Solution of the national question in the USSR. National policy and national relations in the USSR on the eve of perestroika

Main dates and events: 1986 - the beginning of mass demonstrations on ethnic grounds; 1990 - elections of people's deputies of the union republics; 1991 - adoption of declarations on the state sovereignty of the union republics, the collapse of the USSR.

Historical figures: M. S. Gorbachev; B. N. Yeltsin; L. M. Kravchuk; S. S. Shushkevich; N. A. Nazarbaev.

Basic terms and concepts: federalism; the right of nations to self-determination.

Working with the map: show the borders of the USSR and the union republics. Answer plan: 1) the origins of the revival of national self-consciousness; 2) interethnic conflicts; 3) the formation of mass national movements; 4) the 1990 elections in the union republics; 5) development of a new union treaty; 6) the August political crisis of 1991 and its consequences for the union state; 7) the collapse of the USSR: causes and consequences; 8) formation of the CIS.

Reply material: Democratization public life could not help touching the sphere of interethnic relations. Problems that have been accumulating for years, which the authorities have tried to ignore for a long time, manifested themselves in sharp forms as soon as freedom wafted in. The first open mass demonstrations began as a sign of disagreement with the declining number from year to year.

national schools and the desire to expand the scope of the Russian language. Gorbachev's attempts to control the national authorities caused even more active protests in a number of republics. In December 1986, in protest against the appointment of First Secretary Central Committee Communist Party of Kazakhstan instead of D. A. Kunaev - Russian G. V. Kolbin, thousands of demonstrations took place in Alma-Ata, which turned into riots. The investigation into the abuse of power that took place in Uzbekistan caused widespread discontent in this republic. Even more active than in previous years, there were demands for the restoration of autonomy Crimean Tatars, Volga Germans.

Transcaucasia became the zone of the most acute interethnic conflicts. In 1987, mass unrest of Armenians began in Nagorno-Karabakh (Azerbaijan SSR), which constituted the majority of the population of this autonomous region. They demanded the transfer of territory NKAO into the Armenian SSR. The promise of the allied authorities to "consider" the Karabakh issue was taken as an agreement with the demand of the Armenian side. This led to pogroms of Armenian families in Sumgayit (AzSSR). It is characteristic that the party apparatus of both republics not only did not interfere ethnic conflict, but also actively participated in the creation of national movements. Gorbachev gave the order to send troops to Sumgayit and declare a curfew. The USSR did not yet know such measures.

Against the backdrop of the Karabakh conflict and the impotence of the allied authorities in May 1988, popular fronts were created in Latvia. Lithuania, Estonia. If at first they spoke "in support of perestroika", then after a few months they announced secession from the USSR as the ultimate goal. The most massive and radical of these organizations was Sąjūdis (Lithuania). Soon the supreme councils of the Baltic republics decided to declare the national languages ​​the state languages ​​and deprive the Russian language of this status. The requirement to introduce the mother tongue in state and educational institutions sounded in Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova.

In Transcaucasia ~ aggravated interethnic relations not only within the republics, but also within them (between Georgians and Abkhazians, Georgians and Ossetians, etc.). In the Central Asian republics, for the first time in many years, there was a threat of penetration of Islamic fundamentalism. In Yakutia, Tataria, and Bashkiria, movements were gaining momentum that demanded that these autonomous republics be given union rights. The leaders of the national movements, in an effort to secure mass support for themselves, placed special emphasis on the fact that their republics and peoples “feed Russia.”

this way” and the union center. As you deepen economic crisis this instilled in the minds of people the idea that their prosperity could be ensured only as a result of secession from the USSR. for the party elite of the republics, an exceptional opportunity was created to secure a quick career and well-being. The “Gorbachev team” was not ready to offer ways out of the “national impasse” and therefore constantly hesitated and was late in making decisions. The situation gradually began to get out of control.

The situation worsened even more after elections were held in early 1990 in the union republics on the basis of a new electoral law. Almost everywhere the leaders of the national movements won. The party leadership of the republics chose to support them, hoping to remain in power. The “parade of sovereignties” began: on March 9, the declaration of sovereignty was adopted by the Supreme Council of Georgia, March 11 - Lithuania, March 30 Estonia, May 4 - Latvia, June 12 - RSFSR, June 20 - Uzbekistan, June 23 - Moldova, July 16 - Ukraine, July 27 - Belarus. Gorbachev's reaction was at first harsh. In relation to Lithuania, for example, economic sanctions were adopted. However, with the help of the West, Lithuania managed to survive. In the conditions of discord between the center and the republics, the leaders tried to act as arbitrators Western countries- ClllA, Germany, France. All this made Gorbachev belatedly announce the start of the development of a new union treaty.

This work began in the summer of 1990. The majority of members of the Politburo and the leadership of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR opposed the revision of the foundations of the Union Treaty of 1922. Gorbachev began to fight against them with the help of B. N. Yeltsin, elected Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR, and the leaders of other union republics. The main idea embodied in the draft document was the idea of ​​broad rights for the union republics, primarily in economic sphere(and later - their economic sovereignty). However, it soon became clear that Gorbachev was not ready to go for it. Since the end of 1990, the union republics, which had ~previously great independence, concluded a series of bilateral agreements in the field of the economy.

In the meantime, the situation in Lithuania was sharply complicated, where the Supreme Council, one after another, adopted laws that formalized the sovereignty of the republic in practice. In January 1991, Gorbachev, in a sly manner, demanded that the Supreme Council of Lithuania restore in full the operation of the Constitution of the USSR, and after the refusal - introduced additional military formations into the republic. This caused clashes between the army and the population.

in Vilnius, which resulted in the death of 14 people. These events caused a stormy response throughout the country, once again compromising the union center.

March 17, 1991 was a referendum on the fate of the USSR was held. 76% of the population of a vast country spoke in favor of maintaining a single state. In the summer of 1991, the first presidential elections in the history of Russia took place. During the election campaign, the leading "democratic" candidate Yeltsin actively played the "national card", suggesting that Russia's regional leaders take as much sovereignty as they "can eat." This largely ensured his victory in the elections. Gorbachev's position weakened even more. Growing economic difficulties demanded to speed up the development of a new union treaty. The allied leadership was now primarily interested in this. In the summer, Gorbachev agreed to all the conditions and demands made by the Union republics. According to the draft of the new treaty, the USSR was supposed to turn into a Union of Sovereign States, which would include both former union and autonomous republics on equal terms. In terms of the form of association, it was more like a confederation. It was also planned to form new federal authorities. The signing of the agreement was scheduled for August 20, 1991.

Some of the top leaders of the USSR perceived the preparations for signing a new union treaty as a threat to the existence of a single state and tried to prevent it. In the absence of Gorbachev in Moscow, on the night of August 19, a State Committee on the state of emergency (GKChP), which was headed by Vice-President G. I. Yanaev. The State Emergency Committee introduced a state of emergency in certain regions of the country; declared disbanded the power structures that acted contrary to the Constitution of 1977; suspended the activities of opposition parties; banned rallies and demonstrations; established control over the funds mass media; sent troops to Moscow. On the morning of August 19, the leadership of the RSFSR issued an appeal to the citizens of the republic, in which they regarded the actions of the State Emergency Committee as a state coup and declared them illegal. At the call of the President of Russia, tens of thousands of Muscovites took up defensive positions around the building of the Supreme Soviet in order to prevent it from being stormed by troops. On August 21, the session of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR began its work, which supported the leadership of the republic. On the same day, Soviet President Gorbachev returned from Crimea to Moscow, and members of the State Emergency Committee were arrested.

Members attempt GKChP to prevent the collapse of the USSR led to the opposite result. 21 aBrycta declared their independence Latvia ff Estonia, 24 aBrycta - Ukraine, 25 aBrycta - Belarus, 27 aBrycta - MOJshavia, 30 aBrycta - Azerbaijan, 31 aBrycta - Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan, 9 September - Tajikistan, 23 September - Armenia, 27 October - Turkmenistan. The central government was compromised. Now we could only talk about the creation of a confederation. On September 5, the 5th Extraordinary Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR actually announced its own dissolution and the transfer of power to the State Council of the USSR, consisting of the leaders of the republics. Gorbachev as the head of a single state turned out to be superfluous. On September 6, the State Council of the USSR recognized the independence of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia. This was the beginning of the real collapse of the USSR. December 8 at Belovezhskaya Pushcha(Belarus) gathered President of Russia Boris N. Yeltsin, Chairman of the Supreme Council of Ukraine L. M. Kravchuk and Chairman of the Supreme Council of Belarus S. S. Shushkevich. They announced the denunciation of the Union Treaty of 1922 and the cessation of the existence of the USSR. Instead, the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) was created, which initially united 11 former Soviet republics (excluding the Baltic states and Georgia). On December 27, MS Gorbachev announced his resignation. The USSR ceased to exist.

Thus, in the conditions of an acute crisis of the union power structures, the initiative in the political reformation of the country passed to the republics. The events of August 1991 finally showed the impossibility of the existence of a single union state.

NATIONAL POLICY AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS. COLLAPSE OF THE USSR

Democratization of society and the national question. The democratization of public life could not but affect the sphere of interethnic relations. Problems that have been accumulating for years, which the authorities have tried to ignore for a long time, manifested themselves in sharp forms as soon as freedom wafted in.

The first open mass demonstrations took place as a sign of disagreement with the number of national schools decreasing from year to year and the desire to expand the scope of the Russian language. In early 1986, under the slogans "Yakutia - for the Yakuts", "Down with the Russians!" student demonstrations took place in Yakutsk.

Gorbachev's attempts to limit the influence of national elites caused even more active protests in a number of republics. In December 1986, in protest against the appointment of the first secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan instead of D. A. Kunaev, Russian G. V. Kolbin, demonstrations of many thousands, which turned into riots, took place in Alma-Ata. The investigation into the abuse of power that took place in Uzbekistan caused widespread discontent in this republic.

Even more actively than in previous years, there were demands for the restoration of the autonomy of the Crimean Tatars, the Germans of the Volga region. Transcaucasia became the zone of the most acute interethnic conflicts.

Interethnic conflicts and the formation of mass national movements. In 1987, in Nagorno-Karabakh (Azerbaijan SSR), mass unrest of the Armenians, who make up the majority of the population of this autonomous region, began. They demanded that Karabakh be transferred to the Armenian SSR. The promise of the allied authorities to "consider" this issue was taken as an agreement to meet these demands. All this led to the massacres of Armenians in Sumgayit (AzSSR). It is characteristic that the party apparatus of both republics not only did not interfere with the interethnic conflict, but also actively participated in the creation of national movements. Gorbachev gave the order to send troops to Sumgayit and declare a curfew there.

Against the backdrop of the Karabakh conflict and the impotence of the allied authorities in May 1988, popular fronts were created in Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia. If at first they spoke "in support of perestroika", then after a few months they announced secession from the USSR as their ultimate goal. The most massive and radical of these organizations was Sąjūdis (Lithuania). Soon, under pressure from the popular fronts, the Supreme Soviets of the Baltic republics decided to declare the national languages ​​the state languages ​​and deprive the Russian language of this status.

The demand for the introduction of the native language in state and educational institutions was heard in Ukraine, Belarus, and Moldova.

In the republics of Transcaucasia, interethnic relations have become aggravated not only between the republics, but also within them (between Georgians and Abkhazians, Georgians and Ossetians, etc.).

In the Central Asian republics, for the first time in many years, there was a threat of penetration of Islamic fundamentalism from outside.

In Yakutia, Tataria, Bashkiria, movements were gaining strength, the participants of which demanded that these autonomous republics be given union rights.

The leaders of the national movements, in an effort to secure mass support for themselves, placed particular emphasis on the fact that their republics and peoples were "feeding Russia" and the Union Center. As the economic crisis deepened, this instilled in the minds of people the idea that their prosperity could be ensured only as a result of secession from the USSR.

For the party elite of the republics, an exceptional opportunity was created to ensure a quick career and well-being.

"Gorbachev's team" turned out to be unprepared to propose ways out of the "national impasse" and therefore constantly hesitated and was late in making decisions. The situation gradually began to get out of control.

Elections of 1990 in the union republics. The situation became even more complicated after elections were held in early 1990 in the union republics on the basis of a new electoral law. Almost everywhere the leaders of the national movements won. The party leadership of the republics chose to support them, hoping to remain in power.

The "parade of sovereignties" began: on March 9, the Declaration of Sovereignty was adopted by the Supreme Council of Georgia, March 11 - Lithuania, March 30 - Estonia, May 4 - Latvia, June 12 - RSFSR, June 20 - Uzbekistan, June 23 - Moldova, July 16 - Ukraine , July 27 - Belarus.

Gorbachev's reaction was at first harsh. In relation to Lithuania, for example, economic sanctions were adopted. However, with the help of the West, the republic managed to survive.

In the conditions of discord between the Center and the republics, the leaders of the Western countries - the USA, the FRG, and France - tried to assume the role of arbitrators between them.

All this made Gorbachev belatedly announce the start of the development of a new Union Treaty.

Development of a new Union Treaty. Work on the preparation of a fundamentally new document, which was to become the basis of the state, began in the summer of 1990. The majority of members of the Politburo and the leadership of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR opposed the revision of the foundations of the Union Treaty of 1922. Therefore, Gorbachev began to fight against them with the help of B. N. Yeltsin, elected Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR, and the leaders of other union republics, who supported his reform course. Soviet Union.

The main idea embodied in the draft of the new treaty was the provision on granting broad rights to the union republics, primarily in the economic sphere (and later even the acquisition of economic sovereignty by them). However, it soon became clear that Gorbachev was not ready to go for that either. Since the end of 1990, the union republics, now enjoying great freedom, decided to act independently: a series of bilateral agreements were concluded between them in the field of the economy.

In the meantime, the situation in Lithuania was sharply complicated, the Supreme Council of which passed laws one after another, formalizing in practice the sovereignty of the republic. In January 1991, in an ultimatum form, Gorbachev demanded that the Supreme Council of Lithuania restore the full operation of the Constitution of the USSR, and after their refusal, he introduced additional military formations into the republic. This caused clashes between the army and the population in Vilnius, as a result of which 14 people were killed. The tragic events in the capital of Lithuania provoked a violent reaction throughout the country, once again compromising the Union Center.

On March 17, 1991, a referendum was held on the fate of the USSR. Each citizen who had the right to vote received a ballot with the question: "Do you consider it necessary to preserve the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics as a renewed federation of equal sovereign republics, in which the rights and freedoms of a person of any nationality will be fully guaranteed?" 76% of the population of a vast country spoke in favor of maintaining a single state. However, the collapse of the USSR could no longer be stopped.

In the summer of 1991, the first presidential elections in Russia took place. During election campaign the leading "democratic" candidate, Yeltsin, actively played the "national card," suggesting that Russia's regional leaders take as much sovereignty as they "can eat." This largely ensured his victory in the elections. Gorbachev's position weakened even more. Growing economic difficulties required speeding up the development of a new Union Treaty. The allied leadership was now primarily interested in this. In the summer, Gorbachev agreed to all the conditions and demands made by the Union republics. According to the draft of the new treaty, the USSR was supposed to turn into a Union of Sovereign States, which would include both former union and autonomous republics on equal terms. In terms of the form of association, it was more like a confederation. It was also planned to form new federal authorities. The signing of the agreement was scheduled for August 20, 1991.

August 1991 and its aftermath. Some of the top leaders of the Soviet Union perceived the preparations for signing a new union treaty as a threat to the existence of a single state and tried to prevent it.

In the absence of Gorbachev in Moscow, on the night of August 19, the State Committee for the State of Emergency (GKChP) was created, which included Vice President G. I. Yanaev, Prime Minister V. S. Pavlov, Minister of Defense D. T Yazov, KGB Chairman V. A. Kryuchkov, Minister of the Interior B. K. Pugo, and others. declared disbanded power structures that acted contrary to the 1977 constitution; suspended the activities of opposition parties; banned rallies and demonstrations; established control over the media; sent troops to Moscow.

On the morning of August 20, the Supreme Soviet of Russia issued an appeal to the citizens of the republic, in which it regarded the actions of the State Emergency Committee as a coup d'état and declared them illegal. At the call of President Yeltsin, tens of thousands of Muscovites took up defensive positions around the building of the Supreme Soviet in order to prevent its assault by troops. On August 21, the session of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR began its work, which supported the leadership of the republic. On the same day, Soviet President Gorbachev returned from Crimea to Moscow, and members of the State Emergency Committee were arrested.

The collapse of the USSR. An attempt by members of the GKChP to save the Soviet Union led to the exact opposite result - the disintegration of the unified state accelerated. Latvia and Estonia declared independence on August 21, Ukraine on August 24, Belarus on August 25, Moldova on August 27, Azerbaijan on August 30, Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan on August 31, Tajikistan on September 9, Armenia on September 23, and Turkmenistan on October 27 . The Allied Center compromised in August turned out to be of no use to anyone.

Now we could only talk about the creation of a confederation. On September 5, the 5th Extraordinary Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR actually announced its own dissolution and the transfer of power to the State Council of the USSR, consisting of the leaders of the republics. Gorbachev as the head of a single state turned out to be superfluous. On September 6, the State Council of the USSR recognized the independence of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia. This was the beginning of the real collapse of the USSR.

On December 8, the president gathered in Belovezhskaya Pushcha (Belarus) Russian Federation B. N. Yeltsin, Chairman of the Supreme Council of Ukraine L. M. Kravchuk and Chairman of the Supreme Council of Belarus S. S. Shushkevich. They announced the denunciation of the Union Treaty of 1922 and the cessation of the existence of the USSR. "The Union of the SSR as a subject of international law and geopolitical reality ceases to exist," the leaders of the three republics said in a statement.

Instead of the Soviet Union, the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) was created, which initially united 11 former Soviet republics (excluding the Baltic states and Georgia). On December 27, Gorbachev announced his resignation. The USSR ceased to exist.

What you need to know about this topic:

Socio-economic and political development of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. Nicholas II.

Domestic policy of tsarism. Nicholas II. Strengthening repression. "Police socialism".

Russo-Japanese War. Reasons, course, results.

Revolution of 1905 - 1907 The nature, driving forces and features of the Russian revolution of 1905-1907. stages of the revolution. The reasons for the defeat and the significance of the revolution.

Elections to the State Duma. I State Duma. The agrarian question in the Duma. Dispersal of the Duma. II State Duma. coup d'état June 3, 1907

Third June political system. Electoral law June 3, 1907 III State thought. The alignment of political forces in the Duma. Duma activities. government terror. The decline of the labor movement in 1907-1910

Stolypin agrarian reform.

IV State Duma. Party composition and Duma factions. Duma activity.

The political crisis in Russia on the eve of the war. The labor movement in the summer of 1914 Crisis of the top.

International Position Russia at the beginning of the 20th century.

Beginning of the First World War. Origin and nature of war. Russia's entry into the war. Attitude towards the war of parties and classes.

The course of hostilities. Strategic forces and plans of the parties. Results of the war. Role Eastern Front in the first world war.

The Russian economy during the First World War.

Workers' and peasants' movement in 1915-1916. Revolutionary movement in the army and navy. Growing anti-war sentiment. Formation of the bourgeois opposition.

Russian culture of the 19th - early 20th centuries.

Aggravation of socio-political contradictions in the country in January-February 1917. The beginning, prerequisites and nature of the revolution. Uprising in Petrograd. Formation of the Petrograd Soviet. Provisional Committee State Duma. Order N I. Formation of the Provisional Government. Abdication of Nicholas II. Causes of dual power and its essence. February coup in Moscow, at the front, in the provinces.

From February to October. The policy of the Provisional Government regarding war and peace, on agrarian, national, labor issues. Relations between the Provisional Government and the Soviets. The arrival of V.I. Lenin in Petrograd.

Political parties (Kadets, Social Revolutionaries, Mensheviks, Bolsheviks): political programs, influence among the masses.

Crises of the Provisional Government. An attempted military coup in the country. Growth of revolutionary sentiment among the masses. Bolshevization of the capital Soviets.

Preparation and conduct of an armed uprising in Petrograd.

II All-Russian Congress of Soviets. Decisions about power, peace, land. Formation of public authorities and management. Composition of the first Soviet government.

The victory of the armed uprising in Moscow. Government agreement with the Left SRs. Elections in constituent Assembly, its convocation and dissolution.

The first socio-economic transformations in the field of industry, Agriculture, finance, work and women's issues. Church and State.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, its terms and significance.

Economic tasks of the Soviet government in the spring of 1918. Aggravation of the food issue. The introduction of food dictatorship. Working squads. Comedy.

The revolt of the left SRs and the collapse of the two-party system in Russia.

First Soviet Constitution.

Reasons for intervention and civil war. The course of hostilities. Human and material losses of the period of the civil war and military intervention.

Domestic politics Soviet leadership during the war years. "War Communism". GOELRO plan.

The policy of the new government in relation to culture.

Foreign policy. Treaties with border countries. Participation of Russia in the Genoa, Hague, Moscow and Lausanne conferences. Diplomatic recognition of the USSR by the main capitalist countries.

Domestic policy. Socio-economic and political crisis of the early 20s. Famine of 1921-1922 Transition to a new economic policy. The essence of the NEP. NEP in the field of agriculture, trade, industry. financial reform. Economic recovery. Crises during the NEP and its curtailment.

Creation projects USSR. I Congress of Soviets of the USSR. The first government and the Constitution of the USSR.

Illness and death of V.I. Lenin. Intra-party struggle. The beginning of the formation of Stalin's regime of power.

Industrialization and collectivization. Development and implementation of the first five-year plans. Socialist competition - purpose, forms, leaders.

Formation and strengthening state system economic management.

The course towards complete collectivization. Dispossession.

Results of industrialization and collectivization.

Political, national-state development in the 30s. Intraparty struggle. Political repression. Formation of the nomenklatura as a layer of managers. Stalinist regime and the constitution of the USSR in 1936

Soviet culture in the 20-30s.

Foreign policy of the second half of the 20s - mid-30s.

Domestic policy. The growth of military production. Emergency measures in the field labor law. Measures to solve the grain problem. Military establishment. Growth of the Red Army. Military reform. Repressions against the command personnel of the Red Army and the Red Army.

Foreign policy. Non-aggression pact and treaty of friendship and borders between the USSR and Germany. The entry of Western Ukraine and Western Belarus into the USSR. Soviet-Finnish war. The inclusion of the Baltic republics and other territories in the USSR.

Periodization of the Great Patriotic War. The initial stage of the war. Turning the country into a military camp. Military defeats 1941-1942 and their reasons. Major military events Capitulation of Nazi Germany. Participation of the USSR in the war with Japan.

Soviet rear during the war.

Deportation of peoples.

Partisan struggle.

Human and material losses during the war.

Creation of the anti-Hitler coalition. Declaration of the United Nations. The problem of the second front. Conferences of the "Big Three". Problems of post-war peace settlement and all-round cooperation. USSR and UN.

Beginning of the Cold War. The contribution of the USSR to the creation of the "socialist camp". CMEA formation.

Domestic policy of the USSR in the mid-1940s - early 1950s. Restoration of the national economy.

Socio-political life. Politics in the field of science and culture. Continued repression. "Leningrad business". Campaign against cosmopolitanism. "Doctors' Case".

Socio-economic development of Soviet society in the mid-50s - the first half of the 60s.

Socio-political development: XX Congress of the CPSU and the condemnation of Stalin's personality cult. Rehabilitation of victims of repressions and deportations. Intra-party struggle in the second half of the 1950s.

Foreign policy: the creation of the ATS. The entry of Soviet troops into Hungary. Exacerbation of Soviet-Chinese relations. The split of the "socialist camp". Soviet-American Relations and the Caribbean Crisis. USSR and third world countries. Reducing the strength of the armed forces of the USSR. Moscow Treaty on the Limitation of Nuclear Tests.

USSR in the mid-60s - the first half of the 80s.

Socio-economic development: economic reform 1965

Growing difficulties of economic development. Decline in the rate of socio-economic growth.

USSR Constitution 1977

Socio-political life of the USSR in the 1970s - early 1980s.

Foreign Policy: Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. Consolidation of post-war borders in Europe. Moscow treaty with Germany. Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE). Soviet-American treaties of the 70s. Soviet-Chinese relations. The entry of Soviet troops into Czechoslovakia and Afghanistan. Aggravation international tension and the USSR. Strengthening of the Soviet-American confrontation in the early 80s.

USSR in 1985-1991

Domestic policy: an attempt to accelerate the socio-economic development of the country. An attempt to reform the political system of Soviet society. Congresses of People's Deputies. Election of the President of the USSR. Multi-party system. Exacerbation of the political crisis.

Exacerbation of the national question. Attempts to reform the national-state structure of the USSR. Declaration on State Sovereignty of the RSFSR. "Novogarevsky process". The collapse of the USSR.

Foreign policy: Soviet-American relations and the problem of disarmament. Treaties with leading capitalist countries. The withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan. Changing relations with the countries of the socialist community. Disintegration of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance and the Warsaw Pact.

Russian Federation in 1992-2000

Domestic policy: "Shock therapy" in the economy: price liberalization, stages of privatization of commercial and industrial enterprises. Fall in production. Increased social tension. Growth and slowdown in financial inflation. The aggravation of the struggle between the executive and legislative branches. The dissolution of the Supreme Soviet and the Congress of People's Deputies. October events of 1993 Abolition of local authorities Soviet power. Elections to the Federal Assembly. The Constitution of the Russian Federation of 1993 Formation of the presidential republic. Aggravation and overcoming of national conflicts in the North Caucasus.

Parliamentary elections 1995 Presidential elections 1996 Power and opposition. An attempt to return to the course of liberal reforms (spring 1997) and its failure. The financial crisis of August 1998: causes, economic and political consequences. "Second Chechen War". Parliamentary elections of 1999 and early presidential elections 2000. Foreign Policy: Russia in the CIS. The participation of Russian troops in the "hot spots" of the near abroad: Moldova, Georgia, Tajikistan. Russia's relations with foreign countries. The withdrawal of Russian troops from Europe and neighboring countries. Russian-American agreements. Russia and NATO. Russia and the Council of Europe. Yugoslav crises (1999-2000) and Russia's position.

• Danilov A.A., Kosulina L.G. History of the state and peoples of Russia. XX century.

Education of the USSR. National relations and nation-state construction in the 1920s. At the beginning of the 20th century, Russia was a multinational empire. The national liberation movement was an important integral part revolutionary movement in the country. Various political forces developed their own programs for solving the national question - from a single indivisible unitary Russia to federal, etc.

In November 1917, the Soviet government adopted the "Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia", which proclaimed the equality and sovereignty of the peoples of Russia, their right to self-determination up to secession, the abolition of national-religious privileges and restrictions. This right was used by Ukraine, Finland, Poland, Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Belarus. The program of the Bolshevik Party on the national question greatly contributed to their victory in the civil war. But, while proclaiming the right of nations to self-determination, the Bolsheviks did not seek to split Russia. On the contrary, they sought to preserve its integrity as much as possible.

During the years of the civil war and foreign military intervention, a military-political alliance was formed between the Soviet republics. Russia, Ukraine and Belarus have also pooled their resources, transport, finance, economic bodies maintaining autonomy in matters relating to inner life republics. This type of national-state structure is called a confederation. The republican communist parties were included in the RCP(b) as regional party organizations.

At the end of the civil war, all Soviet republics concluded bilateral agreements on economic and diplomatic union among themselves and with the RSFSR. The number of all-Union departments has increased. In March 1922 Azerbaijan, Armenia and Georgia formed the Transcaucasian Soviet Socialist Federation.

The tasks of restoring and developing the economy and socialist reorganization required the improvement of existing treaty-federative relations. Absence legal regulations regulating relations between central and local authorities, caused conflicts between them. In the spring of 1922, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Ukraine and Belarus raised the issue of contractual relations.

The Politburo of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) created a commission to prepare a draft law on new form state association. I. Stalin, People's Commissar for Nationalities, became the chairman of the commission. He owned the idea of ​​"autonomization", i.e. the entry of the Soviet republics into the RSFSR and their subordination to a single center. Some republics rejected this idea, because. it infringed on their sovereignty. The proposal of V.I. Lenin on the creation of a federal state.

On December 30, 1922 in Moscow, the First All-Union Congress of Soviets approved the Declaration and the Treaty on the Formation of the USSR as part of the Russian SFSR, the Ukrainian SSR, the Byelorussian SSR and the Transcaucasian SFSR. The Declaration proclaimed the principles of voluntary association, equality of the republics and the right of their free secession from the Union. The treaty defined the system of federal authorities, their competence and relations with the republican administrative structures.

The legal basis of the USSR was the Constitution adopted in January 1924. II Congress of Soviets of the USSR. It proclaimed the creation of a single union state as a federation of sovereign Soviet republics. The republics were in charge of domestic policy, justice, education, health and welfare. Questions foreign policy, transport, communications were decided at the union level. The All-Union Congress of Soviets became the supreme legislative body, and in the intervals between congresses, the bicameral Central Executive Committee: the Council of the Union and the Council of Nationalities. Executive power belonged to the Council People's Commissars THE USSR. Moscow was declared the capital of the USSR. The Constitution of the USSR retained the principles of the Constitution of the RSFSR of 1918 in the field of electoral law. The multi-stage system of elections, open voting, the advantages of the working class, the deprivation of voting rights of exploitative elements and ministers of religious cults were preserved.

National politics in the USSR was aimed at overcoming the historically established inequality of peoples in the economic, social and cultural spheres.

The Union included new republics: in 1924-1925. on the territory of the Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, the Bukhara and Khorezm People's Republics, the Uzbek and Turkmen SSRs were created. In 1929, the Tajik ASSR was transformed into a union republic.

The territorial and administrative division of the country has changed: provinces, counties, volosts were transformed into regions, districts, village councils. National regions, districts, districts were created. Boundaries were clarified. The not always well-thought-out national-state delimitation carried out in the 1920s gave rise to hotbeds of future ethnic conflicts.

On the this moment there is no consensus on what are the prerequisites for the collapse of the USSR. However, most scientists are unanimous in the fact that their beginnings were laid in the very ideology of the Bolsheviks, who, albeit in many respects formally, recognized the right of nations to self-determination. The weakening of the central government provoked the formation of new power centers on the outskirts of the state. It is worth noting that similar processes took place at the very beginning of the 20th century, during the period of revolutions and the collapse of the Russian Empire.

In short, the reasons for the collapse of the USSR are as follows:

The crisis provoked by the planned nature of the economy and led to a shortage of many consumer goods;

Unsuccessful, largely ill-conceived, reforms that led to a sharp deterioration in living standards;

Mass dissatisfaction of the population with interruptions in food supplies;

The ever-increasing gap in the standard of living between the citizens of the USSR and the citizens of the countries of the capitalist camp;

Aggravation of national contradictions;

Weakening of the central authority;

The processes that led as a result to the collapse of the USSR were identified already in the 80s. Against the background of the general crisis, which only deepened by the beginning of the 1990s, there is an increase in nationalist tendencies in almost all the union republics. The first to leave the USSR are: Lithuania, Estonia and Latvia. They are followed by Georgia, Azerbaijan, Moldova and Ukraine.

The collapse of the USSR was the result of the events of August - December 1991. After August coup activity in the country of the CPSU party was suspended. The Supreme Soviet of the USSR and the Congress of People's Deputies lost power. The last Congress in history took place in September 1991 and announced its self-dissolution. During this period, the State Council of the USSR, headed by Gorbachev, the first and only president of the USSR, became the supreme authority. His attempts to prevent both the economic and political collapse of the USSR, undertaken by him in the autumn, did not bring success. As a result, on December 8, 1991, after the signing of the Belovezhskaya Agreement by the heads of Ukraine, Belarus and Russia, the Soviet Union ceased to exist. At the same time, there was the formation of the CIS - the Commonwealth of Independent States. The collapse of the Soviet Union was the largest geopolitical catastrophe of the 20th century, with global consequences.

Here are just the main consequences of the collapse of the USSR:

Sharp decline in production in all countries former USSR and a decline in the standard of living of the population;

The territory of Russia has shrunk by a quarter;

Access to seaports became more difficult again;

The population of Russia has decreased - in fact by half;

The emergence of numerous national conflicts and the emergence of territorial claims between the former republics of the USSR;

Globalization began - the processes gradually gained momentum that turned the world into a single political, informational, economic system;

The world became unipolar, and the United States remained the only superpower.

Political reforms in the 1990s 20th century in Russia

After the collapse of the USSR in 1991, changes took place in Russia in all areas of life. One of the most important events of the last decade of the XX century. was the formation of a new Russian statehood.

presidential power. Central position in the system of government modern Russia occupies the institution of the President, who, according to the Constitution of 1993, is the head of state, and not the executive (as it was before December 1993).

Almost no important issue in the life of the state and society can be resolved without the consent and approval of the head of state.

The President is the guarantor of the Constitution and may take any measures to protect the sovereignty, independence and territorial integrity of Russia. The President is accountable to the Government of the country, the composition and main activities of which he determines and whose work he actually manages. The head of state also heads the Security Council. He is the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the country, can, if necessary, introduce a state of emergency, military and special situation.

Such scope of powers of the President is quite consistent with historical traditions supreme power in Russia. Some opponents of strong presidential power sometimes refer to this regime as an elective monarchy. However, with all the full powers of the head of state, his power is sufficiently limited by a system of checks and balances.

From the Soviets to parliamentarism. The main political event of the 90s. was the dismantling of the Soviet system of power and its replacement by the separation of powers - legislative, executive, judicial.

Using the historical experience of parliamentarism in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, the Constitution of 1993 completed the process of the formation of a new Russian parliamentarism that began back in the years of perestroika.

The Russian parliament is the Federal Assembly, which consists of two chambers - the Federation Council (upper) and the State Duma (lower). The upper chamber calls for the election of the President and decides, if necessary, the issue of his removal from office; approves the decision of the head of state on the introduction of martial law or a state of emergency; appoints and dismisses Attorney General and members of the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court, the Supreme Arbitration Court of Russia. The main subjects of the State Duma are the approval of the composition of the Government and the adoption of laws of the country. Both houses of parliament approve the federal budget and state taxes and fees; ratify international agreements signed by Russia; declare war and make peace. All these decisions are subject to the approval of the President.

Government. executive power in the country is carried out by the Government of Russia. It develops and implements the federal budget after approval; ensures the implementation of a unified state financial, credit and monetary policy in the country; determines the parameters for the development of culture, science, education, healthcare, social security, and ecology; ensures the implementation of the country's defense and foreign policy; takes care of the observance of law and order, the rights and freedoms of citizens. He is also in charge of disposing of federal property.

The activities of the Government, in contrast to the pre-revolutionary and Soviet periods history of Russia, is not only directly dependent on the instructions and orders of the head of state, but also under significant control by the parliament.

Judicial branch. Judicial power in the country is exercised through constitutional, civil, administrative and criminal proceedings. The Constitutional Court, at the request of the authorities, makes a final decision on the compliance with the Constitution of the country of federal and regional laws and regulations; decrees of the President of the country, heads of subjects of the Federation. At the request of citizens, he resolves the issue of violation of their constitutional rights and freedoms. If necessary, he gives an interpretation of those provisions of the Constitution that are not regulated by special laws and other documents.

The Supreme Court is the highest court in civil, criminal and administrative cases.

Higher court of Arbitration is the highest court for the resolution of economic disputes.

The prosecutor's office exercises control over the observance of the laws of the country by both citizens and state and public bodies.

Center and regions. Russia is a federation consisting of 88 subjects. Political and economic rights granted federal authorities regions in the early 90s, led to a significant weakening of the role of the Center. Locally adopted laws and even their own constitutional acts were in conflict with the federal Constitution and the laws of the federation. The creation of a network of provincial banks and even their own "gold reserves" of the subjects of the Federation began. In some regions of the country, not only the transfer of funds to the federal budget was stopped, but also a ban on the export of various kinds products outside the edges and regions. There were voices about giving administrative borders (especially national regions) the status of state ones. The Russian language in a number of republics has ceased to be recognized as the state language. All this gave rise to a dangerous trend of transformation of the federation into a confederation and even the possibility of its collapse.

Especially alarming was the situation in Chechnya, where “state independence” was proclaimed, and power, in fact, passed into the hands of criminal and extremist groups. The weakened federal center, having failed by political means to achieve fulfillment here federal law took violent action. During the first (1994-1996) and second (since the summer of 1999) military campaigns in Chechnya, the central authorities managed to ensure control over the territory of this subject of the Federation. But production and social sphere region during protracted hostilities was completely destroyed. The losses were significant both among the military personnel of the federal forces and among local population. However, emerging in the 1990s the trend towards Chechnya's withdrawal from the Russian Federation was halted.

Local government. Developing the traditions of local self-government established during the Zemstvo (1864) and city (1870) reforms, the Constitution of 1993 gave local authorities the right to independently resolve issues of local importance, possession, use and disposal of municipal property. The main forms of local self-government are referendums (popular expressions of will) and elections of heads of deputies. municipalities. In the course of referendums of the population, issues of changing the boundaries and belonging of a city or village to a particular district or region are also resolved. Local authorities independently manage municipal property, form and execute the local budget, determine the articles and amounts of local taxes and fees, and protect public order etc. In 1998, Russia ratified the European Charter of Local Self-Government, in which local self-government bodies are recognized as one of the basic foundations of a democratic system. important event was the establishment by the municipalities of the Congress of Municipalities of the Russian Federation to coordinate the efforts of local governments in defending their interests before the regional and central authorities.

Thus, in the 90s. in Russia, a legitimate foundation of Russian statehood was created, built on democratic principles, and tested new system relations between the Center and the regions.

As perestroika developed, the importance of national problems.

In 1989 and especially in 1990-1991. happened bloody clashes in Central Asia(Fergana, Dushanbe, Osh and a number of other regions). The region of intense ethnic armed conflicts was the Caucasus, primarily South Ossetia and Abkhazia. In 1990-1991 in South Ossetia, in essence, there was a real war in which only heavy artillery, aircraft and tanks were not used.

The confrontation also took place in Moldova, where the population of the Gagauz and Transnistrian regions protested against the infringement of their national rights, and in the Baltic states, where part of the Russian-speaking population opposed the leadership of the republics.

In the Baltic republics, in Ukraine, in Georgia, sharp forms are taken struggle for independence for seceding from the USSR. In early 1990, after Lithuania declared its independence and negotiations over Nagorno-Karabakh stalled, it became clear that the central government was unable to use economic ties in the process of a radical revision of federal relations, which was the only way to prevent, or even to stop the collapse of the Soviet Union.

The collapse of the USSR. Formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States

Prerequisites for the collapse of the USSR.

1) A deep socio-economic crisis that has engulfed the entire country. The crisis led to a rupture of economic ties and gave rise to the desire of the republics to "save themselves alone."

2) The destruction of the Soviet system - a sharp weakening of the center.

3) The collapse of the CPSU.

4) Aggravation of interethnic relations. National conflicts undermined state unity, becoming one of the reasons for the destruction of the union statehood.

5) Republican separatism and political ambition of local leaders.

The union center is no longer able to retain power democratically and resorts to military force: Tbilisi - September 1989, Baku - January 1990, Vilnius and Riga - January 1991, Moscow - August 1991. In addition - interethnic conflicts in Central Asia (1989-1990): Fergana, Dushanbe, Osh and etc.

The last straw that prompted the party and state leadership of the USSR to act was the threat of signing a new Union Treaty, which was worked out during the negotiations of representatives of the republics in Novo-Ogaryovo.

The August putsch of 1991 and its failure.

August 1991 - Gorbachev was on vacation in the Crimea. The signing of a new Union Treaty was scheduled for August 20. August 18 a number of higher officials The USSR offered Gorbachev to introduce a state of emergency throughout the country, but they were refused by him. In order to thwart the signing of the Union Treaty and preserve their power, part of the top party and state leadership tried to seize power. On August 19, a state of emergency was introduced in the country (for 6 months). On the streets of Moscow and a number of others major cities troops were brought in.

But coup failed. The population of the country basically refused to support the State Emergency Committee, while the army did not want to use force against its citizens. Already on August 20, barricades grew up around the White House, on which there were several tens of thousands of people, and part of the military units went over to the side of the defenders. The resistance was led by Russian President Boris Yeltsin. The actions of the GKChP were perceived very negatively abroad, from where statements were immediately made about the suspension of assistance to the USSR.

The coup was extremely poorly organized, there was no active operational leadership. Already on August 22, he was defeated, and the members of the State Emergency Committee were arrested. Interior Minister Pugo shot himself. The main reason for the failure of the coup d'état was the determination of the masses to defend their political freedoms.

The final stage of the collapse of the USSR(September - December 1991).

The attempted coup d'état dramatically accelerated the collapse of the USSR, led to Gorbachev's loss of prestige and power, and a noticeable increase in Yeltsin's popularity. The activity of the CPSU was suspended and then terminated. Gorbachev resigned General Secretary The Central Committee of the CPSU and dissolved the Central Committee. In the days following the putsch, 8 republics declared their full independence, and the three Baltic republics achieved recognition from the USSR. There was a sharp reduction in the competence of the KGB, it was announced about its reorganization.

On December 1, 1991, more than 80% of the population of Ukraine spoke in favor of the independence of their republic.

December 8, 1991 - Belovezhskaya agreement (Yeltsin, Kravchuk, Shushkevich): the termination of the Union Treaty of 1922 and the termination of the activities of the state structures of the former Union were announced. Russia, Ukraine and Belarus reached an agreement on the creation Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). The three states invited all former republics to join the CIS.

On December 21, 1991, 8 republics joined the CIS. A Declaration was adopted on the cessation of the existence of the USSR and on the principles of the activities of the CIS. On December 25, Gorbachev announced the resignation of the functions of the president in connection with the disappearance of the state. In 1994, Azerbaijan and Georgia joined the CIS.

During the existence of the CIS, more than 900 fundamental legal acts have been signed. They concerned the single ruble space, openness of borders, defense, space, information exchange, security, customs policy, and so on.

Review questions:

1. The main reasons that led to the aggravation of interethnic relations in the USSR by the beginning of the 1990s are listed.

2. Name the regions in which hotbeds of tension have developed. In what forms did national conflicts unfold there?

3. How did the USSR collapse?