Feudalism and feudal society.

Feudal society was divided into two main classes - feudal lords and peasants. "The serf society represented such a division of classes, when the vast majority - the serfs - were completely dependent on an insignificant minority - the landlords, who owned the land"1.

The feudal class was not a homogeneous whole. Small feudal lords paid tribute to large feudal lords, helped them in the war, but enjoyed their patronage. The patron was called seigneur, patronized - vassal. The seiers, in turn, were vassals of other, more powerful feudal lords.

As the ruling class, the feudal landowners stood at the head of the state. They constituted one estate - the nobility. The nobles occupied the honorary position of the first estate, enjoying broad political and economic privileges.

The clergy (church and monastery) were also the largest landowners. It owned vast lands with a numerous dependent and serf population and, along with the nobles, was the ruling class.

The broad base of the "feudal ladder" was the peasantry. The peasants were subordinate to the landlord and were under the supreme authority of the largest feudal lord - the king. The peasantry was a politically disenfranchised estate. Landowners could sell their serfs and widely used this right. The serf-owners subjected the peasants to corporal punishment. Lenin called serfdom "serfdom". The exploitation of serfs was almost as cruel as the exploitation of slaves in ancient world. But still, a serf could work part of the time on his plot, could to a certain extent belong to himself.

The main class contradiction of feudal society was the contradiction between feudal lords and serfs.

1 V.P. Lenin, On the State, Works, vol. 29, p. 445.

The struggle of the exploited peasantry against the feudal landlords was waged throughout the entire epoch of feudalism and acquired particular acuteness at the last stage of its development, when feudal exploitation intensified to the extreme.

In cities freed from feudal dependence, power was in the hands of wealthy citizens - merchants, usurers, owners of urban land and large householders. The guild artisans, who made up the bulk of the urban population, often opposed the urban nobility, seeking their participation in the management of cities along with the urban aristocracy. Small artisans and apprentices fought against the guild masters and merchants who exploited them.

By the end of the feudal era, the urban population was already highly stratified. On one side are rich merchants and guild masters, on the other are vast layers of artisan apprentices and apprentices, the urban poor. The urban lower classes entered the struggle against the combined forces of the urban nobility and feudal lords. This struggle was combined in one stream with the struggle of the serfs against feudal exploitation.

carriers supreme power kings were considered (in Russia - grand dukes, and then tsars). But outside the realms of the kings, the importance of royalty in the period of early feudalism was negligible. Often this power remained nominal. All of Europe was divided into many large and small states. Large feudal lords were complete masters in their possessions. They issued laws, monitored their execution, performed court and reprisals, maintained their own army, raided neighbors, and did not hesitate to rob on high roads. Many of them minted their own coins. The smaller feogs also enjoyed very wide rights in relation to people subject to them; they tried to equal the big seigneurs.

Over time, feudal relations formed an extremely tangled tangle of rights and obligations. Between the feudal lords there were endless disputes and strife. They were usually resolved by force of arms, through internecine wars.

Structure and causes of feudal society

Feudalism as a phenomenon developed as a result of the synthesis of these processes. The beginnings of feudalism were still in the Roman Empire, it was there that colonial relations first appeared.

The master, who was a large landowner, endowed the peasants with their own land, they were also obliged to work on his farm for a certain number of days or to pay a sum of money in the form of a tax for the use of their land.

This was the birth of feudal relations, the flowering of which will fall on early middle ages. The root cause of the birth of feudalism was the class inequality of the peasants.

Most of the land was owned by wealthy families, which made it possible for them to receive large proceeds from the production of agricultural products. Along with incomes, power over the poorer residents also gradually increased.

Due to the monopoly that unfolded in society, poor peasants became dependent on prosperous landowners.

With the support of the authorities, as well as military officials who had significant influence at that time, large landowners managed to legislate the duty of the peasants. In fact, it was the same slaveholding with a small difference: the peasants had the right to work on their land plot.

Strengthening of feudalism in Europe

After the fall of the Roman Empire for 5 centuries, feudalism finally took hold in Europe. Free peasants were gradually ruined by constant military service and robberies.

In order to somehow earn a living, they were forced to turn to the feudal lords for help, who appropriated the ownership of their lands and imposed a number of duties on them. At the end of the X century, enslavement loses its voluntary form.

Power intervenes in relations between the feudal lord and the peasant. The monarchs had a personal benefit from the process of enslavement and in fact forcibly transferred the property of free peasants to large landowners.

Each feudal lord put forward his own forms of duties to the peasants, history speaks of cases of liberalism uncharacteristic of feudal relations. Some feudal lords refused to enslave the peasants and took only a symbolic tax in the form of products for the use of land.

Naturally, this provoked the migration of peasants, which was determined by the search for a better feudal lord. In the 15th century, such movements were prohibited, and the peasantry was finally assigned to one landowner. Such a restriction finally erased the line between the status of a slave and a peasant.

The need for feudalism

Paradoxically, but the feudal system was necessary element in the development of human society. The development of production in those historical conditions was possible only with the use of the labor of dependent peasants who had their own interest in labor.

In the Middle Ages, it was believed that society is divided into "those who pray" - the clergy, "those who fight" - knights and "those who work" - peasants. All these classes, as it were, were parts of one body. In fact, the hierarchical structure of society that arose in the Middle Ages was much more complex and interesting.
And you will also learn how a real knight should look and behave.

Subject:Feudal system Western Europe

Lesson:feudal society

In the Middle Ages, it was believed that society is divided into "those who pray" - the clergy, "those who fight" - knights and "those who work" - peasants. All these classes, as it were, were parts of one body. In fact, the hierarchical structure of society that arose in the Middle Ages was much more complex and interesting. And you will also learn how a real knight should look and behave.

By the middle of the XI century. in Europe, a social system was established, which modern historians call feudal. Power in society belonged to the landowners-feudal lords, secular and ecclesiastical. The vast majority of the population were dependent peasants. The privileges and duties of masters and peasants took shape in certain customs, written laws and regulations.

Each large feudal lord distributed part of the land with peasants to small feudal lords as a reward for their service, they also gave him an oath of allegiance. He was considered in relation to these feudal lords senior(senior), and the feudal lords, who, as it were, “kept” lands from him, became his vassals(subordinates). The vassal was obliged, by order of the lord, to go on a campaign and bring a detachment of soldiers with him, to participate in the lord's court, to help him with advice, to redeem the lord from captivity. The lord defended his vassals from attacks by other feudal lords and rebellious peasants, rewarded them for their service, and was obliged to take care of their orphaned children. It happened that the vassals opposed their lords, did not follow their orders, or went over to another lord. And then only by force could they be forced into submission, especially if the lord forced the vassals to participate in the war for too long or poorly rewarded for their service.

The king was considered the head of all feudal lords and the first lord of the country: he was the supreme judge in disputes between them and led the army during the war. The king was a senior for the highest nobility (aristocracy) - dukes and counts. Below were the barons and viscounts, the vassals of the dukes and earls. The barons were the lords of the knights, who no longer had their own vassals. Vassals were to obey only their lords. If they were not vassals of the king, then they might not follow his orders. This order was fixed by the rule: "The vassal of my vassal is not my vassal." Relations between the feudal lords resembled a ladder, on the upper steps of which stood the largest feudal lords, on the lower steps - the middle ones, and even lower - the small ones. Historians call this organization of feudal lords feudal staircase.

Rice. 1. Feudal stairs ()

Feudal law also regulated relations between masters and their dependent peasants. For example, a peasant community had the right to disobey a lord if he demanded a higher tax than was provided for by the custom of this community or by an agreement between the peasants and the lord of the land. When a war broke out with another state, the king called for the campaign of dukes and counts, and they turned to the barons, who brought detachments of knights with them. This is how the feudal army, which is usually called knightly, was created.

Starting from the 8th century to protect against the attacks of the Normans and Hungarians in Europe, many castles were built. Gradually, each gentleman tried to build himself a castle, depending on the possibilities - huge or modest. The castle is the dwelling of the feudal lord and his fortress. At first, castles were built of wood, later - of stone. Powerful walls with crenellated towers served reliable protection. The castle was often erected on a hill or a high rock, surrounded by a wide moat with water. Sometimes it was built on an island in the middle of a river or lake. A drawbridge was thrown over a moat or channel, and at night and during an enemy attack, it was raised on chains. From the tower above the gate, she constantly surveyed the surroundings of the guard and, noticing the enemy in the distance, blew the alarm. Then the soldiers hurried to take their places on the walls and in the towers. To get into the castle, it was necessary to overcome many obstacles. The enemies had to fill up the ditch, open space overcome the hill, approach the walls, climb them along the assigned assault ladders, or smash the oak, iron-bound gates with a battering ram. On the heads of the enemies, the defenders of the castle threw stones and logs, poured boiling water and hot pitch, threw spears, showered them with arrows. Often the attackers had to storm a second, even higher wall.

Rice. 2. Medieval castle in Spain ()

Above all the buildings towered the main tower - donjon. In it, the feudal lord with his warriors and servants could withstand a long siege if other fortifications were already captured. Inside the tower, one above the other, there were halls. AT basement they made a well and stored food supplies. Nearby, prisoners languished in a damp and dark dungeon. From the basement, they usually dug a secret underground passage that led to a river or forest.

Warfare became the occupation almost exclusively of the feudal lords, and this was the case for many centuries. The feudal lord often fought all his life. The knight was armed with a great sword and a long spear; often he also used a battle ax and a club - a heavy club with a thickened metal end. With a large shield, the knight could cover himself from head to toe. The body of the knight was protected by chain mail - a shirt woven from iron rings (sometimes in 2-3 layers) and reaching to the knees. Later, chain mail was replaced by armor - armor made of steel plates. The knight put on a helmet on his head, and in a moment of danger he lowered a visor over his face - a metal plate with slits for the eyes. The knights fought on strong, hardy horses, which were also protected by armor. The knight was accompanied by a squire and several armed warriors, horse and foot, - a whole "combat unit". The feudal lords prepared for military service from childhood. They constantly practiced fencing, horseback riding, wrestling, swimming and throwing spears, learned the techniques and tactics of combat.

Rice. 3. Knight and squire ()

Noble knights considered themselves “noble” people, were proud of the antiquity of their families and the number of famous ancestors. The knight had his own coat of arms - a distinctive sign of the family and the motto - a short saying, usually explaining the meaning of the coat of arms to the neck. The knights did not hesitate to rob the vanquished, their own peasants and even those passing on the high roads. At the same time, the knight was supposed to despise prudence, frugality, but show generosity. The incomes received from the peasants and military booty were most often spent on gifts, feasts and treats for friends, hunting, expensive clothes, and on the maintenance of servants and soldiers. Another important quality of a knight was considered loyalty to the king and lord. This was his main duty. And treason imposed a stigma of shame on the whole family of a traitor. “Whoever cheats on his lord, he must rightfully suffer punishment,” says one of the poems. In legends about knights, courage, prowess, contempt for death, nobility were sung. This developed code (laws) of knightly honor also included other special rules: a knight must seek feats, fight enemies Christian faith, to defend the honor of ladies, as well as the weak and offended, especially widows and orphans, to be fair and gallant. But these rules of knightly honor were applied mainly in relations between feudal lords. All those who were considered "ignoble", the knights despised, behaved with them arrogantly and cruelly.

Bibliography

1. Agibalova E. V., Donskoy G. M. History of the Middle Ages. - M., 2012.

2. Atlas of the Middle Ages: History. Traditions. - M., 2000.

3. Illustrated world history: from ancient times to the 17th century. - M., 1999.

4. History of the Middle Ages: Book. for reading / Ed. V. P. Budanova. - M., 1999.

5. Kalashnikov V. Riddles of History: Middle Ages / V. Kalashnikov. - M., 2002.

6. Stories on the history of the Middle Ages / Ed. A. A. Svanidze. - M., 1996.

Homework

1. Name the three estates of medieval society

2. Why did the peasants not enter the feudal ladder?

3. What rights and obligations bound seigneurs and vassals?

4. Describe a medieval castle

5. What weapons did the knights use?

6. What are the main provisions of the code of knightly honor.

Feudal Society in the Middle Ages - section History, Tutorial in history (primitive, antiquity, middle ages) The concentration of the absolute majority of the population in the village ...

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Feudal society in the Russian centralized state consisted of two main classes - the class of feudal lords and the class of feudal-dependent peasants.

The feudal class was divided into four social groups:

Serving princes ("princes"); boyars; servants under the court; boyar children.

Servant princes are former appanage princes. After joining their destinies to the Grand Duchy of Moscow, they lost their political independence. However, they retained the right of patrimonial ownership of their lands and were large landowners. The princes were obliged to serve the Grand Duke. Gradually they merged with the top of the boyars.

The boyars, as before, remained large estate owners. They also belonged to the service class, occupied important positions in the grand duke's administration.

The children of the boyars and the servants of the court formed a group of medium and small feudal lords and carried out personal service to the Grand Duke.

During the formation of a centralized state, the feudal lords had the right to leave, they could choose a stronger prince as overlord. As the power of the Moscow Grand Dukes strengthened, their attitude to the right to leave changed. They viewed it as a manifestation of separatism, a desire for independence. Therefore, those who departed were deprived of their estates and were considered traitors. The grand dukes transferred the confiscated lands to the lower group of service people. For example, Ivan III from 1483 to 1489 confiscated the lands of 8,000 families of boyars and guests of Veliky Novgorod, who were in opposition to Moscow. On their lands, Ivan IV "placed" "Muscovites of the best of many guests and boyar children."

In the XV century. - the beginning of the XVI century. in the conditions of the centralization of the state, since all groups of feudal lords turned into a service estate, the meaning of the word, "boyar", changed. In a single state, belonging to the boyars was associated with public service and began to mean a court rank granted by the Grand Duke. The highest rank was the "boyar introduced" (passed through the procedure of solemn introduction, announcement). This rank was received by the princes and well-born boyars for special merits. The next rank - "rounder" was given to small specific princes and noble boyars who were not included in the boyars introduced. Other ranks are stewards, city nobles.

During the period under review, a new group of feudal lords took shape - the nobles. Ivan III and other great princes gave land under the condition of serving free people and even serfs, mainly servants under the court (hence the name - nobles).

Nobles received land for service under the condition of local law, that is, without inheritance. They did not have the right to freely move from prince to prince and occupied minor positions. The nobles could not be the main leaders of the troops, the heads of the regiments. They could only command dozens or hundreds. They were responsible for protecting the borders of the state. Nobles could hold the positions of "messengers" - persons sent to different places with the instructions of the “non-workers”, whose duties included summoning the parties to court, the execution of court decisions, the arrest and torture of the “artists”. The nobles performed various positions in the court service, took part in princely hunting as kennels, baptismal workers, and falconers. In the Russian centralized state between the Grand Duke and the rest of the feudal lords, not contractual, but service relations developed. The following principles were in effect: “in service is honor!”, “serve to death”.

The clergy belonged to the large feudal lords, which was divided into white - the clergy of churches, and black - the clergy of monasteries.

During the period under review, there was an expansion of monastic land ownership due to the grant of princes and boyars, as well as the seizure of undeveloped lands, especially in the north-east of the country, numerous monasteries scattered throughout the country, enjoyed the support of local feudal lords and merchants, could exist comfortably at the expense of cash and in kind contributions to "remembrance of the soul", "about health".

Peasants. To designate the rural population, starting from the 14th century, the term peasants (from "Christians") is gradually gaining popularity.

The peasants were divided into two categories - black and privately owned. Black peasants lived on the lands of the princes and did not legally belong to any feudal lord. They paid the Grand Duke a tax - a nationwide tax. They were entrusted with the plowing of tithes - corvée for the Grand Duke, the maintenance of feeders, underwater duty, the construction of city walls, command huts, the construction of bridges, logging, the supply of "subsistence people".

The main measure in the distribution of taxes and duties on the community was a plow, a certain amount of land - from 400 to 1300 quarters (a quarter ½ tithe). Black peasants lived in communities ("world" "volost").

Privately owned peasants belonged to individual feudal lords. In the XIV century - XVI century. the feudal lords strive to attach the peasants to themselves, to their possessions. In this case, both economic and non-economic measures are used. Most often, the grand dukes assigned certain groups of peasants to individual owners with special letters. However, a single form of feudal dependence has not yet developed. Privately owned peasants were divided into groups. One of them were peasants-old-timers. These included peasants for a long time (from ancient times), who lived on the land of the feudal lord, performed duties in his favor and paid taxes. Until the middle of the 15th century, the old-timers were legally free. Then the princes began to issue charters, attaching them to the landowner.

Another category of peasants are new arrivals, new orders. These are peasants who were attracted by the feudal lords to their possessions by establishing benefits for them. For example, exemption for a year from taxes and feudal duties. The new orderers, who had lived in one place for many years, became old-timers.

Silversmiths are peasants who borrowed silver from their feudal lords, which was divided into “growth” and “product”. The first was given with the condition of payment of interest, the second - with the condition of repayment of interest by the "product", i.e., work on the land of the feudal lord. Until the debt was paid, the pieces of silver could not leave the owner

The newcomers are poor peasants who are forced to go to a rich master. They concluded agreements, "decent" letters, according to which they became dependent on the masters. The newcomer took "help" to equip. Within one year, he was either exempted from paying the quitrent to the master, or paid him "half", in a reduced amount. For this, he was obliged to acquire a household, build a house. If he did not do this, then he paid a "charge" - a penalty. After the expiration of grace years, newcomers merged with old-timers

Polovniki did not have their own land, they cultivated the master's land and gave half of the harvest to the owner.

Bobyls are landless peasants who did not have a farm and the ability to pay state service. They received housing and land from the feudal lord. For this they paid dues and performed corvée.

The bulk of the peasantry in the XV century. enjoyed the right of transition (“exit”) from one feudal lord to another at any time of the year (“low summer and always”). This did not suit the feudal lords, they began to demand the establishment certain period peasant outlet.

Ivan III in the Sudebnik of 1497 established a single deadline for the exit ("refusal") of the peasants - St. George's autumn day (November 26), when usually all agricultural work was completed. To receive a "rejection", i.e. the right to exit, the peasant had to pay the feudal lord "old" (for the use of the yard) in the amount of one ruble per steppe areas and half in the wooded ones, if he lived with the owner for four years or longer.

The autumn St. George's day was extremely inconvenient for the peasants to leave and, in fact, tied the peasants to the feudal lord even more strongly. It can be said without exaggeration that the Sudebnik of 1497, having established St. George's Day, laid the foundation for legal registration serfdom in Russia.

Serfs. During the formation of a centralized state, the process of rapprochement between serfdom and the feudal-dependent peasantry was slowly but steadily going on. So-called "suffering people" or "sufferers" appear - serfs planted on the ground. The number of sources of servility is reduced. The serf, who had escaped from the Tatar captivity, was released. “Keykeeping” in the city, birth from the free did not lead to servility. Another manifestation of the rapprochement between servility and the peasantry was the appearance of bonded people. This category of dependent population appeared at the end of the 15th century. The essence of bonded relations was the exploitation of the debtor by creditors on the basis of a special promissory note (“service bondage”). The debtor had to repay the interest on the borrowed amount by his labor ("service"). Often the amount of debt was fictitious, covering the transition into feudal dependence. In the XVI century. bondage acquires the features of complete servility. Therefore, bonded people began to be called bonded serfs. However, unlike a full serf, a bonded serf could not be passed on by will, his children did not become serfs.

Urban population. Residents of cities in the Russian centralized state were called townspeople. The fact is that the city at that time was divided into two parts: 1) a place enclosed by a fortress wall - "detinets", "kremlin", representatives of the princely power lived here, there was a garrison; 2) Posad - a settlement outside the stone walls of the citadel, merchants lived here, artisans - townspeople.

AT social relations townspeople were heterogeneous. The top - rich merchants (some princes were debtors of merchants) - guests, sourozhans, clothiers. There were merchant associations - the so-called hundreds.

The bulk of the urban population are black townspeople (artisans, small traders). Craftsmen united in communities, "brothers" on a professional basis (masons, armored workers, carpenters, etc.). They were given the right to judge.

The townspeople formed the townspeople's black hundred, whose members, on the principle of mutual responsibility, paid the national tax - the townsman's tax, and carried other duties.

§3 Political system

The formation of the Russian centralized state included two interrelated processes - the formation of a single state territory through the unification of fragmented principalities and the establishment of the power of a single monarch of this territory.

The dynamics of the formation of the power of the Grand Duke of Moscow is characterized by a steady increase in his autocracy. Before the unification, the Moscow princes were absolute masters in their own domain. Relations with the rest of the princes were built on the basis of the principle of suzerainty - vassalage - treaties, immunity letters. As the process of unification develops, the power of the Moscow Grand Duke is strengthened. Specific princes turn into servants, Russian state from a complex of feudal estates becomes a single state. Specific princes cannot conduct independent external and internal politics. The power of the Grand Duke of Moscow acquired the character of the real power of the entire Muscovite state. The state began to be divided not into destinies, but into counties, in which officials of the Moscow Grand Duke ruled.

From the point of view of the form of government until the middle of the XVI century. The Russian centralized state can be considered as a transition from the early feudal monarchy to the class-representative monarchy

Bodies of power and administration. supreme legislative, executive power belonged to the Grand Duke. There were two sources of strengthening the power of the Grand Duke: 1) internal - by limiting the immunity rights of specific princes and boyars; 2) external - the elimination of vassal dependence on the Golden Horde.

Moscow Grand Duke and legally and in fact became the bearer of sovereign power on the territory of Russia. Beginning with Ivan III, Moscow princes call themselves "sovereigns of all Russia." The rise of the power of the Moscow Grand Duke received an ideological justification. This was the theory put forward in the message of the monk of the Pskov Elizarov Monastery Philotheus “Moscow is the third Rome”. Two Romes (Western and Eastern - Constantinople) fell. The Russian people remained the only custodian of Orthodoxy, and Moscow became the third Rome and will be forever. “Two ubo Romes fell, and the third stands and the fourth will not be.” Philotheus addressed the Moscow prince: "You are the only king in the whole Celestial Empire".

A kind of practical confirmation of this position of Ivan III was his marriage to Sophia Palaiologos, the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, Constantine Palaiologos.

The Grand Duke had the right to appoint to the main government posts, including the Boyar Duma. He also headed the armed forces and was in charge of foreign affairs. Laws were issued on his behalf, and the Grand Duke's court was the highest court. The strengthening of the power of the Grand Duke was facilitated by the fact that in the 90s of the XV century. Ivan III managed to secure the appointment of a Russian metropolitan independent of the Patriarch of Constantinople.

The Boyar Duma is a permanent advisory body under the Grand Duke, which arose in the 15th century. It grew out of the Council of Boyars under the prince, which existed earlier, but was convened from time to time.

The Boyar Duma had a permanent composition, it included the highest hierarchs, boyars, okolnichy. The numerical composition of the Boyar Duma at the beginning of the XVI century. did not exceed 20 people.

The competence of the boyar duma was not clearly defined. She could consider important national issues. In particular, the role of the Boyar Duma in foreign affairs was great. The boyars were put at the head of the embassy missions, corresponded, attended the receptions of the ambassadors of the grand dukes.

In the Boyar Duma and the system of state administration in general, the principle of parochialism operated, according to which the position of members of the Boyar Duma and other officials was determined by their generosity, nobility, and not by business qualities.

During the formation of the Russian centralized state, feudal congresses were still convened, as a rule, to resolve issues related to the unification of Russian lands. The last feudal congress was convened by Ivan III in 1471.

"Ways" - a kind of departments that combined both the functions of state administration and the functions of meeting the needs of the grand duke's court (falconer, trapper, stable, chalice, etc.). The “paths” were headed by the “worthy boyars” appointed by the Grand Duke from among the most well-born and trusted persons of the prince.

The "ways" were in charge of certain areas, which they were in charge of "court and tribute."

The presence of "paths" is an indicator that elements of the palace and patrimonial system were preserved in state administration. However, over time, this archaic system did not meet the requirements of centralized power. In the XV century. early 16th century there are new bodies - orders. These were bureaucratically centralized bodies in charge of certain branches of government. Officials were formed in orders - people in orders - professionally engaged in public administration.

The first of the orders was the Treasury order (yard). In 1450, the state clerk was first mentioned, and in 1467 - the state clerk, as officials. Initially, the Treasury Department had extensive functions: it was in charge of yamsk, local, serfs and embassy affairs. Following Kazenny, other orders began to appear.

Local government was built on the basis of the feeding system. In cities there were governors, in volosts - volosts. They had administrative and judiciary. The population provided the governors and volosts with everything they needed - "food". Its size was determined in special princely charters. The “fodder” consisted of: entry feed (“who will bring what”), periodic in-kind and cash requisitions several times a year - at Christmas, Easter, Peter’s Day, trade duties from out-of-town merchants, marriage duties (“output merchant” and "new ubrus"). The feeding system was a relic of the early feudal monarchy and did not satisfy the population, the nobles were especially unhappy with it.

The armed forces consisted of the Grand Duke's army, which consisted of the children of the boyars, servants under the court. The basis of the army was the sovereign regiment. In addition, a people's militia could be convened - the "Moscow Army", mainly consisting of residents of cities. However, if necessary, it was replenished with villagers. The judiciary was not separated from the administrative. The highest was the court of the Grand Duke - for large feudal lords, as well as the highest court of appeal.

Judicial functions were carried out by the Boyar Duma, worthy boyars, orders. Governors and volostels judged locally. At the same time, their judicial rights were not the same. Governors and volostels with the right of a "boyar court" could consider any cases, without a "boyar court" - they did not have the right to accept cases of serious crimes - robbery, tatba, cases of serfs, etc. In such cases, they had to report to the Grand Duke or the Boyar Duma.