labor is what labor is: the definition is philosophy.nes. Labor activity

expedient human activity, in the course of which, with the help of tools, he influences nature and uses it in order to create objects necessary to satisfy his needs. T. represents the unity of three points: 1) purposeful, expedient human activity or labor itself; 2) items; 3) means of labor.

Great Definition

Incomplete definition ↓

WORK

expedient, conscious activity in the process of which a person, with the help of tools of technology, masters, changes, and adapts objects of nature to his goals. That is, as the exchange of substances between man and nature means that man uses the mechanical, physical, and chemical properties of objects and natural phenomena and forces them to mutually influence each other in order to achieve a predetermined goal. At the same time, labor activity is inherent, as Marx noted, mediating, regulating and controlling functions that change with the development of science and technology.

Using manual, handicraft techniques and empirical knowledge, a person established new relationships between objects of nature and its processes and thus carried out an exchange of substances with nature (mediating function). Machine technology and natural science knowledge have allowed man to influence the interaction between different natural phenomena and objects (regulatory function). And finally, the modern scientific and technological revolution gives him the opportunity to master, control the internal mechanism of phenomena and objects of nature (controlling function). In this case, the content of labor is revealed in the concrete definiteness of labor functions, determined by technique, technology, organization of production, and the skill of the worker. It reflects the method of connecting the producer with the means of production, determined by the level of development of the productive forces, the central link of which is man. Being a natural condition of life, t. has always been carried out within the framework of historically determined public relations that leave an imprint on his character.

The nature of capitalism reflects the way in which the producer is connected with the means of production, which is determined by the property relations that prevail in a given society. For example, in a slave-owning society, the slave and the means of production were united as the property of the slave owner, and this gave rise to the personal dependence of the worker on the one who appropriated the results of his production. In a society based on private ownership of the means of production, the worker can unite with them by selling his labor strength. Therefore, the nature of labor in such a society reflects the conditions for hiring labor. T.'s character reflects its socioeconomic nature in a society at a certain stage of development. From this point of view, such historical forms T., as a slave, feudal and various forms hired T.

The nature of T. determines the goals of social production in a wide range (from simple increase profit before the focus on the growth of the material and spiritual well-being of workers), and in the sphere of distribution - products in which social wealth is distributed among various strata in society. As for the amount of this wealth, it depends on the level of development of the productive forces.

The content and character of t. represent the unity of the two sides of the same phenomenon, the essence and form of social t. and are defined as paired categories. What they have in common is the way in which the producer is connected to the means of production; their difference lies in the fact that the content of technology develops depending on the level of development of the productive forces, and the nature of technology - on the state economic relations in society. For feudal society handicraft technique was characteristic, based on the use hand tool and empirical technology. The qualifications of an artisan directly depended on the complexity of the subject matter and, consequently, on the functions involved in processing it. Whoever wanted to be a master was forced to master the craft in its entirety. The peculiarities of the craftsman's technique also determined the specifics of his training, which actually excluded theoretical training and acquired the character of practical apprenticeship stretched over long years. The universality of labor functions entailed high craft qualifications. However, this qualification was combined with the low cultural level of the worker, due to the low level of knowledge about the world at that time, as well as the fact that general education for most artisans it was short-lived or non-existent. The success of the business in handicraft production depended primarily on the talent of the artisan, his personal qualities and abilities. Acquiring a high professional culture through many years of training, being a manufacturer and entrepreneur producing and selling his goods, the artisan acted as a subject, a creator of culture, but on that low cultural and technical basis, which led to an extremely slow organizational and technical development.

The transition to machine production caused the development of capitalist relations associated with the use of hired technology, profound qualitative changes took place in the content of the worker's technology, in which the most important regularity of technical progress is realized, namely, the transfer of mediating functions from man to machine. Machine production marks the beginning of the transformation of science into a direct productive force and the familiarization of the worker with the scientific and technological achievements necessary to control the machine. Empirical experience in technology continues to play a significant role, but the worker can no longer confine himself to it. He is required to have a certain level of general and special education, a certain amount of professional knowledge, and along with this, possession of rather complex skills of physical fitness.

IN modern conditions when much more profit is "squeezed out" from qualifications than from physical strength, it is advisable to form a universal workforce with high level education. The technical structure of domestic production in the current conditions is heterogeneous. In the technique, technology, and organization of t., coexist and intertwine: first, the remnants of the past—significant volumes of manual unskilled and heavy physical t.; secondly, the basis of today's production is the complex-mechanized tractor; thirdly, the general goal of scientific and technological progress is automated technology. This determines the variety of types of technology of the total worker in terms of its content and, at the same time, the preservation in modern production of those types of technology that have historically replaced each other. If technological progress is the basis for the change in types of technology, then the main reason for their coexistence is its unevenness, the intertwining in the technical basis of the production of technology of the past, present, and elements of technology of the future. Uneven development of engineering, technology and organization of production in different industries, in different industrial enterprises causes the preservation of the mass character of unskilled manual and heavy physical training, which does not contribute to social and professional development workers.

The social situation is such that at the present stage, domestic production still needs 70% of carriers, predominantly physical and 30%, predominantly mental. In the organization of workers employed by the indicated types of workers, T. appears in the current conditions as a social and cultural difference. The social nature of differences is manifested in the fact that physical and mental, qualified and unskilled T. dictate different requirements to the level of general and special education and professional training of employees, their professional culture and create various opportunities for the realization of professional and personal abilities in the course of work.

The basic laws governing the development of social technology are the laws of division and change of technology and the law of competition that enhances their interaction. The content of the law of division of trade is that social formations give rise to their own methods of division of trade, and each new formation adds new types of division of trade, inherent only to it, arising from the level of development of the productive forces and the nature of economic relations. Paving its way spontaneously and at the same time as an objective necessity, this law determines the dynamics of the division of technology into its various types (physical and mental, industrial and agricultural, skilled and unskilled, executive and managerial, etc.) and at the same time - the basis for the division of society on the social groups employed by the above types of manufacturing and the relationship between groups depending on their social status and prestige of manufacturing. The law of the division of manufacturing is connected with the law of change of manufacturing, which arose in the process of replacing manufacturing with machine production, when it became necessary to form a flexible, universal, multilaterally developed labor force. , capable of permanent learning and retraining in the course of change production processes. An immutable requirement of the law of change of T. is the accelerating mobility of labor functions. The objective law that influences the interaction of the laws of division and change of capital through the relations of the subjects of ownership is the law of competition, which compels capital, in Marx's words, to strain the productive forces of capital because it strained them before. All social production becomes the arena of the law of competition in the process of its permanent revolutionization.

Great Definition

Incomplete definition ↓

And it explains what it is used for and what types it happens.

Fire

Fire has been a relentless companion of man for many millennia. In ancient times, it gave people the opportunity to keep warm cold winter, protect themselves from wild animals, prepare soft food that old people and children could eat, give a distress signal and, in the end, light up the room.

It is difficult to say exactly when our ancestors first began to use fire and produce it on their own, and how many situations there were when this knowledge and skill was lost. If we talk about the method that then existed for many centuries, then probably its origin is as follows: when processing stone tools, someone noticed sparks flying off the workpiece and decided to try to make a fire with their help, and not by rubbing wood against wood, which is extremely long and laborious process.

Later, this method was changed, and instead of one of the stones, people began to use a strip of iron with notches, and the ignition material was replaced by a special pre-prepared tinder. That is how the flame was born. But what is it like and how is it made? We will talk about this.

Definition

Tinder is a material that is used to make fire with a flint and flint. As a rule, it ignites very easily or begins to smolder even from minor sparks. Rags, fluffy cotton wool, dried fir cones, paper rubbed with wax or impregnated with vapors of combustible substances, and much more can act as tinder. But if we disassemble the meaning of the word "tinder", then its name comes from the tinder fungus, which grows in almost the entire territory of Russia and part of Europe and has been used since ancient times as a material for making fire. Over time, the word "tinder" has become a household word and is used to refer to any substances that are used in conjunction with a steel.

Now consider the process of making tinder from a fungus and some other materials.

Manufacturing

Burnt cotton fabric was the second most popular material for making tinder. To give the desired properties, it was “baked” in the fire, placed in a fire-resistant container, for example, in a clay bowl or tin can. After that, such tinder ignited very easily from even imperceptible sparks. So now we know what tinder is.

But still, initially and historically, tinder was made from a tinder fungus. To do this, it is necessary to cut its spongy, porous part into thin slices. Then they were mixed with wood ash, filled with water and boiled over low heat for several hours. After boiling, the broth itself was drained, and the resulting substance was kneaded, beaten to a pancake-like state and dried. After all these procedures, such tinder could be easily set on fire with the help of sparks, and then fan the smoldering flame and set fire to any other material. Now we know exactly what the word "tinder" means.

Flint

As already mentioned, the role of tinder could be various materials natural origin, but since the extraction of fire with the help of a flint and steel required skill, our ancestors preferred to prepare tinder in advance and from materials that ignited most simply and easily. After all, sometimes it was necessary to make a fire under strong wind or in wet weather. We figured out what tinder is, now let's look at the details of the steel itself.

• Kresalo. Usually it is a strip of durable metal, the surface of which is covered with small notches in the manner of a file. This was done to facilitate the process of extraction of sparks. When it hits the surface of the “flint”, the smallest particles break off from the latter, which ignite in air and have a temperature of about 900-1000 degrees Celsius. And, falling on the tinder, these particles cause it to ignite or smolder.
• Flint. Since ancient times, a piece of iron sulfide - pyrite has been used as this item. It was selected taking into account the convenience of holding, the absence of cracks (pyrite is very fragile) and the absence of large pores, since because of them it will constantly get wet. It is not known exactly when exactly our ancestors began to use iron sulfide. According to one version, miners early medieval noticed that as a result of hitting this mineral with a pickle, a significant amount of bright and hot sparks was formed, and this property of pyrite was then used in the mechanism for making fire.
• Tinder. What is it, we have already sorted it out. But in the absence of a pre-prepared special combustible material, dry grass, wool, cotton wool, moss, bird fluff and anything that could ignite from sparks could be used as such.

Tinder. Check word

If we talk about etymology, then in this case the test word is "tinder fungus" or "tinder fungus" - the type of mushrooms from which this mushroom was historically made. combustible material for the flint.

Modern flint and flint

Despite the fact that in our time, the production of fire has long ceased to be a problem, hunters, tourists, fishermen and residents of especially remote taiga villages still continue to use the steel. But the armchair and "flint" of a modern fire starter are made of special metal alloys, which give whole sheaves of hot sparks, and even large birch bark can be set on fire with them without difficulty.

Work- this is an activity aimed at human development and the transformation of natural resources into material, intellectual and spiritual benefits. Such activities can be carried out either by coercion, or by internal motivation, or both.

Sociological functions of labor:

Socio-economic function consists in the impact of subjects of labor (workers) on objects and elements natural environment(resources) in order to transform them into objects to satisfy the needs of members of society, that is, into wealth and services.

productive function is to satisfy people's need for creativity and self-expression. Thanks to this function of labor, new objects and technologies are created.

social structuring function labor is to differentiate and integrate the efforts of people involved in the labor process. On the one hand, assigning various functions to different categories of participants in the labor process leads to differentiation and the creation of specialized types of labor. On the other hand, the exchange of the results of labor activity leads to the establishment of certain links between different categories of participants in the labor process. Thus, this function of labor contributes to the creation of socio-economic ties between different groups of people.

social control function labor is due to the fact that labor organizes complex system social relations regulated through values, norms of behavior, standards, sanctions, etc., which are a system social control labor relations. It includes labor law, economic and technical standards, charters of organizations, job descriptions, informal norms, a certain organizational culture.

socializing function labor is connected with the fact that labor activity expands and enriches the composition social roles, patterns of behavior, norms and values ​​of employees, which allows people to feel full participants public life. This function gives people the opportunity to acquire a certain status, to feel social belonging and identity.

Social development function labor is manifested in the impact of the content of labor on workers, teams and society as a whole. This is due to the fact that as the means of labor develop and improve, the content of labor becomes more complex and updated. This process due to the creative nature of man. Thus, there is an increase in the requirements for the level of knowledge and qualifications of employees in almost all sectors of the modern economy. The function of employee training is one of the priority functions of personnel management in a modern organization.

Social stratification function labor is a derivative of the socio-structuring and is due to the fact that the results of various types of labor differently rewarded and valued by society. Accordingly, some types of labor activity are recognized as more, while others are less important and prestigious. Thus, labor activity contributes to the formation and maintenance of the dominant system of values ​​in society and performs the function of ranking participants in labor activity according to ranks - the steps of the stratification pyramid and the ladder of prestige.

Based on the foregoing, we can conclude that labor activity determines a number of interrelated social and economic phenomena and processes in modern society. The study allows you to identify the most effective ways to manage the organization.

The main categories of labor science

• complexity of work;
• professional suitability of the employee;
• the degree of autonomy of the worker.

The first sign of the content of labor is complexity. It is clear that the work of a scientist is more difficult than the work of a turner, and the work of a store manager is the work of a cashier. But in order to justify the measure of payment for various types of labor, their comparison is required. To balance complex and simple labor use the concept of "reduction of labor". Labor reduction- this is the process of reducing complex labor to simple labor in order to determine the measure of remuneration for labor of varying complexity. With the development of society, the proportion of complex labor increases, which is explained by the increase in the level of technical equipment of enterprises and the requirements for the education of employees.

Differences between complex work and simple work:

• performance by the employee of such mental labor functions as planning, analysis, control and coordination of actions;
• concentration of active thinking and purposeful concentration of the worker;
• consistency in making decisions and actions;
• accuracy and adequate response of the worker's body to external stimuli;
• fast, dexterous and diverse labor movements;
• responsibility for performance.

The second sign of the content of labor is professional suitability. Its influence on the results of labor is due to the abilities of a person, the formation and development of his genetic inclinations, a successful choice of profession, conditions for the development and selection of personnel. An essential role in professional selection is played by special methods for determining professional suitability.

The third sign of the content of labor is degree of employee independence- depends both on external restrictions associated with the form of ownership, and internal, dictated by the scale and level of complexity of the work. Reducing restrictions on decision making while increasing the measure of responsibility means greater freedom of action, creativity and the possibility of an informal approach to solving problems. The independence of an employee is a criterion for the level of self-awareness of a developed personality, its measure of responsibility for the results of work.

The nature of labor as a category of labor science represents the relationship between the participants in the labor process, which affect both the employee's attitude to work and labor productivity. From the point of view of the nature of labor, on the one hand, the work of an entrepreneur is distinguished, and, on the other hand, wage labor, collective or individual. Entrepreneur's labor is characterized by a high degree of independence in decision-making and its implementation, as well as a high degree of responsibility for the results. hired labor- this is the work of an employee called upon, under the terms of an agreement, to perform official duties in relation to the employer.

Modern labor science

modern science on labor includes a number of basic disciplines:

1. traditionally includes problems of labor productivity and efficiency, labor resources, labor market and employment, income and wages, headcount planning, problems of labor rationing.
2. Personnel economics examines the behavior of employees when they perform official duties. The discipline studies the influence of various factors on labor productivity.
3. Occupational medicine- examines work-related factors that may cause injury, illness or other harm to the health of the worker.
4. Physiology of labor explores functions human body in the labor process: the physiology of the motor apparatus, the development and training of labor skills, performance and its regulation, sanitary and hygienic working conditions, the severity of labor.
5. Labor psychology explores the requirements for the human psyche associated with his attitude to work.
6. Personnel Management studies the problems of headcount planning, selection, training and certification of personnel, labor motivation, management styles, relationships in labor collectives, management procedures.
7. Sociology of labor studies the impact of workers on society and vice versa - society on the worker.
8. Labor Pedagogy how science considers the issues of employee training.
9. Ergonomics studies the organization of the process of adapting the means of labor to the characteristics, possibilities and limits of the human body.
10. labor management studies the basics of designing the labor processes of workplaces. Issues such as identifying the need for personnel, recruiting and selecting personnel, engaging employees, releasing them, developing, controlling personnel, i.e. management, coordination and communication structuring of work, remuneration policy, participation in success, personnel cost management and employee management.
11. Safety explores a set of problems related to ensuring safe labor activity.
12. labor law analyzes the complex legal aspects labor and management. This is especially important in hiring and firing, developing systems of rewards and punishments, solving property problems, and managing social conflicts.

Fundamentals of modern labor economics

labor economics- studies economic patterns in the field of labor relations, including specific forms of manifestation of the essence of labor, such as organization, payment, efficiency and employment.

object study labor economics labor is a purposeful human activity aimed at creating material wealth and providing services.

The subject of labor economics- socio-economic relations that develop in the labor process under the influence of various factors - technical, organizational, personnel and other.

aim labor economics are studies in the field of human resource management.

home a task labor economics - the study of the essence and mechanisms of economic processes in the sphere of labor in the context of human life and society.

Ways to improve the efficiency of labor activity

One of the most important elements of increasing the efficiency of human labor activity is the improvement of skills and abilities as a result of labor training. From a psychophysical point of view, industrial training is a process of adaptation and a corresponding change in the physiological functions of the human body for the most effective performance of a particular job. As a result of training, muscle strength and endurance increase, the accuracy and speed of working movements increase, and physiological functions recover faster after work is completed.

Rational organization of the workplace

Rational organization (ensuring a comfortable posture and freedom of labor movements, the use of equipment that meets the requirements of ergonomics and engineering psychology) provides the most effective, reduces fatigue and prevents the danger of occupational diseases. Besides, workplace must meet the following requirements: sufficient working space; sufficient physical, auditory and visual connections between man and machine; optimal placement of the workplace in space; allowable level actions of harmful production factors; availability of means of protection against hazardous production factors.

Comfortable working posture

A comfortable working posture of a person in the process of labor activity ensures high working capacity and labor productivity. A comfortable working posture should be considered one in which the worker does not need to lean forward more than 10-15 degrees; tilting back and to the sides is undesirable; The main requirement for a working posture is a straight posture.

The formation of a working posture in the “sitting” position is affected by the height of the working surface, which is determined by the distance from the floor to the horizontal surface on which the labor process is performed. The height of the working surface is set depending on the nature, severity and accuracy of the work. A comfortable working posture when working “sitting” is also provided by the design of the chair (size, shape, area and inclination of the seat, height adjustment).

High working capacity and vital activity of the body are supported by a rational alternation of periods of work and rest.

Rational mode of work and rest

Rational mode of work and rest- this is such a ratio and content of periods of work and rest, in which high labor productivity is combined with high and stable human performance without signs of excessive fatigue for a long time. Such an alternation of periods of work and rest is observed at different periods of time: during a work shift, day, week, year in accordance with the operating mode of the enterprise.

The duration of rest during the shift (regulated breaks) depends mainly on the severity of the work and the conditions for its implementation. When determining the duration of rest during working hours, the following must be taken into account: factors of production that cause fatigue: physical effort, nervous tension, pace of work, working position, monotony of work, microclimate, air pollution, aeroionic composition of air, industrial noise, vibration, lighting. Depending on the strength of the influence of each of these factors on the human body, the time for rest is set.

The intra-shift regime of work and rest should include a lunch break and short breaks for rest, which should be regulated, since it is more effective than breaks that occur irregularly, at the discretion of the employee.

Short rest breaks are designed to reduce the fatigue that develops in the process of work.. The number and duration of short-term breaks are determined based on the nature of the labor process, the degree of intensity and severity of labor. The points of decrease in working capacity serve as a guideline for establishing the beginning of breaks for rest. To prevent its decline, a break for rest is appointed before the onset of fatigue of the body. In the second half of the working day, due to deeper fatigue, the number of rest breaks should be greater than in the first half of the shift. Physiologists have found that for most types of work, the optimal duration of a break is 5-10 minutes.. It is this break that allows you to restore physiological functions, reduce fatigue and maintain a working setting. With deep fatigue, it is necessary to go both along the line of increasing the number of breaks and increasing their duration. But short-term breaks lasting more than 20 minutes disrupt the already established state of working out.

Rest can be active or passive.. Active rest is recommended at work taking place in adverse working conditions. The most effective form of active recreation is industrial gymnastics. Active rest accelerates the recovery of forces, since when changing activities, the energy expended by the working body is restored faster. As a result of industrial gymnastics, the vital capacity of the lungs increases, activity improves. of cardio-vascular system increase muscle strength and endurance.

Work

expedient material social instrumental activity aimed at meeting the needs of the individual and society. In the process of transformation, man mediates, regulates, and controls the exchange between himself and nature. By changing the natural conditions of his life in the process of transformation, man also changes his own nature and develops his creative powers and abilities. T. is both a way of alienating man from nature and a form of connection between human society and nature. In historical materialism, technology is regarded as a kind of substance of history, as a fundamental way human life, as a “cell” of the whole variety of forms of a person’s relationship to the world. In the process of purposeful labor activity, a person (the subject of T.), with the help of the T. tools created by him, transforms the object of T. into the Product he needs. The product of technology is determined by the specifics of the object (material), the level of development of tools, and the purpose and method of its implementation. In the end, the T. product exists ideally in the human head before it is created. Although the goal organizes the process of t., subordinating the will of the acting subject, the main criterion for the development of t. is the tools of t. relations between people - relations of production. Since tourism is a social, collective activity, there is a need for means of organizing it. Articulate speech, language, became such an organizing and controlling means. Further development society largely depends on the improvement of the tools of technology and production relations. These characteristics of T. significantly distinguish the character human activity from the instinctive behavior of animals, which allowed Marx and Engels to consider t. as a kind of "creator" of human history, to create a "labor hypothesis" of the origin of man and society (anthropo-sociogenesis). The problem of the emergence of a person who thinks, speaks, is capable of working together with his own kind, was considered by Engels in the works "Dialectics of Nature", "The Role of Labor in the Process of Turning Apes into Humans". Engels suggested the existence of a complex pendulum movement from biological to qualitatively new, social patterns and back in the process of anthropogenesis. Due to change natural conditions life future man began to use natural objects (stones, sticks) more often in their objective activity; he was forced to straighten up for better orientation in the changing terrain; seek protection from the cold in climate change. These natural prerequisites stimulated the development of the simplest labor skills, which, in turn, led to a change in the structure of the hand. Freed from participation in movement, the hand became an organ and at the same time a product of T. The hand, as a biological organ, lost its natural specialization, which created conditions for improving its non-specialized skills, for expanding the range of objects through which it is possible to influence nature. All this leads to the fact that a person was able to act "according to the measure of any kind" (Marx). The development of society and man is now directly connected with the improvement of tools of technology. The production of tools of technology is a collective process, which is its most important defining feature. Animals can use natural objects in their own actions, but they never make T. tools using T. tools. Even the most primitive T. tools fixed and transmitted to other individuals instinctively unfixed "schemes of activity." The ideal, historically developed, generalized methods of labor activity are fixed in the implements of t., their form and functions. T. tools force a person to act according to the logic of the general T. scheme. In the process of learning, mastery of T. tools becomes the most important means of socializing individuals, introducing them to the norms of culture. T.'s tools were the first objective, material "abstractions", which influenced the formation and development of thinking itself. In progress collective activity people also have a “need to say something to each other”, and the subject of a “conversation”, that is, they have something to say to another. Need has created its organ. The monkey's larynx changed its structure - this became the biological prerequisite for the emergence of speech. The pendulum movement from the biological to the social, from the social to the biological is accelerating. Causes are almost impossible to separate from effects. As a result, natural and biological patterns fade into the background, a person acquires a social form, biological evolution is over, and from now on a person lives according to new, social laws, he even eats and drinks “like a human being”. Social selection comes into force, which is manifested in the improvement of the process of labor and in the transfer of labor skills to subsequent generations. T. becomes the regulator of man's relationship with nature, a process that separates man from nature and connects him with it. The forms of communication, speech, and thinking that become more complex in the process of socialization lead to the emergence of a new type of organization of life—to society. Language does not just fix (for memorization) certain meanings of objects, it actively participates in the process of generating these meanings. Thus, a new, supra-biological, proto-social integrity emerges. T. links the participants in joint activities into a community, mediates their communication. The further development of man is represented by the development of social relations and cultural forms of their preservation and development. In the process of creating forms of culture, cultural ways of self-regulation of social life, a person creates himself as its subject and creator, i.e. as public man. In T. and through T. all human needs are satisfied. T. becomes the main way of self-affirmation of a person in the world. Production, therefore, is the fundamental, essential feature of man and society. In tourism, the physical and spiritual qualities of a person are improved, and proper human cultural needs are formed. Thus, in T. not only consumer products are created, but also the actor himself, the subject of T. - a person. In this regard, with good reason, we can say: "Labor created man." The animal only uses nature and produces changes in it only by virtue of its presence. Man forces nature to serve his purposes and thereby dominates it. In the development of forms of creativity from primitive forms imposed by external necessity to free creative forms, the process of the progressive development of mankind was reflected. Although the "labor" hypothesis explains many aspects of anthroposociogenesis, it is considered insufficient by modern scientists, including domestic ones. One of the essential arguments is that genetics denies the inheritance of acquired traits. This situation encourages scientists to search for new versions of the emergence of man.

Great Definition

Incomplete definition ↓

Work- this is a purposeful labor activity of a person in the process of social production, aimed at modifying and adapting natural objects to meet their needs.

Labor activity- this is a rational series of operations and functions, rigidly fixed in time and space, performed by employees united in production organization. The ultimate goals of this activity are: the creation of material wealth, the provision of services, scientific work, accumulation and transmission of information. labor behavior as private form social behavior includes a set of actions and deeds, in the process of which a combination of professional abilities and production and technological conditions is achieved.

Note characteristic properties labor:

1. Consciousness of actions. This means that before starting to work, a person creates a project in his mind, i.e. mentally imagine the result of labor. For example, as a commodity producer, he determines what products, in what quantity and when to produce. Unconscious, instinctive actions are not labor.

2. The expediency of action. After the project is created, a person thinks over a model of actions, and then proceeds to the implementation of predetermined intentions. In our example, this means: how these products should be produced, what resources to use, with what technology.

3. The effectiveness of actions. Any activity ends with a certain result, but labor is not just a result, but a socially useful result.

4. Public utility of actions. People produce goods not alone, not in isolation from each other, but together, united in labor collectives or on the basis of more or less strong contacts with each other. They produce these goods for themselves and for society.

5. Energy consumption of actions. It is manifested in the fact that a certain physical and mental energy is spent on the implementation of labor activity.

The nature of labor shows how labor is manifested, what are its features, signs, distinctive properties and features. It depends on the connection of the worker with the means of labor and determines his social structure. Content of labor depends on the presence of certain functions in the labor process and characterizes labor in structural terms. It shows the level of development of the productive forces.

From the point of view of the content of labor, the labor process is the interaction of a person with tools and objects of labor, a kind of repetition of labor cycles, each of which ends with the manufacture of a certain product. Note that the content and nature of labor are two sides of the same coin, they reflect the essence and form, respectively. social labor. These two socio-economic categories are in a dialectical relationship, and a change in one of them inevitably leads to a change in the other.

There are various types of labor, and all their diversity can be classified according to the following criteria:

1) Physical and mental labor. Physical labor - simplest form labor, requiring mainly the expenditure of muscular energy of the worker. Mental labor - the mental efforts of people aimed at the production of goods and the provision of services. It is characterized by the absence of direct interaction between the worker and the means of production and provides for the needs of production in knowledge, organization, management, etc. The division of labor into mental and physical is conditional, therefore we are talking about the predominance of mental and physical efforts in labor;

2) Creative and reproductive. Creative- this is creative work, in the process of which something qualitatively new, unique, original, unique is created. reproductive labor is reproduced, known in advance, labor that does not contain creative elements;

3) Simple and complex work. Simple labor is unskilled labor that does not require special professional training from the worker. Difficult labor- this is skilled labor, which creates more value per unit of time than simple labor.

Depending on the nature of the work, there are:

1)private and public work. IN commodity production when individual producers produce certain goods, individual labor acts as private labor in connection with the economic, industrial and legal isolation of the owners of the means of production. Each manufacturer does not produce all the products necessary to meet his needs, and specializes in the manufacture of only a part of them. Therefore, in any society, private labor is always realized as a particle public labor and is of a social nature, which manifests itself in the market through the equating of goods to each other and their exchange;

2) individual and collective work. Individual labor is the labor of individual workers (managers, turners) or entrepreneurs. Collective labor is such labor when people do not work in isolation, but together, uniting in labor collectives, and the size of the collective does not matter;

3) hired and self-employed. Mercenary labor is the relation that arises between the owners of the means of production and workers who are personally free but have no means of production and who sell their labor power in exchange for a certain value in the form of wages. An entrepreneur who opens his own business creates an opportunity for the application of his labor, which can be called self-employment, the nature of such labor is qualitatively different from the nature of wage labor. It is this kind of work that provides an opportunity for the development of a person's initiative, contributes to a thrifty, hospitable attitude to property, the formation of such qualities as independence, enterprise, creativity;

4) concrete and abstract work. As a special expedient human activity, labor appears in a certain useful form, and its result is various use values. The labor involved in creating them is called concrete labor. Bringing various specific types of labor to the same and commensurate form presupposes the need to abstract from qualitative features, to reduce certain types labor to simple expenditures of labor power, to expenditures of physical, nervous and other energy. This impersonal and commensurate work is called abstract labor. Concrete labor creates use value, while abstract labor creates the value of a commodity.

By product of labor distinguish productive and unproductive labor. Productive labor is labor directly involved in the creation of the natural-material form of social wealth, the total social product, and the national income. This is labor in the process of which material goods, services are produced and which makes a profit. Unproductive labor is labor that creates social and spiritual benefits. Such labor is socially useful, but not productive, since it does not materialize and is not embodied in a separate product.

depending over time labor costs distinguish living and past work. Alive labor is labor expended at a given moment and its results are still uncertain. An employee, performing a certain amount of work, spends some working time on this, the so-called living labor. But in producing products, the worker also expends past labor. Last labor embodies the previously created result - these are raw materials and materials, energy, equipment, computers, technical means management, etc. In the transition from manual to mechanized labor, the costs of living labor are sharply reduced, while the costs of the past increase.

According to the degree of human participation in the labor process distinguish:

- manual labor that is carried out either entirely by hand or with the help of manual tools;

- mechanized labor that is carried out with the help of mechanized tools (for example, welding using a specialized apparatus);

- machine labor, when the main work is performed by a machine controlled by an employee without the direct application of physical effort by him.

The worker manually performs only auxiliary work on the management of the machine and its maintenance;

- automated labor, when the main work is fully automated, and auxiliary work is partially automated. The employee controls the correctness and stability of the equipment settings and its loading;

- computerized labor, when work is performed with the help of specially designed computer programs, and the employee only manages and controls the operation of the computer;

- high-tech labor is classified depending on the degree of progressiveness of the technologies used in the labor process.

depending from methods of attracting people to work distinguish:

- forced labor when there is direct coercion. Such work is characterized by the restriction of personal freedom, and an example is direct and debt slavery. In addition to direct coercion, such work may be the result of criminal, administrative or other norms enshrined in law;

- necessary labor is labor out of necessity in order to earn a livelihood. Such work is characteristic of the overwhelming mass of people;

- voluntary labor is labor at will. Such work takes place when a person is economically secure, may not work, but works to realize his potential. Work for him is a means of self-expression and self-affirmation.

On the subject of labor distinguish:

- managerial labor - a type of labor activity for the performance of management functions in an organization, the purpose of which is to ensure the purposeful and coordinated activity of the labor collective in solving the tasks facing it;

- scientific and technical labor - a type of labor activity for carrying out scientific research, development of design and technological documentation, provision of design technological support for production, testing, technical control, equipment repair, energy maintenance, etc.;

- production labor - a type of labor activity directly related to the production of products or the provision of services;

- entrepreneurial labor is independent labor carried out at one's own risk, aimed at the systematic receipt of profit from the use of property, the sale of goods or the provision of services, by persons registered in this capacity in the manner prescribed by law.

depending from working conditions distinguish:

- stationary And mobile work. The first is carried out on the premises and on the territory of enterprises and organizations. The second is associated, as a rule, with work in transport, tourism and other enterprises and organizations; ground And underground work. Most of the workers do the first. The second is related to work in the extractive industries. National economy, as well as with work in the subway;

- light, medium and heavy work. Such a gradation is carried out depending on the size of the application of physical effort in the process of its flow; harmless, moderate And harmful labor is characterized by dependence on the degree of influence of working conditions on human health;

- attractive And unattractive work . As a rule, hard and unhealthy work is unattractive;

- regulated And unregulated work. The first refers to the vast majority of those working in all spheres of human activity. The second is connected with the creative, mental work of the staff.

By belonging to the carrier of labor functions distinguish:

Work leader- mental work associated with management labor collective, bringing together people of various specialties, whose work is aimed at creating a certain result (product, service, etc.);

Work specialist- mental work, characterized by professional content, complexity and intelligence, requiring special education for its implementation;

Work performer- the work of an employee performing work or providing services on the instructions of another employee (manager).

It should be noted that this classification is conditional and is intended to highlight the essential features of labor. IN real life in each particular work, the previously listed features may be present in various combinations.