests. To organize a complex of forest protection measures, a forestry specialist must have the knowledge and skills to identify the encountered species of forest insects. Only the correct definition of the species makes it possible to predict the type of its dynamics, harmfulness and economic importance.

These methodological recommendations, being recommendations for conducting laboratory classes, are at the same time a methodological guide for independent work of students, a brief guide to the most significant insects in forestry according to their various phases of development.

When performing a laboratory workshop, extensive biological and systematic collections of insects of the department, modern optical instruments and methodological literature are widely used.

1 Fundamentals of classification of insects

Insects are the largest group of animal organisms on the planet, according to various estimates, ranging from 1 million species to 7 million.

Systematics is a means of mastering the gigantic variety of life forms. Its task is to establish the degree of relationship and to combine groups of organisms into subordinate systematic categories. Due to the huge species diversity, insect taxonomy is complex and uses a system of systematic categories (taxa), both basic and additional.

The basic taxonomic unit is the species. View – a separate system of similar individuals that own a certain area and, when crossed, give fertile offspring, similar in phenotype and genotype to their parents.

Taxa of taxonomy of insects: Class - subclass - infraclass - department - superorder - order - suborder - superfamily - family - tribe - genus - subgenus - species - subspecies - ecotype - morph.

A species does not lose its essence until its adaptive variability goes beyond certain quantitative limits, otherwise it becomes a different quality, a different species.

As early as the 17th century, attempts were made to classify the diversity of insects primarily according to structural features, types of mouthparts, features of metamorphosis, venation, and folding of wings at rest. To date, based on the entire scientific arsenal using morphology, anatomy, histology, cell structure, chromosomal and gene analysis, family ties of many insects have been identified, which makes it possible to combine them into related groups.

The taxonomy of insects reflects the basic principles of evolution:

1. The principle of aromorphosis (revolutionary transformation) is the appearance of wings. The class insects is divided into 2 subclasses: primary wingless and winged (higher).

2. Specialization and reduction of the oral apparatus- the most ancient insects had mouthparts inside the head capsule, then in evolution mouthparts developed, attached to the outside of the head capsule. The class is divided into 2 infraclasses: entognathous (3 orders) and ectognathous (1 order of lower and all higher insects).

3. The principle of oligomerization is the acquisition in connection with new functions of new features of the structure.

4. The principle of dipterization gradual evolutionary transition to functional and morphological Diptera . The appearance of the detachment Diptera.

5. Complicating the development of insects as an adaptation to the environment and food.

The subclass of higher insects is divided into 2 divisions: with incomplete metamorphosis (19 orders) and with complete metamorphosis (11 orders).

6. The principle of complication of the structure (a special case of the principle of oligomerization) appeared in the structure and venation of the wings (some distinguish the infraclass of ancient-winged and new-winged by venation - if possible, lay the wings at rest on the back). According to the type of venation in the taxonomy of insects, superorders are distinguished. There are 4 of them in the department with incomplete metamorphosis, and 3 with complete metamorphosis.

To date, the most common classification, which includes 34 orders of insects, is more often used.

Taxonomy of the class of insects

Subclass lower, or primary wingless - Apterygota

BUT . Infraclass entognathous - Entognatha

Detachment of protura, or bessyazhkovye - Protura

Podura detachment, or springtails - Podura

Detachment diplura, or two-tailed - Diplura

B. Infraclass tizanuraceae - Thysanurata

Detachment of tizanura, or bristletail - Thysanura

Subclass higher, or winged - Pterygota

Department with incomplete transformation -Hemimetabola

Superorder ephemeroid - Ephemeroidea

Mayfly Squad - Ephemeroptera

Superorder Odonatoid - Odonatoidea

Dragonfly Squad - Odonatoptera

Superorder orthopteroid - Orthopteroidea

Squad of cockroaches - Blattoptera

Praying Mantis Squad - Manteoptera

Squad of termites Isoptera

Squad of stoneflies - Plecoptera

Embi Squad - Embioptera

Grilloblattids detachment - Grylloblattida

Squad of stick insects - Phasmatoptera

Orthoptera squad - Orthoptera

Detachment hemimerides - Hemimerida

Detachment leather-winged - Dermaptera

Zoraptery Squad - Zoraptera

Superorder Hemipteroides - Hemipteroidea

Senoyed squad - Psocoptera

Squad of lice - Mallophaga

Squad of lice - Anoplura

Detachment Homoptera - Homoptera

Detachment of bedbugs - Hemiptera

Thrips detachment - Thysanoptera

Department with full transformation -Holometabola

Superorder coleopteroids - Coleopteroidea

Squad of beetles - Coleoptera

Fanwing squad - Strepsiptera

Superorder neuropteroid - Neuropteroidea

Detachment of lacewings - Neuroptera

Camel Squad - Raphidioptera

Large-winged detachment - Megaloptera

Superorder mekopteroidnye - Mecopteroidea

Squad of scorpion flies - mecoptera

Squad of caddisflies - Trichoptera

Butterfly Squad - Lepidoptera

Order Hymenoptera - Hymenoptera

Flea Squad - Aphaniptera

Detachment Diptera - Diptera

At present, probably about 1.5 ... 2 million different species of insects live on the globe. In order to understand this huge variety of forms, it is necessary to systematize them, that is, to establish kinship relationships between different species, to combine them according to the degree of kinship into subordinate systematic categories, or taxa, and to arrange these categories in a certain ordered system. These tasks are performed by one of the branches of biology called systematics. The task of systematics is not only the definition (diagnosis) and an accurate description of the species, but also the classification, i.e. the creation and correct location of various taxa in a single natural system of the animal world. Thus, classification is a synthetic stage of taxonomy.

The concept of the form

The main taxonomic unit in taxonomy is a species, which, according to G. Ya. Bei-Bienko (1971), is an integral system of similar individuals occupying a certain geographical area and, when crossed, give fertile offspring that retains similarity with their parents. Related species are grouped into genera, genera into families, families into orders, and orders into classes. As applied to insects, the enumerated number of taxa is insufficient. To more fully reflect the specifics of kinship relations between individual groups of insects, a number of additional systematic units are used. In general, the following series of taxa are used in the classification of insects: class, subclass, infraclass, division, superorder, order, suborder, superfamily, family, subfamily, tribe, genus, subgenus, species, subspecies.

To designate all taxa, international, Latin nomenclature is used, and for the species it is binary, i.e., it consists of two words - the generic and specific names: for example, Pieris brassicae L. - cabbage white (letter L. abbreviated the name of K. Linnaeus - the scientist who first described this species); Pieris rapae L. - turnip whitefish; Pieris napi L. - blueberry whitefish, etc. The genus of whitefish (Pieris), together with other genera (Colias, Aporia, Euchloe, etc.), is united in the family. whites - Pieridae. In this case, the Latin name of the family is always formed from the root of the name of the type genus (in this case, Pier) and the ending - idae (the plural ending, meaning "similar"). Uniform endings have also been introduced for other taxa. For example, the names of orders of primary wingless insects end in ura (oura - in Greek tail), orders of winged insects - in ptera (ptero, pterus - wing), superorders and superfamilies - in oldea, subfamilies - in inae, etc.

The view is not indivisible. One of the properties of a species is its existence as a system of intraspecific forms. The main intraspecific forms include subspecies, ecotype and population.

Subspecies, sometimes also called a geographical race, represents a change in species associated with a mismatch in the conditions of existence in different parts of its distribution area (range). Subspecies are distinguished by stable, but often indistinct morphological characters, and sometimes by differences in the annual cycle and ecological responses. Trinary nomenclature is used to designate subspecies; for example, the migratory locust (Locusta migratoria L.) has a number of subspecies: the main subspecies is L. migratoria migratoria L., the Central Russian locust is L. migratoria rossica Uv. et Zol., eastern migratory locust - L. migratoria manilensis Mey. and etc.

Ecotype- an ecological race that arises when a species settles in new habitats that differ markedly in environmental conditions. Ecotypes, as a rule, are not morphologically isolated and differ only in ecological and physiological reactions (they have different threshold points of the photoperiodic reaction, change food specialization, etc.). For example, the mallow moth, whose caterpillars in the republics of Central Asia feed on wild mallows and are of no economic importance, when moving to Transcaucasia, switched to cotton, formed a special cotton form and became one of the serious pests of this crop.

population is a group of closely related individuals of the same species, forming separate settlements, and is the basic unit of existence of a species in nature.

Species are unequal among themselves in their structure. Thriving, widespread species that have a complex set of intraspecific forms - subspecies, ecotypes, populations, are called polytypic, while species with a limited range, represented by only a few, and sometimes only one population, are called monotypic. An example of a polytypic species is the aforementioned migratory locust, a monotypic species is the wingless grasshopper steppe stalk (Sago pedo Pall.).

2. Insect classification

1. A section of biology that develops a theory of classification and recognition of animal and plant organisms.

2. The most important task of systematics is to establish related relationships between various organisms and combine them according to the degree of kinship into subordinate systematic categories, or taxa, on this basis, a classification of each specific group of organisms is developed.

Class(classis)

Subclass (subclassis)

Infraclass (infraclassis)

Division

Superorder (superordo)

Detachment(ordo)

Suborder (subordo)

Superfamily (superfamilia)

family

Subfamily (subfamilia)

Tribe (triba)

Genus(genus)

Subgenus (subgenus)

View(species)

Subspecies

Insect classification

Subclass lower, or primary wingless - Aprerygota

A. Infraclass entognathous - Entognatha

1) Detachment of protura, or bessyashnye - Protura

2) Podura detachment, or springtails - Podura

3) Detachment diplura, or two-tailed - Diplura

B. Infraclass tizanur - Thysanurata

4) Detachment of tizanura, or bristletail - Thyzanura

Subclass higher, or winged - Pterugota

Department with incomplete transformation - Hemimetabola

Superorder ephemeroid - Ephemeroidea

5) Mayfly squad - Ephemeroptera

Superorder Odonatoid - Odonatoidea

6) Dragonfly detachment - Odonatoptera

Superorder orthopteroids - Orthopteroidea

7) Squad of cockroaches - Blattoptera

8) Mantis squad - Manteoptera

9) Order termites - Isoptera

10) Stonefly Squad - Plecoptera

11) Embiy Squad - Embioptera

12) Grilloblattida detachment - Grylloblattida

13) Squad of stick insects - Phasmatiptera

14) Order Orthoptera - Orthoptera

15) Detachment Hemimerida - Hemimerida

16) Order leather-winged - Dermaptera

17) Zoraptera detachment - Zoraptera

Superorder hemipteroids - Hemipteroidea

18) Squad of hay eaters - Psocoprtera

19) Squad of lice - Mallophaga

20) Louse Squad - Anoplura

21) Order Homoptera - Homoptera

22) Detachment of bedbugs - Hemiptera

23) Order of thrips - Thysanoptera

Superorder coleopteroids - Holometabola

24) Order of beetles - Coleoptera

25) Windwing order - Strepsiptera

26) Detachment Neuroptera - Neuroptera

27) Camel Squad - Raphidioptera

28) Large-winged order - Megaloptera

Superorder mekopteroidnye - Mecopteroidea

29) detachment of scorpion flies - Mecoptera

30) Order of caddisflies - Trichoptera

31) Butterfly Squad - Lepidoptera

32) Order Hymenoptera - Hymenoptera

33) Flea Squad - Aphaniptera

34) Order Diptera - Diptera