Signs of society as a complex dynamic system. Society as a complex system

The concept of society covers all spheres of human life, relationships and relationships. At the same time, society does not stand still, it is subject to constant changes and development. We learn briefly about society - a complex, dynamically developing system.

Society features

Society as a complex system has its own characteristics that distinguish it from other systems. Consider the identified by different sciences traits :

complex, multi-layered

The society includes different subsystems, elements. It can include various social groups, both small ones - the family, and large ones - the class, the nation.

Public subsystems are the main areas: economic, social, political, spiritual. Each of them is also a kind of system with many elements. So, we can say that there is a hierarchy of systems, that is, society is divided into elements, which, in turn, also include several components.

the presence of different quality elements: material (technology, facilities) and spiritual, ideal (ideas, values)

For example, the economic sphere includes transport, facilities, materials for the manufacture of goods, and knowledge, norms, and rules in force in the sphere of production.

main element is man

Man is a universal element of all social systems, since he is included in each of them, and without him their existence is impossible.

Social institutions

The idea of a society cannot be complete without knowledge of its basic institutions.

Social institutions are understood as such forms of organizing the joint activities of people that have developed as a result of historical development and are regulated by the norms established in society. They bring together large groups of people engaged in some kind of activity.

The activity of social institutions is aimed at meeting the needs. For example, people's need for procreation gave rise to the institution of family and marriage, the need for knowledge - the institution of education and science.

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Man is a rational being. He chooses housing, food and where to apply his strength. However, it is pointless to have freedom of choice if no one evaluates your choice.

We need a community. Nature has endowed us with an invariable feature - the thirst for communication. Thanks to this feature, we think not only about ourselves. Within a family or a whole planet, a person makes decisions for the sake of common progress. Thanks to the thirst for communication, we push the world forward.

As soon as our ancestors descended from the palm tree, they faced the increasing hostility of nature. The little primate could not defeat the mammoth. Natural skin is not enough to keep warm in winter. Sleeping outdoors is triple dangerous.

The emerging consciousness understood - we can only survive together. The forefathers created a primitive language to understand each other. They gathered in communities. Communities were divided into castes. The strong and fearless went hunting. The offspring were raised soft and understanding. The shacks were built smart and practical. Even then, a person was doing what he was predisposed to.

But nature gave only rough raw materials. You can't build a city out of stones alone. Stones are hard to kill an animal. The ancestors learned how to process materials in order to work more efficiently and live longer.

Broadly defined society- a part of nature that has tamed nature, using the will and consciousness for survival.

In a group, we can not scatter on superficial knowledge. We each have our own inclinations. A professional plumber will not be happy to grow bonsai even for a million dollar salary - his brains are technically sharpened. The union allows us to do what we love and leave the rest to others.

Now we understand the narrow definition societies - a conscious gathering of individuals to work towards a common goal.

Society as a dynamic system

We are cogs in the social mechanism. Goals are not set by just one person. They come as common needs. Society, at the expense of the strength of its individual members, solves an endless stream of problems. The search for solutions makes society better and gives rise to new complex problems. Mankind builds itself, which characterizes society as a dynamic system capable of self-development.

Society has a complex dynamic structure. Like any system, it consists of subsystems. Subsystems in the group are divided into spheres of influence. Sociologists note four subsystems of society:

Spiritual- Responsible for culture.
Political- regulates relations by laws.
Social- caste division: nation, class, social stratum.
Economic- production and distribution of goods.

Subsystems are systems in relation to their individual members. They only work when all elements are in place. Both subsystems and individual parts are inextricably linked. Without production and regulation, spiritual life loses its meaning. Without a person, life is not sweet to another.

The social system is constantly moving. It is set in motion by subsystems. Subsystems move at the expense of elements. Elements are divided into:

Material - factories, dwellings, resources.
Ideal - values, ideals, beliefs, traditions.

Material values are more characteristic of subsystems, while ideal values are a human trait. Man is the only indivisible element in the social system. A person has a will, aspirations and beliefs.

The system works thanks to communication - social relations. Social relations are the main link between people and subsystems.

People play roles. In the family, we play an exemplary father. At work, we are expected to obey unquestioningly. In the circle of friends we are the soul of the company. We don't choose roles. They are dictated to us by society.

Each person has more than one personality, but several at once. Each person behaves differently in different situations. You can't scold your boss like you would a child, right?

Animals have a fixed social role: if the leader “said” that you would sleep below and eat last, it would be like that for the rest of your life. And even in another pack, an individual will never be able to take on the role of leader.

Man is universal. Every day we put on dozens of masks. Thanks to this, we can easily adapt to different situations. You are the master of what you know. You will never demand obedience from a competent leader. Great survival gear!

Scientists divide social relations:

between individuals;
within the group;
between groups;
local (indoors);
ethnic (within a race or nation);
within the organization;
institutional (within the boundaries of a social institution);
inside the country;
international.

We communicate not only with whom we want, but also when necessary. For example, we do not want to communicate with a colleague, but he sits with us in the same office. And we must work. So relationships are:

informal- with friends and relatives whom we ourselves have chosen;
formalized- with whom we are obliged to contact if necessary.

You can communicate with like-minded people and with enemies. there are:

cooperative- cooperation relations;
competitive- confrontations.

Results

Society - complex dynamic system. People only once launched it, and now it defines every stage of our lives.

flexibility- regulates all spheres of life, even if they have not yet appeared;
mobility- constantly changing as needed;
complicated well-oiled mechanism from subsystems and elements;
independence- society itself creates the conditions for existence;
relationship all elements;
adequate response for changes.

Thanks to the dynamic social mechanism, man is the most enduring creature on the planet. For only man changes the world around him.

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ABOUT SOCIETY AS A SOCIAL PHENOMENON, ITS ESSENCE, FEATURES AND STRUCTURE

As noted above, the object and subject of study of sociology as a science is society and the diverse processes of cooperation, mutual assistance and rivalry of people united in large and small social groups and communities - national, religious, professional, etc.

A summary of this topic should begin with what constitutes a human society; what are its distinguishing features; what group of people can be called a society, and what - not; what are its subsystems; what is the essence of the social system.

With all the external simplicity of the concept of "society", it is unambiguously impossible to answer the question posed. It would be wrong to consider society as a simple collection of people, individuals with some of their original qualities that manifest themselves only in society, or as an abstract, faceless integrity that does not take into account the uniqueness of individuals and their connections.

In everyday life, this word is used quite often, widely and ambiguously: from a small group of people to the whole of humanity (Anatomical Society, Surgical Society, Belarusian Society of Consumers, Alcoholics Anonymous Society, International Red Cross and Red Crescent Society, Society of Earthlings, etc.).

Society is a rather abstract and multifaceted concept. It is studied by various sciences - history, philosophy, cultural studies, political science, sociology, etc., each of which explores only its inherent aspects and processes occurring in society. Its simplest interpretation is the human community, which is formed by the people living in it.

Sociology provides several approaches to the definition of society.

1. The well-known Russian-American sociologist P. Sorokin, for example, believed: in order for a society to exist, at least two people with a certain relationship of interaction (family) are needed. Such a case would be the simplest kind of society or social phenomenon.

Society is not any mechanical aggregate of people, but such an association within which there is a more or less constant, stable and fairly close mutual influence and interaction of these people. “Whatever social group we take - whether it be a family, a class, a party, a religious sect or a state,” wrote

P. Sorokin, - they all represent the interaction of two or one with many or many people with many. The whole endless sea of human communication consists of interaction processes: one-way and two-way, temporary and long-term, organized and unorganized, solidary and antagonistic, conscious and unconscious, sensory-emotional and volitional.

The whole complex world of people's social life is divided into outlined processes of interaction. A group of interacting people represents a kind of collective whole or collective unity. The close causal interdependence of their behavior gives grounds to consider interacting persons as a collective whole, as one being made up of many people. Just as oxygen and hydrogen, interacting with each other, form water, which is sharply different from the simple sum of isolated oxygen and hydrogen, so the totality of interacting people is sharply different from their simple sum.

2. Society is a collection of people united by specific interests, goals, needs or mutual ties and activities. But even this definition of society cannot be complete, since in one society there can be people with different and sometimes opposite interests and needs.

3. A society is an association of people with the following criteria:

- the commonality of the territory of their residence, which usually coincides with state borders and serves as the space within which relationships and interactions of individuals of a given society are formed and developed (Belarusian society, Chinese society

and etc.);

– its integrity and stability, the so-called "collective unity" (according to P. Sorokin);

– a certain level of cultural development, which finds its expression in the development of a system of norms and values that underlie social ties;

– self-reproduction (although it can increase its numbers as a result of migration processes) and self-sufficiency guaranteed by a certain level of economic development (including through imports).

Thus, society is a complex, holistic, self-developing system of social interactions between people.

and their communities - family, professional, religious, ethno-national, territorial, etc.

Society as a complex, dynamic system has certain features, structure, stages of historical development.

1. Sociality, which expresses the social essence of people's lives, the specifics of their relationships and interactions (as opposed to group forms of interaction in the animal world). A person as a person can be formed only among his own kind as a result of his socialization.

2. Ability to maintain and reproduce high intensity socio-psychic interactions between people, inherent only in human society.

3. An important feature of society is the territory and its natural and climatic conditions, where various social interactions take place. If we take for comparison the way of producing material goods, the way of life, culture and traditions of different peoples (for example, the African tribes, small ethnic groups of the Far North or inhabitants of the middle zone), then it will become clear the great importance of territorial and climatic features for the development of a particular society, its civilization.

4. Awareness by people of the changes and processes taking place in society as a result of their activities (as opposed to natural processes that are independent of the will and consciousness of people). Everything that happens in society is carried out only by people, their organized groups. They create special bodies for the implementation of self-regulation of society - social institutions.

5. Society has a complex social structure, consisting of different social strata, groups and communities. They differ from each other in many ways: the level of income and education, the ratio

to power and property, belonging to different religions, political parties, organizations, etc. They are in a complex and diverse relationship of interconnection and constant development.

Nevertheless, all of the above features of society interact with each other, ensuring the integrity and sustainability of its development as a single and complex system.

Society is divided into structural components, or subsystems:

1. Economic subsystem.

2. political subsystem.

3. Sociocultural subsystem.

4. social subsystem.

Consider these structural components in more detail:

1. The economic subsystem of society (often called the economic system) includes the production, distribution, exchange of goods and services, the interaction of people in the labor market, economic

stimulation of various types of activities, banking, credit

and other similar organizations and institutions (studied by students

in course in economics).

2. The political subsystem (or system) is the totality socio-political interactions between individuals and groups, the political structure of society, the regime of power, the activities of government bodies, political parties

and socio-political organizations, political rights

and freedoms of citizens, as well as values, norms and rules governing the political behavior of individuals and social groups. Students get acquainted with this system in the course of political science.

3. Sociocultural subsystem (or system) includes education, science, philosophy, art, morality, religion, organizations

and cultural institutions, mass media, etc. It is studied in such courses as cultural studies, philosophy, aesthetics, religious studies, and ethics.

4. A social subsystem is a form of people's life activity, which is realized in the development and functioning of social institutions, organizations, social communities, groups and individuals and unites all other structural components of society. It is the subject of sociological research.

The interaction of the main subsystems of society can be represented

in in the form of a diagram (Fig. 3).

Society as an integral system

Rice. 3. The structure of society

The social subsystem of society, in turn, includes the following structural components: social structure, social institutions, social relations, social ties and actions, social norms and values, etc.

There are other approaches to determining the structure of society as a social system. Thus, the American sociologist E. Shils proposed the study of society as a certain macrostructure, the main elements

the cops of which are social communities, social organizations and culture.

In accordance with these components, society must be considered in three aspects:

1) as a relationship of many individuals. As a result of the interconnection of many individuals, social communities are formed. They are the main side of society as a social system. Social communities are real-life aggregates of individuals that form a certain integrity and have independence in social actions. They arise in the process of the historical development of society and are characterized by a variety of types and forms.

The most significant are socio-class, socio-ethnic, socio-territorial, socio-demographic, etc. (for more details, see separate topics of the manual).

Forms of interaction between people in social communities are different: individual - individual; individual - social group; individual - society. They are formed in the process of labor, practical activities of people and represent the behavior of an individual or a social group, significant for the development of the social community as a whole. Such social interaction of subjects determines the social ties between individuals, between individuals and the outside world. The totality of social ties is the basis of all social relations in society: political, economic, spiritual. In turn, they serve as the foundation for the functioning of the political, economic, spiritual and social spheres (subsystems) of the life of society.

At the same time, all spheres of society's life, any social community cannot function successfully, and even more so develop without streamlining, regulating relations between people in the process of their practical activities and behavior. To do this, society has developed a peculiar system of such regulation and organization of public life, its "tools" - social institutions. They represent a certain set of institutions - the state, law, production, education, etc. In the conditions of stable development of society, social institutions play the role of mechanisms for coordinating the common interests of various groups of the population and individuals;

2) the second most important aspect of society as a social system is social organization. It means a number of ways to regulate the actions of individuals and social groups to achieve certain goals of social development. In other words, social organization is a mechanism for integrating the actions of individuals and social communities within a particular social system. Its element is

They are social roles, social statuses of individuals, social norms and social (public) values (in a separate topic).

The joint activity of individuals, the distribution of social statuses and social roles are impossible without a certain governing body within the social organization. For these purposes, organizational and power structures are formed in the form of administration, as well as a managerial link in the form of managers and specialist leaders. There is a formal structure of social organization with different social statuses, with an administrative division of labor according to the principle "leaders - subordinates";

3) the third component of society as a social system is culture. In sociology, culture is understood as a system of social norms and values fixed in the practical activities of people,

a as well as this activity. The main link in the social

and cultural systems are values. Their task is to serve to maintain the pattern of functioning of the social system. Norms in sociology are predominantly a social phenomenon. They mainly perform the function of integration, regulate a huge number of processes, and promote the implementation of normative value obligations. In civilized, developed societies, the basis of social norms is the legal system.

AT The focus of sociology is the question of the social role of culture in society - to what extent certain social values contribute to the humanization of social relations, the formation of a comprehensively developed personality.

MAIN STAGES OF THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE SOCIETY, ITS TYPES AND CONCEPTS

As noted above, society is a constantly evolving, dynamic system. In the course of this development, it goes through a series of historical stages and types, characterized by special distinctive features. Sociologists have identified several basic types of society.

1. The Marxist concept of the development of society, proposed in the middle of the XIX century. Marx and Engels, proceeds from the dominant role of the mode of production of material goods in determining the type of society. According to this, Marx substantiated the existence of five modes of production

and their corresponding five socio-economic formations successively replacing one another as a result of the class struggle

and social revolution. These are primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, bourgeois and communist formations. Although it is known that a number of societies have not gone through certain stages in their development.

2. Western sociologists of the second half of the 19th - mid-20th centuries. (O. Comte, G. Spencer, E. Durkheim, A. Toynbee and others) believed that there are only two types of societies in the world:

a) traditional (so-called military democracy) is an agrarian society

with primitive production, a sedentary hierarchical social structure, the power of landowners, an assembly of armed warriors; undeveloped science and technology, insignificant savings;

b) an industrial society, which takes shape gradually, replaces the traditional one as a result of great geographical and scientific and technical discoveries. A slow growth of technical progress begins, an increase in the productivity of agricultural labor, the emergence of a layer of merchants, merchants, and the formation of centralized states. The first bourgeois revolutions in Europe lead to the emergence of new social strata, as well as to the birth of the ideology of liberalism and nationalism, the democratization of society. The historical framework of this type of society - from the Neolithic era to the industrial revolution, carried out in different countries and regions at different times.

Industrial society is characterized by:

– urbanization, an increase in the proportion of the urban population to 60–80 %;

– the accelerated growth of industry and the reduction of agriculture;

– introduction of achievements of science and technology into production processes and increase in labor productivity;

– the emergence of new industries as a result of scientific and technological progress;

– increasing the share of capital accumulation in GDP and investing them in the development of production(15–20% of GDP);

– change in the structure of employment of the population (increase in the share of workers engaged in mental labor due to the reduction of unskilled, physical);

– growth in consumption.

3. Since the second half of the XX century. in Western sociology, the concepts of a three-stage typology of society appeared. R. Aron, Z. Brzezinski, D. Bell, J. Galbraith, O. Toffler and others proceeded from the fact that humanity in its historical development goes through three main stages and types of societies (civilizations):

a) pre-industrial (agricultural-handicraft) society, the main wealth of which is land. It is dominated by a simple division of labor, manufacturing. The main goal of such a society is power, a rigid authoritarian system. Its main institutions are the army, the church

cow, agriculture. The dominant social strata - the nobility, the clergy, warriors, slave owners, later - the feudal lords;

b) an industrial society, the main wealth of which is capital, money. It is characterized by large-scale machine production, scientific and technological progress, a developed system of division of labor, mass production of goods for the market, the development of the media, etc. The dominant layer is industrialists and businessmen.

c) post-industrial (information) society is replacing the industrial one. Its main value is knowledge, science, producing information. The main social stratum is scientists. Post-industrial society is characterized by the emergence of new means of production: information and electronic systems with billions of operations per second, computer technology, new technologies (genetic engineering, cloning, etc.); the use of microprocessors in industry, services, trade and exchange; a sharp reduction in the share of the rural population and an increase in employment in the service sector, etc. The correlation of various types of society is presented in Table. one.

			Table 1
Differences between traditional, industrial
	and post-industrial types of society

signs		Type of society
signs	Traditional	Industrial	post-industrial
	(agrarian)	Industrial	post-industrial
	(agrarian)
	natural	commodity economy	Development of the sphere
management	economy		services, consumption
Dominant	Agricultural	Industrial	Production
economic sphere	production	production	information
	Manual labor	Mechanization and auto-	Computerization
way of working		matizationproduction	production
		management	and management
The main social	Church, army	Industrial	Education,
institutions		corporations	universities
	priests,	businessmen,	Scientists, managers
social strata	feudal lords	entrepreneurs	consultants
The method of political	Military Democracy	Democracy	civil
management	tia, despotic		society,
	control		self management
The main factor	physical power,	capital, money
management	divine power
Main	between higher	between labor	between knowledge
contradictions	and lower	and capital	and ignorance
	estates		incompetence

Alvin Toffler and other Western sociologists argue that developed countries from the 70s and 80s. 20th century experiencing a new technological

a revolution leading to the continuous renewal of social relations and the creation of super-industrial civilizations.

The theory of industrial and post-industrial society combines five trends in social development: technization, informatization, societal complexity, social differentiation and social integration. They will be discussed below in separate chapters of this publication.

However, it must be borne in mind that all of the above applies to developed countries. All the rest, including Belarus, are at the industrial stage (or in a pre-industrial society).

Despite the attractiveness of many ideas of a post-industrial society, the problem of its formation in all regions of the world remains open due to the exhaustibility of many biosphere resources, the presence of social conflicts, etc.

In Western sociology and cultural studies, the theory of the cyclic development of society is also distinguished, the authors of which are O. Spengler, A. Toynbee and others. It proceeds from the fact that the evolution of society is considered not as a rectilinear movement towards its more perfect state, but as a kind of , prosperity and decline, repeating again as it ends (the cyclic concept of the development of society can be considered by analogy with the life of an individual - birth, development, prosperity, old age and death).

Of particular interest to our students is the "healthy society theory" created by the German-American psychologist, physician and sociologist Erich Fromm (1900–1980). Having emigrated from Germany to the USA in 1933, he worked as a practicing psychoanalyst for many years, later he took up scientific activity, and since 1951 he became a university professor.

Criticizing capitalism as a sick, irrational society, Fromm developed the concept of creating a harmonious healthy society with the help of social therapy methods.

The main provisions of the theory of a healthy society.

1. Developing a holistic concept of personality, Fromm found out the mechanisms of interaction of psychological and social factors

in the process of its formation.

2. He derives the health of society from the health of its members. Fromm's concept of a healthy society differs from Durkheim's understanding, who allowed for the possibility of anomie in society (i.e., the denial by its members of basic social values and norms leading to social

al disintegration and subsequent deviant behavior). But Durkheim applied this only to the individual, not to society as a whole. And if we assume that deviant behavior may be characteristic

most members of society and lead to the dominance of destructive behavior, then we get a sick society. The stages of the "disease" are as follows: anomie → social disintegration → deviation → destruction

→ the collapse of the system.

AT In contrast to Durkheim, Fromm calls a healthy society

in in which people would develop their reason to such a degree of objectivity that allows them to see themselves, other people and nature in their true reality, to distinguish good from evil, to make their own choice. This would mean a society whose members have developed the ability to love their children, family, other people, themselves, nature, to feel unity with it, and at the same time - to maintain a sense of individuality, integrity and transcend nature in creativity, and not in destruction. .

According to Fromm, the goal he had set has been achieved by a minority so far. The challenge is to make the majority of society

in healthy people. Fromm sees the ideal of a healthy society in the transformation of all spheres of public life:

– in the economic field, there should be self-government of all those working in the enterprise;

– incomes should be equalized to such an extent as to ensure a decent life for various social strata;

– in the political sphere, it is necessary to decentralize power with the creation of thousands of small groups with interpersonal contacts;

– changes must simultaneously cover all other areas, since changes in only one have a destructive effect on changes

generally;

– a person should not be a means used by others or by himself, but feel himself the subject of his own strengths and capabilities.

Quite interesting is the theory of social change in society by T. Parsons. He proceeds from the fact that various systems of society are subject to evolution: the organism, personality, social system and cultural system as steps of a growing degree of complexity. Indeed, profound changes are only those that occur in the cultural system. Economic and political upheavals that do not affect the level of culture in society do not fundamentally change society itself. There are many examples of this.

Summing up the above, it should be noted that all scientific, technical and technological radical changes entail revolutions in other spheres of public life, but they are not accompanied by social revolutions, as Marx, Engels, Lenin argued. Class interests, of course, exist, contradictions also exist, but hired workers force property owners to make concessions, raise wages, increase incomes, which means

and raise living standards and well-being. All this leads to a reduction in social tension, smoothing out class contradictions and denying the inevitability of social revolutions.

Society as a social, dynamically developing system has always been, is and will be the most complex object of study that attracts the attention of sociologists. In terms of complexity, it can only be compared with the human personality, the individual. The society and the individual are inextricably linked and mutually determined one through the other. This is the methodological key to the study of other social systems.

IN SELF-CHECKING SURVEYS

1. What does human society mean?

2. What are the main approaches in defining the concept of "society"?

3. Name the main features of society.

4. Describe the leading subsystems of society.

5. Outline the structural components of the social system of society.

6. What theories of social development can you name?

7. Describe the essence of E. Fromm's "theory of a healthy society".

Literature

1. American sociological thought. M., 1994.

2. Babosov, E. General sociology / E. Babosov. Minsk, 2004.

3. Gorelov, A. Sociology / A. Gorelov. M., 2006.

4. Luman, N. The concept of society / N. Luman // Problems of theoretical sociology. SPb., 1994.

5. Parsons, T. The system of modern societies / T. Parsons. M., 1998.

6. Popper, K. Open society and its enemies / K. Popper. M., 1992. T. 1, 2.

7. Sorokin, P. Man, civilization, society / P. Sorokin. M., 1992.

Ticket number 1

What is a society?

There are many definitions of the term "society". In a narrow sense under society can be understood as a certain group of people united for communication and joint performance of any activity, and a specific stage in the historical development of a people or country.

Broadly speaking, society- this is a part of the material world isolated from nature, but closely connected with it, which consists of individuals with will and consciousness, and includes ways of interacting people and forms of their unification.
In philosophical society is characterized by science as a dynamic self-developing system, i.e., such a system that is capable, while seriously changing, at the same time retaining its essence and qualitative certainty. The system is defined as a complex of interacting elements. In turn, an element is some further indecomposable component of the system that is directly involved in its creation.
Signs of society:

A collection of individuals endowed with will and consciousness.
General interest, which is permanent and objective. The organization of society depends on the harmonious combination of common and individual interests of its members.
Interaction and cooperation based on common interests. There must be an interest in each other, giving the opportunity to implement the interests of each.
Regulation of the public interest through binding rules of conduct.
The presence of an organized force (power) capable of providing society with internal order and external security.

Each of these spheres, being itself an element of the system called "society", in turn turns out to be a system in relation to the elements that make it up. All four spheres of social life are interconnected and mutually condition each other. The division of society into spheres is somewhat arbitrary, but it helps to isolate and study certain areas of a truly integral society, a diverse and complex social life.

Politics and power

Power- the right and opportunity to influence other people, to subordinate them to your will. Power appeared with the emergence of human society and will always accompany its development in one form or another.

Sources of power:

Violence (physical force, weapons, organized group, threat of force)
Authority (family and social ties, deep knowledge in some area, etc.)
Law (position and authority, control over resources, custom and tradition)

Subject of power- one who gives orders

Object of power- the one who performs.

To date researchers identify various public authorities:
depending on the prevailing resource, power is divided into political, economic, social, information;
depending on the subjects of power, power is divided into state, military, party, trade union, family;
depending on the ways of interaction between subjects and objects of power, power is distinguished as dictatorial, totalitarian and democratic.

Politics- the activities of social classes, parties, groups, determined by their interests and goals, as well as the activities of state authorities. Political struggle is often understood as a struggle for power.

Allocate the following types of authority:

Legislative (parliament)
Executive (government)
Judicial (courts)
Recently, the media have been characterized as the “fourth estate” (ownership of information)

Policy Subjects: individuals, social groups, classes, organizations, political parties, state

Policy objects: 1. internal (society as a whole, economy, social sphere, culture, national relations, ecology, personnel)

2. external (international relations, the world community (global problems)

Policy features: organizational base of society, controlling, communicative, integrative, educational

Policies:

1. according to the direction of political decisions - economic, social, national, cultural, religious, state-legal, youth

2. by the scale of impact - local, regional, nationwide (national), international, global (global problems)

3. according to the prospects for impact - strategic (long-term), tactical (urgent tasks to achieve the strategy), opportunistic or current (urgent)

Ticket number 2

Society as a complex dynamic system

Society- a complex dynamic self-developing system, which consists of subsystems (spheres of public life), which are usually distinguished by four:
1) economic (its elements are material production and relations that arise between people in the process of production of material goods, their exchange and distribution);
2) social (consists of such structural formations as classes, social strata, nations, their relationships and interactions with each other);
3) political (includes politics, state, law, their correlation and functioning);
4) spiritual (covers various forms and levels of social consciousness, which in the real life of society form a phenomenon of spiritual culture).

Characteristic features (signs) of society as a dynamic system:

dynamism (the ability to change over time both society and its individual elements).
a complex of interacting elements (subsystems, social institutions).
self-sufficiency (the ability of the system to independently create and recreate the conditions necessary for its own existence, to produce everything necessary for people's lives).
integration (the relationship of all components of the system).
self-governance (responding to changes in the natural environment and the world community).

Ticket number 3

human nature

Until now, there is no clarity as to what is the nature of man, which determines his essence. Modern science recognizes the dual nature of man, the combination of biological and social.

From the point of view of biology, man belongs to the class of mammals, the order of primates. A person is subject to the same biological laws as animals: he needs food, physical activity, and rest. A person grows, is subject to disease, ages and dies.

The "animal" personality of a person is influenced by innate programs of behavior (instincts, unconditioned reflexes) and acquired during life. This side of the personality is “responsible” for nutrition, preservation of life and health, and procreation.

Proponents of the theory of the origin of man from animals as a result of evolution
explain the features of the appearance and behavior of a person by a long struggle for existence (2.5 million years), as a result of which the fittest individuals survived and left offspring.

The social essence of a person is formed under the influence of a social way of life, communication with others. Thanks to communication, a person can convey to others what he is aware of, what he is thinking about. The means of communication between people in society is primarily language. There are cases when small children were brought up by animals. Once in human society already in adulthood, they could not master articulate human speech. This may indicate that speech and the abstract thinking associated with it are formed only in society.

Social forms of behavior include a person's ability to empathy, caring for the weak and needy members of society, self-sacrifice for the sake of saving other people, the struggle for truth, justice, etc.

The highest form of manifestation of the spiritual side of the human personality is love for one's neighbor, not associated with material rewards or social recognition.

Selfless love, altruism are the main conditions for spiritual growth, self-improvement. The spiritual personality, being enriched in the process of communication, limits the egoism of the biological personality, this is how moral perfection occurs.

Characterizing the social essence of a person, as a rule, they call: consciousness, speech, labor activity.

Socialization

Socialization - the process of mastering the knowledge and skills, ways of behavior necessary for a person to become a member of society, act correctly and interact with his social environment.

Socialization The process by which an infant gradually develops into a self-aware intelligent being who understands the essence of the culture in which he was born.

Socialization is divided into two types - primary and secondary.

Primary socialization concerns the immediate environment of a person and includes, first of all, family and friends, and secondary refers to the mediated, or formal, environment and consists of the impacts of institutions and institutions. The role of primary socialization is great in the early stages of life, and the secondary - in the later stages.

Allocate agents and institutions of socialization. Socialization agents- these are specific people responsible for teaching cultural norms and mastering social roles. Institutes of socialization- social institutions that influence the process of socialization and guide it. Primary socialization agents include parents, relatives, friends and peers, teachers and doctors. To the secondary - officials of the university, enterprise, army, church, journalists, etc. Primary socialization - the sphere of interpersonal relations, secondary - social. The functions of agents of primary socialization are interchangeable and universal, those of secondary socialization are non-interchangeable and specialized.

Along with socialization, it is also possible desocialization- loss or conscious rejection of learned values, norms, social roles (commission of a crime, mental illness). Restoring lost values and roles, retraining, returning to a normal lifestyle is called resocialization(such is the purpose of punishment as a correction) - change and revision of the ideas formed earlier.

Ticket number 4

Economic systems

Economic systems- this is a set of interrelated economic elements that form a certain integrity, the economic structure of society; the unity of relations that develop over the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of economic goods.

Depending on the method of solving the main economic problems and the type of ownership of economic resources, four main types of economic systems can be distinguished:

traditional;
market (capitalism);
command (socialism);
mixed.

Ticket number 5

Ticket number 6

Cognition and knowledge

The dictionary of the Russian language Ozhegov S. I. gives two definitions of the concept knowledge:
1) comprehension of reality by consciousness;
2) a set of information, knowledge in some area.
Knowledge- this is a multidimensional result tested by practice, which was confirmed in a logical way, the process of knowing the world around.
There are several criteria for scientific knowledge:
1) systematization of knowledge;
2) consistency of knowledge;
3) validity of knowledge.
Systematization of scientific knowledge means that all the accumulated experience of humanity leads (or should lead) to a certain strict system.
Consistency of scientific knowledge means that knowledge in various fields of science complements each other, not excludes. This criterion follows directly from the previous one. The first criterion to a greater extent helps to eliminate the contradiction - a strict logical system of building knowledge will not allow several contradictory laws to exist simultaneously.
Validity of scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge can be confirmed by repeated repetition of the same action (ie, empirically). The substantiation of scientific concepts occurs by referring to the data of empirical research or by referring to the ability to describe and predict phenomena (in other words, relying on intuition).

Cognition- this is the process of acquiring knowledge through empirical or sensory research, as well as comprehending the laws of the objective world and the totality of knowledge in some branch of science, art.
There are the following types of knowledge:
1) worldly knowledge;
2) artistic knowledge;
3) sensory knowledge;
4) empirical knowledge.
Worldly knowledge is an experience accumulated over many centuries. It lies in observation and ingenuity. This knowledge, no doubt, is acquired only as a result of practice.
Artistic knowledge. The specificity of artistic knowledge lies in the fact that it is based on a visual image, reflects the world and a person in a holistic state.
Sensory cognition is what we perceive with the help of the senses (for example, I hear a cell phone ring, I see a red apple, etc.).
The main difference between sensory cognition and empirical cognition is that empirical cognition is carried out with the help of observation or experiment. During the experiment, a computer or other device is used.
Knowledge methods:
1) induction;
2) deduction;
3) analysis;
4) synthesis.
Induction is a conclusion made on the basis of two or more premises. Induction can lead to both correct and incorrect conclusions.
Deduction is a transition made from the general to the particular. The method of deduction, unlike the method of induction, always leads to true conclusions.
Analysis is the division of the studied object or phenomenon into parts and components.
Synthesis is a process opposite to analysis, that is, the connection of parts of an object or phenomenon into a single whole.

Ticket number 7

Legal responsibility

Legal responsibility- this is a way by which the interests of the individual, society and the state receive real protection . Legal responsibility means the application to the offender of sanctions of legal norms, specified in them certain penalties. This is the imposition of measures of state coercion on the offender, the application of legal sanctions for the offense. Such responsibility is a kind of relationship between the state and the offender, where the state, represented by its law enforcement agencies, has the right to punish the offender, restore the violated law and order, and the offender is called to be convicted, i.e. to lose certain benefits, to suffer certain unfavorable consequences established by law.

These consequences may vary:

personal (death penalty, imprisonment);
property (fine, confiscation of property);
prestigious (reprimand, deprivation of awards);
organizational (closure of the enterprise, dismissal from office);
their combination (recognition of the contract as illegal, deprivation of a driver's license).

Ticket number 8

Man in the labor market

A special and unique sphere of socio-economic relations of people is the sphere of relations in the sale of their labor force by people. The place where labor is bought and sold is labor markets. Here the law of supply and demand reigns supreme. The labor market ensures the distribution and redistribution of labor resources, the mutual adaptation of objective and subjective factors of production. In labor markets, a person gets the opportunity to act in accordance with their own interests, to realize their abilities.

Work force- physical and mental capabilities, as well as skills that allow a person to perform a certain type of work.
For the sale of his labor power, the worker receives a wage.
Wage- the amount of monetary remuneration that the employer pays to the employee for the performance of a certain amount of work or the performance of his official duties.
Hence, the price of labor power is wages.

At the same time, the “labor market” means competition for jobs for everyone, a certain freedom of hands for the employer of labor, which, under adverse circumstances (supply exceeds demand), can cause very negative social consequences - wage cuts, unemployment, etc. For a person who is looking for a job or is employed, this means that he must maintain and deepen interest in himself as a work force through advanced training and retraining. This not only provides certain guarantees against unemployment, but represents the basis for further professional development. Of course, this is not a guarantee against unemployment, because in each specific case, one should take into account a variety of personal reasons (for example, desires and claims for certain activities), real conditions (a person’s age, gender, possible obstacles or restrictions, place of residence, and much more). It should be noted that both now and in the future, employees must learn to adapt to the demands that the labor market puts before them and the conditions themselves, which are changing rapidly. In order to meet the conditions of the modern labor market, everyone must be ready for constant changes.

Ticket number 9

Nation and national relations

A nation is the highest form of an ethnic community of people, the most developed, historically stable, united by economic, territorial-state, cultural, psychological and religious features.

Some scholars believe that a nation is a co-citizenship, i.e. people living in the same state-ve. Belonging to a particular nation is called nationality. Nationality is determined not only by origin, but also by upbringing, culture and psychology of a person.
There are 2 trends in the development of the nation:
1. National, which is manifested in the desire of each nation for sovereignty, the development of its economy, science and art. Nationalism is the doctrine of the priority of the interests and values of one's nation, an ideology and politics based on the ideas of superiority and national exclusivity. Nationalism can develop into chauvinism and fascism - aggressive manifestations of nationalism. Nationalism can lead to national discrimination (belittling and infringement of human rights).
2. International - it reflects the desire of nations for interaction, mutual enrichment, expansion of cultural, economic, and other ties.
Both trends are interconnected and contribute to the progress of human
civilizations.

NATIONAL RELATIONS are the relations between the subjects of national and ethnic development - nations, nationalities, national groups and their state formations.

These relations are of three types: equality; domination and submission; destruction of other entities.

National relations reflect the fullness of social relations and are determined by economic and political factors. The main ones are political aspects. This is due to the importance of the state as the most important factor in the formation and development of nations. The political sphere includes such issues of national relations as national self-determination, the combination of national and international interests, the equality of nations, the creation of conditions for the free development of national languages and national cultures, the representation of national personnel in power structures, etc. At the same time, historically emerging traditions, social feelings and moods, geographical and cultural conditions of nations and nationalities have a strong influence on the formation of political attitudes, political behavior, political culture.

The main issues in national relations are equality or subordination; inequality of levels of economic and cultural development; national strife, strife, enmity.

Social problems in the labor market

Ticket number 10

Culture and spiritual life of society

Culture is a very complex phenomenon, which is reflected in the hundreds of definitions and interpretations that exist today. The most common are the following approaches to understanding culture as a phenomenon of social life:
- Technological approach: culture is the totality of all achievements in the development of the material and spiritual life of society.
- Activity approach: culture is a creative activity carried out in the spheres of the material and spiritual life of society.
- Value approach: culture is the practical implementation of universal human values in the affairs and relationships of people.

Starting from the 1st c. before. n. e. the word "culture" (from Latin cultura - care, cultivation, cultivation of the land) meant the upbringing of a person, the development of his soul and education. It finally came into use as a philosophical concept in the 18th - early 19th centuries. and denoted the evolution of mankind, the gradual improvement of language, customs, government, scientific knowledge, art, religion. At that time, it was close in meaning to the concept of "civilization". The concept of "culture" was opposed to the concept of "nature", that is, culture is what a person created, and nature is what exists independently of him.

Based on the numerous works of various scientists, the concept of "culture" in the broad sense of the word can be defined as a historically conditioned dynamic complex of forms, principles, methods and results of active creative activity of people that are constantly updated in all spheres of public life.

Culture in the narrow sense is a process of active creative activity, during which spiritual values are created, distributed and consumed.

In connection with the existence of two types of activity - material and spiritual - two main spheres of existence and development of culture can be distinguished.

Material culture is associated with the production and development of objects and phenomena of the material world, with a change in the physical nature of a person: material and technical means of labor, communication, cultural and community facilities, production experience, skills, skills of people, etc.

Spiritual culture is a set of spiritual values and creative activities for their production, development and application: science, art, religion, morality, politics, law, etc.

Division criterion

The division of culture into material and spiritual is very arbitrary, since it is sometimes very difficult to draw a line between them, because they simply do not exist in a “pure” form: spiritual culture can also be embodied in material media (books, paintings, tools, etc.). d.). Understanding the whole relativity of the difference between material and spiritual culture, most researchers nevertheless believe that it still exists.

The main functions of culture:
1) cognitive - is the formation of a holistic view of the people, country, era;
2) evaluation - the implementation of the differentiation of values, the enrichment of traditions;
3) regulatory (normative) - the formation of a system of norms and requirements of society for all individuals in all areas of life and activity (norms of morality, law, behavior);
4) informative - the transfer and exchange of knowledge, values and experience of previous generations;
5) communicative - preservation, transfer and replication of cultural values; development and improvement of personality through communication;
6) socialization - the assimilation by an individual of a system of knowledge, norms, values, accustoming to social roles, normative behavior, the desire for self-improvement.

The spiritual life of society is usually understood as that area of being in which objective reality is given to people not in the form of opposing objective activity, but as a reality that is present in the person himself, which is an integral part of his personality.

The spiritual life of a person arises on the basis of his practical activity, is a special form of reflection of the surrounding world and a means of interacting with it.

As a rule, knowledge, faith, feelings, experiences, needs, abilities, aspirations and goals of people are referred to spiritual life. Taken in unity, they constitute the spiritual world of the individual.

Spiritual life is closely connected with other spheres of society and is one of its subsystems.

Elements of the spiritual sphere of society: morality, science, art, religion, law.

The spiritual life of society covers various forms and levels of social consciousness: moral, scientific, aesthetic, religious, political, legal consciousness.

The structure of the spiritual life of society:

spiritual needs
They represent an objective need of people and society as a whole to create and master spiritual values.

Spiritual activity (spiritual production)
The production of consciousness in a special social form, carried out by specialized groups of people professionally engaged in skilled mental labor

Spiritual goods (values):
Ideas, theories, images and spiritual values

Spiritual social connections of individuals

Man himself as a spiritual being

Reproduction of public consciousness in its integrity

Peculiarities

Its products are ideal formations that cannot be alienated from their direct producer.

The universal nature of its consumption, since spiritual benefits are available to everyone - individuals without exception, being the property of all mankind.

Law in the system of social norms

social norm- a rule of conduct established in society that regulates relations between people, social life.

Society is a system of interrelated social social relations. These relationships are many and varied. Not all of them are regulated by law. Outside of legal regulation are many relationships in the private life of people - in the sphere of love, friendship, leisure, consumption, etc. Although political, public interactions are mostly legal in nature, and in addition to law, they are regulated by other social norms. Thus, law does not have a monopoly on social regulation. Legal norms cover only strategic, socially significant aspects of relations in society. Along with the law, a wide variety of social norms perform a large amount of regulatory functions in society.

A social norm is a general rule that regulates homogeneous, mass, typical social relations.

In addition to law, social norms include morality, religion, corporate rules, customs, fashion, etc. Law is only one of the subsystems of social norms that has its own specifics.

The general purpose of social norms is to streamline the coexistence of people, to ensure and coordinate their social interaction, to give the latter a stable, guaranteed character. Social norms limit the individual freedom of individuals, setting limits on possible, proper and prohibited behavior.

Law regulates social relations in interaction with other norms, as an element of the system of social regulatory regulation.

Signs of a legal norm

The only one in a number of social norms that comes from the state and is the official expression of its will.

Represents measure of freedom of expression and behavior of a person.

Published in specific form.

Is an form of realization and consolidation of rights and obligations participants in social relations.

Supported in its implementation and protected by the power of the state.

Always represents government mandate.

Is an the only state regulator of public relations.

Represents general rule of conduct, i.e. indicates: how, in what direction, during what time, on what territory it is necessary for this or that subject to act; prescribes a correct course of action from the point of view of society and therefore obligatory for each individual.

Ticket number 11

The Constitution of the Russian Federation is the main law of the country

Constitution of the Russian Federation- the highest normative legal act of the Russian Federation. Adopted by the people of the Russian Federation on December 12, 1993.

The Constitution has the highest legal force, fixing the foundations of the constitutional system of Russia, the state structure, the formation of representative, executive, judicial authorities and the system of local self-government, the rights and freedoms of man and citizen.

The Constitution is the fundamental law of the state, which has the highest legal force, fixes and regulates basic social relations in the field of the legal status of the individual, civil society institutions, the organization of the state and the functioning of public authority.
It is with the concept of the constitution that its essence is connected - the basic law of the state is called upon to serve as the main limiter for power in relations with man and society.

Constitution:

· fixes the state system, fundamental rights and freedoms, determines the form of the state and the system of higher bodies of state power;

· has the highest legal force;

Has a direct effect (the provisions of the constitution must be implemented regardless of whether other acts contradict them);

It is distinguished by stability due to a special, complicated procedure for adoption and change;

· is the basis for the current legislation.

The essence of the constitution, in turn, is manifested through its main legal properties (that is, the characteristic features that determine the qualitative originality of this document), which include:
acting as the fundamental law of the state;
legal supremacy;
fulfillment of the role of the basis of the entire legal system of the country;
stability.
Sometimes the properties of the constitution include other features - legitimacy, continuity, prospects, reality, etc.
The Constitution of the Russian Federation is the fundamental law of the country. Despite the fact that this term is absent in the official title and text (unlike, for example, the Constitution of the RSFSR of 1978 or the constitutions of the Federal Republic of Germany, Mongolia, Guinea and other states), this follows from the very legal nature and essence of the constitution.
legal supremacy. The Constitution of the Russian Federation has the highest legal force in relation to all other legal acts, not a single legal act adopted in the country (federal law, act of the President of the Russian Federation, the Government of the Russian Federation, an act of regional, municipal or departmental lawmaking, an agreement, a court decision, etc. ), cannot contradict the Basic Law, and in case of contradiction (legal conflicts), the norms of the Constitution have priority.
The Constitution of the Russian Federation is the core of the legal system of the state, the basis for the development of current (industry) legislation. In addition to the fact that the Constitution establishes the competence of various public authorities for rule-making and determines the main goals of such rule-making, it directly defines the areas of public relations that must be regulated by federal constitutional laws, federal laws, decrees of the President of the Russian Federation, regulatory legal acts of state authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation and and so on, it also contains many of the basic provisions underlying the development of other branches of law.
The stability of the constitution is manifested in the establishment of a special procedure for changing it (in comparison with laws and other legal acts). From the point of view of the order of change, the Russian Constitution is “rigid” (in contrast to the “soft” or “flexible” constitutions of some states - Great Britain, Georgia, India, New Zealand and others - where changes to the constitution are made in the same order as into ordinary laws, or at least by a fairly simple procedure).

social mobility

social mobility- change by an individual or group of the place occupied in the social structure (social position), moving from one social stratum (class, group) to another (vertical mobility) or within the same social stratum (horizontal mobility). social mobility is the process by which a person changes his social status. social status- the position occupied by an individual or a social group in society or a separate subsystem of society.

Horizontal mobility- the transition of an individual from one social group to another, located at the same level (example: moving from an Orthodox to a Catholic religious group, from one citizenship to another). Distinguish individual mobility- the movement of one person independently of others, and group- movement occurs collectively. In addition, allocate geographical mobility- moving from one place to another while maintaining the same status (example: international and interregional tourism, moving from city to village and back). As a type of geographic mobility, there are concept of migration- moving from one place to another with a change in status (example: a person moved to the city for permanent residence and changed his profession).

Vertical mobility- moving a person up or down the corporate ladder.

Upward mobility- social uplift, upward movement (For example: promotion).

Downward mobility- social descent, downward movement (For example: demotion).

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