European states formed in the late 20th early 21st century. The countries of Western Europe in the second half of the 20th century - the beginning of the 21st century

Perestroika in the USSR caused similar processes in the countries of Eastern Europe. Meanwhile, the Soviet leadership by the end of the 80s. refused to preserve the regimes that existed in these countries, on the contrary, calling them to democratization. Leadership has changed in most of the ruling parties. But the attempts of the new leadership to carry out reforms, as in the Soviet Union, were unsuccessful. The economic situation worsened, the flight of the population to the West became widespread. Opposition forces formed, there were demonstrations and strikes everywhere. As a result of demonstrations in October-November 1989 in the GDR, the government resigned, and on November 9 the destruction of the Berlin Wall began. In 1990, the GDR and the FRG unified.

In most countries, the communists were removed from power. The ruling parties dissolved themselves or transformed into social democratic ones. Elections were held, in which the former oppositionists won. These events were called "velvet revolutions". However, not everywhere the revolutions were "velvet". In Romania, opponents of the head of state, Nicolae Ceausescu, staged an uprising in December 1989, as a result of which many people died. Ceausescu and his wife were killed. Dramatic events took place in Yugoslavia, where the elections in all the republics except Serbia and Montenegro were won by parties opposed to the communists. In 1991, Slovenia, Croatia and Macedonia declared independence. In Croatia, a war immediately began between Serbs and Croats, as the Serbs feared the persecution that took place during World War II by the Croatian Ustaše fascists. Initially, the Serbs created their own republics, but by 1995 they were captured by the Croats with the support of Western countries, and most Serbs were exterminated or expelled.

In 1992, Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence. Serbia and Montenegro formed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY).

In Bosnia and Herzegovina, an interethnic war broke out between Serbs, Croats and Muslims. On the side of the Bosnian Muslims and Croats, the armed forces of the NATO countries intervened. The war continued until the end of 1995, when the Serbs were forced to succumb to the pressure of superior NATO forces.

The state of Bosnia and Herzegovina is now divided into two parts: the Republika Srpska and the Muslim-Croat federation. The Serbs lost part of their lands.

In 1998 open conflict broke out between Albanians and Serbs in Kosovo, which was part of Serbia. The extermination and expulsion of Serbs by Albanian extremists forced the Yugoslav authorities to enter into an armed struggle against them. However, in 1999 NATO began bombing Yugoslavia. The Yugoslav army was forced to leave Kosovo, whose territory was occupied by NATO troops. Most of the Serbian population was destroyed and expelled from the region. On February 17, 2008, Kosovo, with the support of the West, unilaterally illegally declared independence.

After the overthrow of President Slobodan Milosevic in 2000 during the "color revolution", the disintegration of the FRY continued. In 2003, the confederal state of Serbia and Montenegro was formed. In 2006, Montenegro seceded, and two independent states emerged: Serbia and Montenegro.

The collapse of Czechoslovakia took place peacefully. After a referendum, it was divided in 1993 into the Czech Republic and Slovakia.

After political changes in all Eastern European countries, transformations began in the economy and other spheres of society. Everywhere they abandoned the planned economy, moving on to the restoration of market relations. Privatization was carried out, foreign capital received strong positions in the economy. The first transformations went down in history under the name "shock therapy", as they were associated with a fall in production, mass unemployment, inflation, etc. Particularly radical changes in this regard took place in Poland. Social stratification has intensified everywhere, crime and corruption have increased.

By the end of the 90s. the situation in most countries has stabilized somewhat. Inflation was overcome, economic growth began. The Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland have achieved some success. Foreign investment played a big role in this. Gradually, traditional mutually beneficial ties with Russia and other post-Soviet states were also restored. But the global economic crisis that began in 2008 had devastating consequences for the economies of Eastern European countries.

In foreign policy, all countries of Eastern Europe are guided by the West, most of them at the beginning of the XXI century. joined NATO and the EU. The internal political situation in these countries is characterized by a change in power between right and left parties. However, their policies both within the country and in the international arena largely coincide.

The period under review was peaceful and stable for the countries of Western Europe and the United States compared to the first half of the century, which had several European wars and two world wars, two series of revolutionary events. The dominant development of this group of states in the second half of the XX century. considered to be a significant progress along the path of scientific and technological progress, the transition from industrial to post-industrial society. However, even in these decades, the countries of the Western world faced a number of complex problems, crises, upheavals - all that is called "challenges of the time." These were large-scale events and processes in various fields, such as the technological and information revolution, the collapse of colonial empires, the global economic crises of 1974-1975. and 1980-1982, social performances in the 60-70s. XX century, separatist movements, etc. All of them demanded some kind of restructuring of economic and social relations, the choice of ways for further development, compromises or toughening of political courses. In this regard, various political forces were replaced in power, mainly conservatives and liberals, who tried to strengthen their positions in a changing world.

The first post-war years in European countries became a time of acute struggle, primarily around issues of social structure, the political foundations of states. In a number of countries, for example in France, it was necessary to overcome the consequences of the occupation and the activities of collaborationist governments. And for Germany, Italy, it was about the complete elimination of the remnants of Nazism and fascism, the creation of new democratic states. Significant political battles unfolded around the elections to constituent assemblies, the development and adoption of new constitutions. In Italy, for example, the events associated with the choice of a monarchical or republican form of state went down in history as a “battle for the republic” (the country was proclaimed a republic as a result of a referendum on June 18, 1946).

It was then that the forces that most actively participated in the struggle for power and influence in society over the next decades declared themselves. On the left flank were the Social Democrats and the Communists. At the final stage of the war (especially after 1943, when the Comintern was dissolved), members of these parties collaborated in the resistance movement, later - in the first post-war governments (in France in 1944 a conciliation committee of communists and socialists was created, in Italy in 1946 . an agreement on unity of action was signed). Representatives of both left parties were part of the coalition governments in France in 1944-1947, in Italy in 1945-1947. But the fundamental differences between the communist and socialist parties persisted, moreover, in the postwar years, many social democratic parties excluded from their programs the task of establishing the dictatorship of the proletariat, adopted the concept of a social society, and, in essence, switched to liberal positions.

In the conservative camp since the mid-40s. the parties that combined the representation of the interests of large industrialists and financiers with the promotion of Christian values ​​as enduring and uniting different social strata of ideological foundations became the most influential. These included the Christian Democratic Party (CDP) in Italy (founded in 1943), the People's Republican Movement (MPM) in France (founded in 1945), the Christian Democratic Union (since 1945 - CDU, with 1950 - CDU / CSU bloc) in Germany. These parties sought to gain broad support in society and emphasized adherence to the principles of democracy. Thus, the first program of the CDU (1947) included the slogans of "socialization" of a number of branches of the economy, "complicity" of workers in the management of enterprises, reflecting the spirit of the times. And in Italy, during a referendum in 1946, the majority of CDA members voted for a republic, not a monarchy. The confrontation between the right, conservative and left, socialist parties formed the main line in the political history of Western European countries in the second half of the 20th century. At the same time, one can notice how changes in the economic and social situation in certain years shifted the political pendulum either to the left or to the right.

From recovery to stability (1945-1950s)

After the end of the war, coalition governments were established in most Western European countries, in which representatives of the left forces - socialists and, in some cases, communists - played a decisive role. The main activities of these governments were the restoration of democratic freedoms, the cleansing of the state apparatus from members of the fascist movement, persons who collaborated with the invaders. The most significant step in the economic sphere was the nationalization of a number of sectors of the economy and enterprises. In France, 5 largest banks, the coal industry, the Renault automobile plants (the owner of which collaborated with the occupation regime), and several aviation enterprises were nationalized. The share of the public sector in industrial output reached 20-25%. In the UK, where in power in 1945-1951. Laborites were in power, power plants, coal and gas industries, railways, transport, individual airlines, steel mills passed into state ownership. As a rule, these were important, but far from the most prosperous and profitable enterprises, on the contrary, they required significant capital investments. In addition, the former owners of the nationalized enterprises were paid significant compensation. Nevertheless, nationalization and state regulation were seen by social democratic leaders as the highest achievement on the path to a "social economy".

Constitutions adopted in Western European countries in the second half of the 40s. - in 1946 in France (the constitution of the Fourth Republic), in 1947 in Italy (entered into force on January 1, 1948), in 1949 in West Germany, became the most democratic constitutions in the history of these countries. Thus, in the French constitution of 1946, in addition to democratic rights, the rights to work, rest, social security, education, the rights of workers to participate in the management of enterprises, trade union and political activity, the right to strike “within the framework of the laws”, etc. were proclaimed.

In accordance with the provisions of the constitutions in many countries, social insurance systems were created, which included pensions, sickness and unemployment benefits, and assistance to large families. A 40-42-hour week was established, paid holidays were introduced. This was done largely under pressure from the working people. For example, in England in 1945, 50,000 dock workers went on strike to achieve a reduction in the working week to 40 hours and the introduction of two weeks of paid holidays.

The 1950s constituted a special period in the history of Western European countries. It was a time of rapid economic development (the growth of industrial production reached 5-6% per year). Post-war industry was created using new machines and technologies. A scientific and technological revolution began, one of the main manifestations of which was the automation of production. The qualifications of the workers who operated automatic lines and systems increased, and their wages also increased.

In the UK, the level of wages in the 50s. increased by an average of 5% per year with an increase in prices by 3% per year. in Germany during the 1950s. real wages doubled. True, in some countries, for example, in Italy, Austria, the figures were not so significant. In addition, governments periodically “froze” salaries (forbidden their increase). This caused protests and strikes by workers.

The economic recovery was especially noticeable in the Federal Republic of Germany and Italy. In the post-war years, the economy here was adjusted more difficult and slower than in other countries. Against this background, the situation in the 1950s regarded as an "economic miracle". It became possible thanks to the restructuring of industry on a new technological basis, the creation of new industries (petrochemistry, electronics, the production of synthetic fibers, etc.), and the industrialization of agrarian regions. American assistance under the Marshall plan served as a significant help. A favorable condition for the rise in production was that in the post-war years there was a great demand for various manufactured goods. On the other hand, there was a significant reserve of cheap labor (at the expense of immigrants, people from the village).

The economic recovery was accompanied by social stability. Under conditions of reduced unemployment, relative price stability, and rising wages, workers' protests were reduced to a minimum. Their growth began in the late 1950s, when some of the negative consequences of automation appeared - job cuts, etc.

The period of stable development coincided with the coming to power of the conservatives. Thus, in Germany, the name of K. Adenauer, who held the post of chancellor in 1949-1963, was associated with the revival of the German state, and L. Erhard was called the "father of the economic miracle." The Christian Democrats partly retained the façade of "social policy", they spoke of a welfare society, social guarantees for working people. But state intervention in the economy was curtailed. In Germany, the theory of the "social market economy" was established, focused on supporting private property and free competition. In England, the conservative governments of W. Churchill and then A. Eden carried out the re-privatization of some previously nationalized industries and enterprises (motor transport, steel mills, etc.). In many countries, with the coming to power of the conservatives, an offensive began on the political rights and freedoms proclaimed after the war, laws were passed in accordance with which citizens were persecuted for political reasons, and the Communist Party was banned in the FRG.

Changes in the 60s

After a decade of stability in the life of the Western European states, a period of upheaval and change has begun, connected both with the problems of internal development and with the collapse of colonial empires.

So, in France by the end of the 50s. there was a crisis situation caused by the frequent change of governments of socialists and radicals, the collapse of the colonial empire (the loss of Indochina, Tunisia and Morocco, the war in Algeria), the deterioration of the situation of workers. In such a situation, the idea of ​​"strong power", an active supporter of which was General Charles de Gaulle, received more and more support. In May 1958, the command of the French troops in Algiers refused to obey the government until Charles de Gaulle returned to it. The general declared that he was "ready to take over the power of the Republic" on condition that the 1946 constitution be repealed and emergency powers granted to him. In the fall of 1958, the constitution of the Fifth Republic was adopted, which provided the head of state with the broadest rights, and in December de Gaulle was elected president of France. Having established a "regime of personal power", he sought to resist attempts to weaken the state from within and without. But on the issue of colonies, being a realistic politician, he soon decided that it was better to carry out decolonization “from above”, while maintaining influence in the former possessions, than to wait for a shameful expulsion, for example, from Algeria, which fought for independence. De Gaulle's readiness to recognize the right of the Algerians to decide their own fate caused an anti-government military mutiny in 1960. All in 1962, Algeria gained independence.

In the 60s. in European countries, speeches by different segments of the population under different slogans have become more frequent. in France in 1961-1962. demonstrations and strikes were organized demanding an end to the rebellion of the ultra-colonialist forces opposed to the granting of independence to Algeria. In Italy, there were mass demonstrations against the activation of neo-fascists. The workers put forward both economic and political demands. The fight for higher wages included "white collars" - highly skilled workers, employees.

The high point of social action during this period was the events of May - June 1968 in France. Starting as a protest by Parisian students demanding the democratization of the higher education system, they soon developed into mass demonstrations and a general strike (the number of strikers in the country exceeded 10 million people). The workers of a number of automobile factories "Renault" occupied their enterprises. The government was forced to make concessions. The strikers achieved a 10-19% increase in wages, an increase in vacations, and the expansion of trade union rights. These events proved to be a serious test for the authorities. In April 1969, President de Gaulle put forward a bill on the reorganization of local self-government to a referendum, but the majority of those who voted rejected the bill. After that, Charles de Gaulle resigned. In June 1969, a representative of the Gaullist party, J. Pompidou, was elected the new president of the country.

The year 1968 was marked by an aggravation of the situation in Northern Ireland, where the civil rights movement became more active. Clashes between representatives of the Catholic population and the police escalated into an armed conflict, which included both Protestant and Catholic extremist groups. The government brought troops into Ulster. The crisis, sometimes aggravating, sometimes weakening, dragged on for three decades.

A wave of social action led to political change in most Western European countries. Many of them in the 60s. Social Democratic and Socialist parties came to power. In Germany, at the end of 1966, representatives of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) joined the coalition government with the CDU / CSU, and since 1969 they themselves formed the government in a bloc with the Free Democratic Party (FDP). In Austria in 1970-1971. For the first time in the history of the country, the Socialist Party came to power. In Italy, the basis of the post-war governments was the Christian Democratic Party (CDA), which entered into a coalition with the parties of the left, then with the right. In the 60s. its partners were the left - the social democrats and socialists. The leader of the Social Democrats, D. Saragat, was elected president of the country.

Despite the differences in situations in different countries, the policy of the Social Democrats had some common features. Their main, "never ending task" they considered the creation of a "social society", the main values ​​of which were proclaimed freedom, justice, solidarity. They considered themselves as representatives of the interests not only of workers, but also of other segments of the population (from the 70-80s, these parties began to rely on the so-called "new middle strata" - the scientific and technical intelligentsia, employees). In the economic sphere, the Social Democrats advocated a combination of different forms of ownership - private, state, etc. The key provision of their programs was the thesis of state regulation of the economy. The attitude towards the market was expressed by the motto: "Competition - as much as possible, planning - as much as necessary." Particular importance was attached to the "democratic participation" of the working people in solving questions of the organization of production, prices, and wages.

In Sweden, where the Social Democrats had been in power for several decades, the concept of "functional socialism" was formulated. It was assumed that the private owner should not be deprived of his property, but should be gradually involved in the performance of public functions through the redistribution of profits. The state in Sweden owned about 6% of production capacity, but the share of public consumption in the gross national product (GNP) in the early 70s. was about 30%.

Social-democratic and socialist governments allocated significant funds for education, health care, and social security. To reduce the unemployment rate, special programs for the training and retraining of the workforce were adopted. Progress in solving social problems has been one of the most significant achievements of social democratic governments. However, the negative consequences of their policy soon became apparent - excessive "overregulation", bureaucratization of public and economic management, overstrain of the state budget. A part of the population began to establish the psychology of social dependency, when people, not working, expected to receive in the form of social assistance as much as those who worked hard. These "costs" drew criticism from conservative forces.

An important aspect of the activities of the social democratic governments of the Western European states was the change in foreign policy. Particularly significant steps in this direction have been taken in the Federal Republic of Germany. The government that came to power in 1969, headed by Chancellor W. Brandt (SPD) and Vice-Chancellor and Minister of Foreign Affairs W. Scheel (FDP), made a fundamental turn in "Ostpolitik", concluding in 1970-1973. bilateral treaties with the USSR, Poland, Czechoslovakia, confirming the inviolability of the borders between the FRG and Poland, the FRG and the GDR. These treaties, as well as the quadripartite agreements on West Berlin, signed by representatives of the USSR, the USA, Great Britain and France in September 1971, created a real basis for expanding international contacts and mutual understanding in Europe. 4. The fall of authoritarian regimes in Portugal, Greece, Spain. In the mid 70s. Significant political changes have taken place in the states of Southwestern and Southern Europe.

In Portugal, as a result of the April Revolution of 1974, the authoritarian regime was overthrown. The political upheaval carried out by the Movement of the Armed Forces in the capital led to a change of power on the ground. The first post-revolutionary governments (1974-1975), which consisted of the leaders of the Movement of the Armed Forces and the Communists, focused on the tasks of defashization and the establishment of democratic orders, the decolonization of the African possessions of Portugal, the agrarian reform, the adoption of a new constitution of the country, improving the living conditions of workers. The nationalization of the largest enterprises and banks was carried out, workers' control was introduced. Later, the right bloc Democratic Alliance (1979-1983) came to power, which tried to curtail the transformations that had begun earlier, and then the coalition government of the socialist and social democratic parties, headed by the leader of the socialists M. Soares (1983-1985).

In Greece, in 1974, the regime of "black colonels" was replaced by a civilian government, which consisted of representatives of the conservative bourgeoisie. It didn't make any major changes. In 1981 -1989. and since 1993, the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK) party was in power, a course of democratization of the political system and social reforms was pursued.

In Spain, after the death of F. Franco in 1975, King Juan Carlos I became the head of state. With his approval, the transition from an authoritarian regime to a democratic one began. The government headed by A. Suarez restored democratic freedoms and lifted the ban on the activities of political parties. In December 1978, a constitution was adopted proclaiming Spain a social and legal state. Since 1982, the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party has been in power, its leader F. Gonzalez headed the country's government. Particular attention was paid to measures to increase production and create jobs. In the first half of the 1980s. the government carried out a number of important social measures (reduction of the working week, increase in holidays, adoption of laws that expand the rights of workers at enterprises, etc.). The party aspired to social stability, achievement of the consent between different layers of the Spanish society. The result of the policy of the socialists, who were in power continuously until 1996, was the completion of the peaceful transition from dictatorship to a democratic society.

Neoconservatives and liberals in the last decades of the 20th - early 21st century.

Crisis of 1974-1975 seriously complicated the economic and social situation in most Western European countries. Changes were needed, a restructuring of the economy. There were no resources for it under the existing economic and social policy, state regulation of the economy did not work. Conservatives tried to give an answer to the challenge of time. Their focus on a free market economy, private enterprise and initiative was well aligned with the objective need for extensive investment in production.

In the late 70s - early 80s. conservatives came to power in many Western countries. In 1979, the Conservative Party won the parliamentary elections in Great Britain, the government was headed by M. Thatcher (the party remained ruling until 1997). In Germany, a coalition of the CDU / CSU and the FDP came to power, G. Kohl took the post of chancellor. The long-term rule of the Social Democrats in the countries of Northern Europe was interrupted. They were defeated in elections in 1976 in Sweden and Denmark, in 1981 in Norway.

The figures who came to power during this period were not in vain called the new conservatives. They have shown that they can look ahead and are capable of change. They were distinguished by political flexibility and assertiveness, appeal to the general population. Thus, the British conservatives, led by M. Thatcher, came out in defense of the "true values ​​of British society", which included diligence and thrift; neglect of lazy people; independence, self-reliance and striving for individual success; respect for laws, religion, the foundations of the family and society; contributing to the preservation and enhancement of the national greatness of Britain. The slogans of creating a "democracy of owners" were also used.

The main components of the neoconservatives' policy were the privatization of the public sector and the curtailment of state regulation of the economy; course towards a free market economy; cuts in social spending; reduction in income taxes (which contributed to the revitalization of entrepreneurial activity). Equalization and the principle of redistribution of profits were rejected in social policy. The first steps of the neoconservatives in the field of foreign policy led to a new round of the arms race, an aggravation of the international situation (a vivid manifestation of this was the war between Great Britain and Argentina over the Falkland Islands in 1983).

The encouragement of private entrepreneurship, the course towards the modernization of production contributed to the dynamic development of the economy, its restructuring in accordance with the needs of the unfolding information revolution. Thus, the conservatives proved that they are capable of transforming society. In Germany, the most important historical event was added to the achievements of this period - the unification of Germany in 1990, participation in which put G. Kohl among the most significant figures in German history. At the same time, during the years of the Conservatives' rule, the protests of various groups of the population for social and civil rights did not stop (including the strike of British miners in 1984-1985, protests in the FRG against the deployment of American missiles, etc.).

In the late 90s. In many European countries, conservatives have been replaced by liberals. In 1997, the Labor government headed by E. Blair came to power in Great Britain, and in France, following the results of parliamentary elections, a government was formed from representatives of leftist parties. In 1998, the leader of the Social Democratic Party, G. Schroeder, became Chancellor of Germany. In 2005, he was replaced as chancellor by the representative of the CDU / CSU bloc A. Merkel, who headed the “grand coalition” government, consisting of representatives of Christian Democrats and Social Democrats. Even earlier in France, the left-wing government was replaced by a right-wing government. However, in the mid-10s. 21st century in Spain and Italy, right-wing governments, as a result of parliamentary elections, were forced to cede power to governments led by socialists.

In the summer of 1980, workers began to protest in Poland, the reason for which was another price increase. Gradually, they covered the cities of the northern coast of the country. In Gdansk, on the basis of an interfactory strike committee, the trade union association "Solidarity" was formed.

Under the banner of Solidarity

Its participants presented "21 demands" to the authorities. This document contained both economic and political demands, including: to recognize free trade unions independent of the state and the right of workers to strike, to stop persecution for their beliefs, to expand the access of public and religious organizations to the media, etc. The head of the All-Polish Commission of the trade union association "Solidarity", an electrical worker L. Walesa was elected.

The expanding influence of the trade union association and its beginning to develop into a political movement prompted the government to introduce martial law in the country in December 1981. The activities of Solidarity were banned, its leaders were interned (subjected to house arrest). But the authorities could not eliminate the imminent crisis.

In June 1989 parliamentary elections were held in Poland on a multi-party basis. They won "Solidarity". The new coalition government was headed by the representative of "Solidarity" T. Mazowiecki. In December 1990, L. Walesa was elected president of the country.

Lech Walesa was born in 1943 into a peasant family. He graduated from the school of agricultural mechanization, began working as an electrician. In 1967, he entered the shipyard as an electrician. Lenin in Gdansk. In 1970 and 1979-1980. - member of the strike committee of the shipyard. One of the organizers and leaders of the Solidarity trade union. In December 1981 he was interned, in 1983 he returned to the shipyard as an electrician. In 1990-1995 - President of the Republic of Poland. The extraordinary political fate of L. Walesa was generated both by time and by the personal qualities of this person. Publicists noted that he was a "typical Pole", a deeply believing Catholic, a family man. At the same time, it is no coincidence that he was called the "flexible man of iron." He was distinguished not only by his pronounced abilities as a political fighter and orator, but also by his ability to choose his own path, to perform actions that neither opponents nor comrades-in-arms expected from him.

1989-1990s: big changes

Panorama of events

• August 1989- The first Solidarity government in Poland was formed.
• November - December 1989- mass demonstrations of the population and the displacement of the communist leadership in the GDR, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Bulgaria.
• By June 1990 as a result of multi-party elections in all countries of Eastern Europe (except Albania), new governments and leaders came to power.
• March - April 1991- The first parliamentary elections on a multi-party basis in Albania, since June a coalition government has been in power.

In less than two years, power has changed in eight Eastern European countries. Why did it happen so? This question can be asked for each country separately. One might also ask: why did this happen in all countries at almost the same time?

Let's consider specific situations.

German Democratic Republic

Dates and events

1989

• October- mass anti-government demonstrations in different cities, their dispersal, arrests of participants, the rise of a social movement for the renewal of the existing system.
• November 9- The Berlin Wall fell.
• By the end of November more than 100 political parties and social movements emerged in the country.
• the 1st of December- Article 1 of the Constitution of the GDR (on the leading role of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany) was abolished.
• December- the mass exit of SED members from the party, by January 1990, out of the previous 2.3 million, 1.1 million people remained in the party.
• December 10-11 and 16-17- Extraordinary Congress of the SED, its transformation into the Party of Democratic Socialism.

Fall of the Berlin Wall

1990

• March- parliamentary elections, the victory of the conservative bloc "Alliance for Germany" led by the Christian Democratic Union.
• April- A “grand coalition” government was formed, half of the posts in which were occupied by representatives of the CDU.
• July 1- the agreement between the GDR and the FRG on economic, monetary and social union came into force.
• October 3 The German Unification Treaty entered into force.

Czechoslovakia

Events named afterwards "velvet revolution", began on November 17, 1989. On this day, students organized a demonstration in Prague in connection with the 50th anniversary of the anti-Nazi speech of Czech students during the years of German occupation. During the demonstration, demands were made for the democratization of society and the resignation of the government. Law enforcement forces dispersed the demonstration, detained some of the participants, and several people were injured.

November 19 a protest demonstration took place in Prague with anti-government slogans, calls for a strike. On the same day, the Civil Forum was established - a public movement that put forward demands to remove a number of country leaders from their posts, and the Socialist Party (dissolved in 1948) was also restored. Supporting the public outcry, Prague theatres, including the National Theatre, have canceled performances.

20 November in Prague, a 150,000-strong demonstration took place under the slogan “End of the rule of one party!”, demonstrations began in various cities of the Czech Republic and Slovakia.

The government had to enter into negotiations with representatives of the Civil Forum. Parliament repealed articles of the constitution on the leading role of the Communist Party in society and the defining role of Marxism-Leninism in upbringing and education. On December 10, a coalition government was created, which included the communists, representatives of the Civil Forum, the Socialist and People's Parties. Some time later, A. Dubcek became the chairman of the Federal Assembly (parliament). V. Havel was elected President of the country.

Vaclav Havel born in 1936. Received an economic education. In the 1960s he began working in the theater and became known as a playwright and writer. Member of the "Prague Spring" in 1968. After 1969, he was deprived of the opportunity to practice his profession, he worked as a laborer. Between 1970 and 1989 he was imprisoned three times for political reasons. Since November 1989 - one of the leaders of the Civil Forum. In 1989-1992 - President of the Czechoslovak Republic. Since 1993 - the first president of the newly formed Czech Republic (he held this post in 1993-2003).

Romania

While serious changes had already taken place in neighboring countries, in Romania on November 20-24, 1989, the XIV Congress of the Communist Party was held. The five-hour report of the General Secretary of the Party, Nicolae Ceausescu, on the successes achieved, was met with endless applause. The slogans "Ceausescu and the people!", "Ceausescu - communism!" sounded in the hall. With stormy joy, the congress greeted the announcement of the election of Ceausescu to his post for a new term.

From publications in Romanian newspapers of that time:

“To the imperialist forces, which are stepping up efforts to undermine and destabilize socialism, speaking of its “crisis”, we respond with deeds: the whole country has turned into a huge construction site and a flowering garden. And this is because Romanian socialism is the socialism of free labor, and not of the "market", it does not leave the cardinal problems of development to chance and does not understand improvement, renewal, perestroika as the restoration of capitalist forms.

“The unanimous commitment to the decision to re-elect Comrade N. Ceausescu to the post of General Secretary of the RCP is a political vote for the continuation of the tried and tested constructive course, as well as recognition of the heroic example of a revolutionary and patriot, the leader of our party and state. Together with the entire Romanian people, writers, with a sense of full responsibility, join the proposal to re-elect Comrade N. Ceausescu to the post of head of our party.

A month later, on December 21, at an official rally in the center of Bucharest, instead of toasts, shouts of “Down with Ceausescu!” were heard from the crowd. The actions of the army units directed against the demonstrators soon stopped. Realizing that the situation was out of control, N. Ceausescu and his wife E. Ceausescu (a well-known party leader) fled Bucharest. The next day they were arrested and put on trial by a tribunal held in strict secrecy. On December 26, 1989, the Romanian media reported on the court that sentenced the Ceausescu couple to death (they were shot 15 minutes after the verdict was announced).

Already on December 23, Romanian television announced the creation of the Council of the National Salvation Front, which assumed full power. Ion Iliescu, once a member of the Communist Party, who was repeatedly removed from party posts in the 1970s for opposition sentiments, became the chairman of the Council of the Federal Tax Service. In May 1990, I. Iliescu was elected president of the country.

The overall result of the events of 1989-1990. was the fall of communist regimes in all countries of Eastern Europe. Communist parties collapsed, some of them were transformed into parties of the social democratic type. New political forces and leaders came to power.

At a new stage

The “new people” in power were most often liberal politicians (in Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Czech Republic). In some cases, for example in Romania, these were former members of the communist parties who had gone over to social democratic positions. The main activities of the new governments in the economic sphere provided for the transition to a market economy. Privatization (transfer to private hands) of state property began, price controls were abolished. Significantly reduced social spending, "frozen" wages. The breaking of the previously existing system was carried out in a number of cases by the most severe methods in the shortest possible time, for which it was called “shock therapy” (this option was carried out in Poland).

By the mid-1990s, the economic and social costs of the reforms became apparent: a decline in production and the ruin of hundreds of enterprises, mass unemployment, rising prices, the stratification of society into the few rich and thousands of people living below the poverty line, etc. The governments responsible for the reforms and their consequences, began to lose the support of the population. In the elections of 1995-1996. in Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, representatives of the socialists won. Strengthened the position of the Social Democrats in the Czech Republic. In Poland, as a result of a change in public sentiment, L. Walesa, the most popular politician in the early 1990s, lost the presidential election. In 1995, the Social Democrat A. Kwasniewski became the President of the country.

Changes in the foundations of the social system could not but affect national relations. Previously, rigid centralized systems tied each state into a single whole. With their fall, the road was opened not only for national self-determination, but also for the actions of nationalist and separatist forces. In 1991 -1992 the Yugoslav state collapsed. The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia retained two of the six former Yugoslav republics - Serbia and Montenegro. Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia became independent states. However, the state demarcation was accompanied by an aggravation of ethno-national contradictions in each of the republics.

Bosnian crisis. An intractable situation has developed in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Serbs, Croats and Muslims historically coexisted here (the concept of “Muslims” in Bosnia is considered as a definition of nationality, although we are talking about the Slavic population that converted to Islam after the Turkish conquest in the 14th century). Ethnic differences were supplemented by religious ones: in addition to the division into Christians and Muslims, the Serbs belonged to the Orthodox Church, and the Croats belonged to the Catholic Church. In a single Serbo-Croatian language, there were two alphabets - Cyrillic (among the Serbs) and Latin (among the Croats).

Throughout the 20th century strong central authority in the Yugoslav kingdom, and then in the federal socialist state, kept national contradictions in check. In the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which broke away from Yugoslavia, they manifested themselves with particular severity. The Serbs, who made up half of the population of Bosnia, refused to recognize secession from the Yugoslav federation, and then proclaimed the Serbian Republic in Bosnia. In 1992-1994 armed conflict broke out between Serbs, Muslims and Croats. It led to numerous casualties not only among those who fought, but also among the civilian population. In the camps for prisoners, in settlements, people were killed. Thousands of residents left their villages and cities and became refugees. To contain the internecine struggle, UN peacekeeping troops were sent to Bosnia. By the mid-1990s, military operations in Bosnia were stopped by the efforts of international diplomacy.

In 2006, Montenegro seceded from Serbia following a plebiscite. The Republic of Yugoslavia ceased to exist.

AT Serbia after 1990, a crisis arose associated with the autonomous province of Kosovo, 90% of the population of which were Albanians (Muslims by religion). The limitation of the province's autonomy led to the self-proclamation of the "Republic of Kosovo". An armed conflict broke out. At the end of the 1990s, with international mediation, a negotiation process began between the leadership of Serbia and the leaders of the Kosovo Albanians. In an effort to put pressure on Serbian President S. Milosevic, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization - NATO intervened in the conflict. In March 1999, NATO troops began bombing the territory of Yugoslavia. The crisis has grown to a European scale.

The peoples have chosen a different way of settling national problems Czechoslovakia. In 1992, as a result of a referendum, a decision was made to divide the country. The division procedure was thoroughly discussed and prepared, for which the publicists called this event "a divorce with a human face." On January 1, 1993, two new states appeared on the world map - the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic.

The changes that took place in the Eastern European countries had significant foreign policy consequences. In the early 1990s, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance and the Warsaw Pact ceased to exist. In 1991, Soviet troops were withdrawn from Hungary, East Germany, Poland, and Czechoslovakia. The economic and military-political organizations of Western European countries, primarily the European Union and NATO, have become the center of gravity for the countries of the region. In 1999 Poland, Hungary and the Czech Republic joined NATO, and in 2004 another 7 states (Bulgaria, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia) joined NATO. In the same 2004, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and the Czech Republic became EU members, and in 2007 - Romania and Bulgaria.

At the beginning of the XXI century. in most countries of Central and Eastern Europe (as the region began to be called), left and right governments and state leaders were replaced in power. So, in the Czech Republic, the center-left government was supposed to cooperate with President W. Klaus, who occupies the right positions (elected in 2003), in Poland, the leftist politician A. Kwasniewski was replaced as president of the country by the representative of the right forces L. Kaczynski (2005-2010). It is noteworthy that both the “left” and “right” governments, in one way or another, solved the common tasks of accelerating the economic development of countries, bringing their political and economic systems in line with European standards, and resolving social problems.

References:
Aleksashkina L. N. / General History. XX - the beginning of the XXI century.

According to the decisions of the Yalta and Potsdam conferences of the heads of the great powers (1945) on the post-war structure of Europe, the countries of Eastern and South-Eastern Europe were included in the sphere of interests of the USSR. In most of them, the communist parties were popular, since they were the organizers of the anti-fascist resistance. Until 1948, the Soviet leadership avoided gross interference in the affairs of the "people's democracy" countries. However, with the unfolding of the Cold War, especially after the creation of the NATO bloc, such interference became clear. This led to a conflict with Yugoslavia, whose leadership was focused on building socialism, but showed greater independence. After Stalin's death, the "ideological chauvinism" of the Soviet leadership did not disappear, but rather intensified. Although there was a relative reconciliation with Yugoslavia, the Soviet leadership (N.S. Khrushchev, L.I. Brezhnev) constantly clashed with the leaders of Albania, China, North Korea, Cuba, Romania, who pursued an independent course. Particularly acute, right up to the armed clashes in 1969, was the conflict with China.

In Europe, by the beginning of the period we are studying, there was a bloc of socialist countries whose organizational structures were the Warsaw Pact Organization (WTO) and the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA). The weight of the socialist system in the world economy was quite weighty: in 1980 the USSR accounted for 25% of world industrial production, Czechoslovakia, the GDR and Romania were among the ten leading industrial powers in the world.

However, the degree of rootedness of Soviet-type state socialism was not very high, it was the less, the more obediently the leaders of the countries followed the Soviet recipes. Political regimes of European socialist countries by the 1980s resembled the Soviet liberal-bureaucratic regime (1953-1991), with the political and ideological monopoly of the ruling party, implemented by relatively mild methods. Throughout the post-war period, the Western bloc sought to separate the socialist countries from the USSR, which was the most important task of the special services.

In the Polish People's Republic (PNR) at the turn of the 1970-80s. real Soviet-style socialism entered a state of crisis. Then an independent trade union "Solidarity" arose, headed by L. Walesa, an electrician of the local shipyard. became an opposition force. Soon, Solidarity turned into a mass organized socio-political movement (up to 10 million members) and began attempts to seize power from the Polish United Workers' Party (PUWP). In December 1981, the new president of Poland, General W. Jaruzelski, who was popular in the country, introduced martial law and arrested about 5 thousand trade unionists, martial law was introduced in the country, Solidarity was banned, but its influence remained.

In the second half of the 1980s. in the Soviet-controlled part of Europe, they noticed that Gorbachev's perestroika had an anti-socialist and pro-Western orientation. This inspired the political opposition that existed and was sometimes active throughout the entire socialist period. Anti-socialist and anti-Soviet movements in the countries of Eastern Europe have traditionally been called "democratic" in the West.

Thus, the strike demonstrations organized by Solidarity in the summer of 1988 forced the communists to negotiate with the leadership of Solidarity. In connection with the beginning of “perestroika” in the USSR, V. Jaruzelsky and his entourage were forced to agree to the legalization of the activities of Solidarity, to competitive parliamentary elections, reforming the institution of the country's president and creating a second chamber in the Sejm - the Senate.

The June 1989 elections ended with the victory of Solidarity, and its faction in the Sejm formed a government headed by T. Mazowiecki. In 1990, the leader of Solidarity, L. Walesa, was elected president of the country. He supported L. Balcerowicz's plan for radical market reforms, which was actually developed by the IMF and the World Bank. With the active participation of the new president, Poland began to move closer to NATO and the European community. The economic difficulties associated with mass privatization, as well as the revelation of secret connections in the past with the secret services of some figures from Walesa's entourage and himself led to the fact that A. Kwasniewski, a former active communist, won the presidential election in 1995.

Already in the early 1990s. Russian troops were withdrawn from the country. By this time, the Warsaw Pact and the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance had already ceased to exist. In 1994, Poland announced its desire to enter Western structures, which it succeeded in: in 1999, despite diplomatic condemnation from Russia, it became a member of NATO, and in 2004, a member of the European Union. In recent years (during the reign of the Kaczynski brothers), difficulties have been growing in Russian-Polish relations related to mutual economic and political claims. Poland even blocked the signing in 2006 of a new cooperation agreement between the EU and Russia. At present, the Polish leadership agrees to the deployment of American missile defense facilities in the country, which further complicates the situation.

It should be noted that Poland is the largest state in the CEE region in terms of territory and population (36 million people), and, in principle, relations with it are important.

In the autumn of 1989 in Czechoslovakia (Czechoslovakia) there was a so-called. "velvet revolution". This state arose in 1919. As a result of the Munich agreement (September 1938) between the Western powers and Nazi Germany, in March 1939 Czechoslovakia ceased to exist. The Czech Republic was annexed to the Reich with the status of protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. Its powerful military-industrial complex worked for Germany until the end of World War II. There was no noticeable resistance or sabotage. Until June 22, 1941, the USSR maintained formal diplomatic relations with Slovakia, formally independent, but actually controlled by the Reich.

Already during the war, close relations were established between the Czechoslovak government in exile and Moscow. In 1945, the Treaty of Friendship between Czechoslovakia and the USSR was signed. At the same time, Czechoslovakia renounced its rights to Transcarpathian Ukraine, which was part of it earlier. In the early post-war years, while maintaining close relations with the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia retained its basic democratic institutions. The then popularity of the USSR contributed to the fact that the influence of the Czechoslovak communists was very great. In February 1948, with the support of the USSR, they pushed other political forces out of power and established a regime in the country that did not differ from those that were being formed at that time in the entire East European region.

Until the end of the 1960s. there were no strong anti-Soviet sentiments in Czechoslovakia. The situation was changed by the events of 1968, when an attempt was made in Czechoslovakia to liberalize the existing communist regime, which aroused fears and suspicions of the Soviet leadership. The USSR and other countries participating in the Warsaw Pact sent their troops to the territory of Czechoslovakia, which eventually led to the cessation of reforms and radical changes in the leadership of the country and the Communist Party. After that, at the level of mass consciousness, a reaction of alienation from the “big brother” arose.

In Czechoslovakia, after the start of “perestroika” in the USSR, the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia G. Husak refused to change the political course and enter into a dialogue with the opposition, and in 1988 he was forced to resign as leader. In November 1989, the Velvet Revolution took place in Czechoslovakia, during which, under the pressure of mass peaceful protests, the communists were forced to agree to the formation of a government with the participation of representatives of the democratic opposition. A. Dubcek became speaker of the parliament, and V. Havel, a democratic writer, became president.

Prague took a course towards establishing close relations with Western countries. In 1992, Russian troops were withdrawn from the country, and in 1993 this state itself disintegrated (without serious conflicts) into the Czech Republic and Slovakia. V. Havel was elected President of the Czech Republic. The desire of both states to integrate into Western structures remained, however, the Czech Republic, as an economically more developed one, moved towards this faster and already in 1999 became a member of NATO. Slovakia joined this organization only in 2004. In the same year, both states became members of the EU. Slovakia during the 1990s showed more interest in cooperation with Russia, especially in the economic sphere, but things never went beyond declarations and statements.

Unlike Czechoslovakia, Hungary was an ally of Nazi Germany and was defeated along with it. The territory of the country was occupied by Soviet troops, and the USSR actively influenced the development of Hungarian political processes. By 1949, the Stalinist regime was established in Hungary, headed by the leader of the local Communist Party, F. Rakosi. Contrary to the existing national traditions, the country began to copy the Soviet model of socialism in detail, which led to an aggravation of socio-economic and political contradictions. The influence of pro-fascist elements, who carried out anti-communist and anti-Semitic propaganda, remained strong. The consequence of these contradictions was a deep internal political crisis in Hungary, which broke out in the autumn of 1956 in the form of armed clashes and almost led to the collapse of Hungarian socialism. After the events of 1956, the Soviet Union authorized the implementation of a fairly reasonable and independent economic policy in Hungary, which made the country relatively prosperous within the framework of the socialist camp. But, on the other hand, the changes that took place to some extent blurred the ideological foundations of the existing regime, so Hungary, like Poland, began dismantling the socialist system earlier than other Eastern European countries.

In October 1989, in Hungary, the communists (Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party) were forced to agree to the adoption of a law on the multi-party system and the activities of parties. And then the country's constitution was amended. They envisaged "a peaceful political transition to a rule of law state in which a multi-party system, parliamentary democracy and a socially oriented market economy are implemented." In the March 1990 elections to the Hungarian State Assembly, the Communists were defeated, and the Hungarian Democratic Forum won the majority of seats in parliament. After that, any mention of socialism was excluded from the constitution. Unlike other countries in the region, Hungary's transition to "Western values" took place in an evolutionary way, but the general vector of its movement towards integration into European structures coincided with the vector of movement of other post-communist CEE states. Hungary is a member of the EU and NATO.

The democratization of public and state life also took place in the GDR, where the democratic opposition won the first free elections in March 1990. Then there was the unification of Germany through the absorption of East Germany (GDR) by West Germany (FRG).

When considering the events of the end of 1989, it must be taken into account that in early December 1989, during the meeting of M. Gorbachev and George W. Bush (old) in Malta, Gorbachev actually surrendered the Soviet sphere of influence in Eastern Europe to the West, more precisely, to the USA.

Events in the countries of South-Eastern Europe developed exceptionally dramatically. It should be noted that the most significant states of this region gained sovereignty with the active support of Russia. This applies to Bulgaria, Romania, and Serbia and Montenegro, which were part of the former Yugoslavia. Moreover, Russia often provided this assistance to the detriment of its own foreign policy interests, based on pan-Slavic romanticism, which began to dominate public opinion from the 2nd half of the 19th century. and retains some influence to this day.

During the First World War, Bulgaria became an ally of the countries of the German bloc. In April 1941, Bulgaria participated in the German aggression against Yugoslavia and Greece, but the Bulgarian government declined to participate in hostilities against the USSR, citing strong Russophile sentiments among the population. After the Red Army reached the borders of Bulgaria on September 5, 1944, the USSR declared war on it, but there were actually no hostilities, since the Bulgarian army refused to fight, and a change of power took place in the country. The government of the Fatherland Front declared war on Germany and its allies, and the Bulgarian troops at the final stage of the war fought on the side of the anti-Hitler coalition. In fact, already in 1944, the establishment of the communist regime began, which ended in 1948, when the People's Republic of Bulgaria was proclaimed.

Until the end of the 1980s. relations between the USSR and Bulgaria developed steadily, there were no significant anti-communist forces inside the state. As in other countries of Eastern Europe, democratic changes in Bulgaria began at the end of 1989. At the same time, just like in other states of the region, the task of integration into Western structures was set almost immediately. Later, there was a sharp distancing from Russia, with which a visa regime was established. Currently Bulgaria is a member of NATO, in 2004 it was admitted to the EU. Russian-Bulgarian relations have been in a state of stagnation for a long time, the mutual trade turnover remains insignificant.

Romania, neighboring Bulgaria, also actively participated in the war against the USSR from the very beginning, in the period 1941-1944. it included as provinces not only Bessarabia, but also the Northern Black Sea region, including Odessa. At the same time, the state tried to maintain contacts with Great Britain and the USA. On August 23, 1944, a coup d'etat took place in Romania, it broke the bloc with Germany and joined the anti-Hitler coalition. It is noteworthy that the Romanian King Mihai was awarded the highest award of the USSR - the Order of Victory. However, already in 1946, the monarchy in Romania was abolished, and a communist regime was established in the country. Soviet-Romanian relations since the late 1950s. developed somewhat differently than the relations of the USSR with other Eastern European countries. After Nicolae Ceausescu came to power in 1965, the Socialist Republic of Romania (SRR) distanced itself from the Soviet Union. The Romanian leadership openly expressed its negative attitude towards the entry of Warsaw Pact troops into Czechoslovakia in 1968. Romania was the only socialist country that maintained diplomatic relations with Israel after the Arab-Israeli war of 1967. In addition, Romania demonstrated a certain level of independence within the framework of the Warsaw Pact and CMEA . By 1980, the powerful economic development of the country led it to the top ten industrialized countries of the world. In December 1989, as a result of an armed putsch with an imitation of a "mass popular uprising", the regime of N. Ceausescu (rather liberal, but with a strong personality cult of the president) was overthrown. The president himself, along with his wife E. Ceausescu, was killed. This was presented by Western and Soviet (Gorbachev's) propaganda as the overthrow of the "hated communist regime."

After the fall of socialism, Romania, like other Eastern European countries, headed for integration with the West. However, the rapid decline in living standards turned Romania into one of the poorest countries in Europe, which did not allow it to quickly achieve the goal of its policy - accession to the EU. This happened only in 2007. Relations with Russia are in a state of stagnation, while unitarist sentiments regarding unification with Moldova are popular in Romania itself.

The worst events since the early 1990s deployed in Yugoslavia. Russia throughout the 19th century. actively contributed to Serbia's aspirations for independence from the Ottoman Empire. In 1878, as a result of the Russian-Turkish war, the independence of Serbia was recognized by Istanbul. The country was proclaimed a kingdom. At the forefront of the country's foreign policy was the task of uniting the southern Slavs into a single state. This goal was achieved after the First World War, when the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was formed (since 1929 - Yugoslavia).

In foreign policy, the country retained its orientation towards the Entente. From the very beginning, ethnic contradictions emerged within the state, primarily between Serbs and Croats. April 6, 1941 Germany and its allies started the war against Yugoslavia and Greece. On April 10, Croatia declared independence, and on the 17th, Yugoslavia capitulated. A very strong partisan movement was formed in the country, but the Red Army, which in October 1944 entered its territory, played a decisive role in the liberation of Yugoslavia. On April 11, 1945, a friendship treaty was concluded between the countries. However, due to the desire of the Yugoslav communists to maintain independence in decision-making, in the summer of 1948 the treaty was denounced, and relations between the countries ceased. They returned to normal only in 1955, when an agreement on friendly relations was signed again. Nevertheless, Yugoslavia never became a member of the Warsaw Pact, and had an observer status in the CMEA. In the late 1980s in the country, on the one hand, the monopoly of the communists on power is ending, on the other hand, disintegration processes are taking place, actively supported by the West.

"Perestroika" in the USSR and the weakening of the communist position in Eastern Europe led to significant changes in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, which was dominated by Serbia and its communist leadership. At the same time, Serbia sought to preserve the existing federation, while Slovenia and Croatia insisted on turning it into a confederation (1991). In June 1991, the Slovenian Assembly declared its independence, and the Croatian Council adopted a declaration declaring the independence of Croatia. Then a regular army was sent from Belgrade against them, but the Croats and Slovenes began to resist by force of arms.

Belgrade's attempts with the help of troops to prevent the independence of Croatia and Slovenia ended in failure due to the support of the separatists from the European Union and NATO. Then part of the Serbian population of Croatia, supported by Belgrade, began an armed struggle against the independence of Croatia. Serb troops took part in the conflict, a lot of blood was shed, the conflict between Croatia and Serbia waned after the UN peacekeeping troops entered Croatia in February 1992. Even more bloody events accompanied the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The latter led to the collapse of the country in 1991: Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Macedonia declared independence; and only the latter managed to do it peacefully. In other cases, there was an armed conflict with the central government. Russia recognized their independence, but supported the Serbs in all conflicts. Such support was due, first of all, to civilizational factors and led to complications in Russia's relations both with other countries of the region and with the main powers of the West. Most of all, this manifested itself in 1999 during the Kosovo crisis, and direct NATO aggression against Yugoslavia, which already consisted only of Serbia and Montenegro. Russia, supporting Belgrade, actually found itself on the verge of a diplomatic conflict with Western countries. At the same time, Serbia, where pro-Western forces came to power, throughout this period did not demonstrate readiness for broad economic cooperation, and in 2000, almost immediately after the end of the Kosovo crisis, a visa regime was introduced between the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the Russian Federation.

In 2008, Russia supported Serbia's desire to maintain territorial integrity and condemned Western countries for recognizing the independence of Kosovo.

In Albania, the communist regime was dismantled in 1992.

In the early 1990s in a number of Eastern European states, new constitutions were adopted, or important changes in existing ones. They changed not only the names of the states, but also the essence of the social and political system, perceived "Western democratic values". The constitutions also fixed the changes in the functions of the head of state, in the role of which the collective body ceased to act. The post of President of the State was restored everywhere.

2. Renewal of Western European civilization in the second half of the 20th century.

1. The global crisis of the West in the first half of the 20th century.

The entire interwar period in Western Europe in the first half of the 20th century was marked by a systemic crisis of the capitalist economy. It was not unusual, occurring on average every 10 years. But the crisis that began in 1929 turned out to be unique in many respects and, above all, in its depth. Industrial production not only declined, it was thrown back to the level of the beginning of the century. Such a significant reduction in production caused a sharp increase in unemployment: the number of unemployed in Western countries alone approached 30 million, which amounted to from 1/5 to 1/3 of the workforce. The second feature of the crisis is its scale. It has become global. The third feature of the crisis is its duration. It began in 1929 and the decline continued until 1932. But even after the recession ended and signs of recovery appeared in 1933, the economy did not fully recover until the outbreak of World War II. No other crisis has generated such large-scale economic consequences. It is no coincidence that the 1930s went down in history as the Great Depression.
To a large extent, this crisis was a consequence of the blow inflicted on the world economy by the war and the actions of the victorious powers after it. Traditional economic ties were broken, the world economy was overloaded with debt obligations. The war generated unprecedented growth for the American economy and turned the US into a world creditor. The entire world economy began to depend on the well-being of the American economy, but it turned out to be very fragile. In the 1920s, the American industry, growing by leaps and bounds, switched to mass production technologies based on the use of in-line methods, the conveyor. But consumption has by no means become massive. The distribution of national income was extremely uneven. Wages barely rose, and corporate profits tripled. The rich got richer, bought luxurious mansions, limousines and yachts, but they could not replace the mass consumer. The US financial system was also extremely unstable. In the 1920s, the New York Stock Exchange, the largest in the world, experienced an unprecedented fever: the rise in the price of shares for several years attracted huge capital to the securities market. Everyone wanted to buy shares only to sell them later. When this speculative boom reached its limit, prices began to fall precipitously. On "Black Tuesday" October 29, 1929, the fall in stock prices resulted in a loss of 10 billion dollars. From that moment on, the entire US financial system crackled, and with it the finances of the rest of the world. American banks stopped lending to Europeans, Germany stopped paying reparations, England and France were in debt. Banks became insolvent, stopped issuing loans. There was less money in circulation, and economic activity - ever lower.
Western governments were completely unprepared for such a development of events. The prevailing view was that state intervention in the natural course of events was unnecessary and even detrimental to the economy. The crisis also hit public finances - tax revenues to the budget began to decline and deficits appeared in it. All governments began to cut spending together, laying off employees, saving on social costs. All these actions exacerbated the crisis.
It was global, and it would be natural if governments tried to coordinate their actions. However, just the opposite happened - everyone tried to fence themselves off from this disaster at their own peril and risk, raising customs barriers. World trade eventually fell threefold, deepening overproduction in every country.
A crisis of such depth and duration could not but cause grave social consequences. Unemployment has become massive and prolonged. Unemployment benefits were paid in only a few countries. The bulk of those who lost their jobs, having exhausted their savings, soon found themselves without means of subsistence. Charitable organizations created to help the disadvantaged were not able to provide for all those in need. In the richest country in the world - the United States - the unemployed could count on a bowl of soup at the most.
The crisis further aggravated the situation of farmers and peasants. Demand for food has fallen, food prices and farmers' incomes have fallen. Many farms became unprofitable and went bankrupt. A similar role befell small merchants and artisans, especially numerous in Europe. The existence of the middle class - employees "doctors, lawyers, teachers" was also threatened. They could lose what they had recently been proud of: their own house or apartment and a car. The result of the crisis was mass poverty. Millions of people wandered from place to place, doing odd jobs, living in cages knocked together from tin and cardboard, preoccupied only with their daily bread. Established social ties collapsed, families collapsed, traditional life values ​​collapsed - Changes in mood. The hopes for a better future that arose in the 1920s were replaced by pessimism and despair. Stupefying apathy gave way to outbursts of blind rage. There was a deep disillusionment with the existing order. Again, as after the First World War, the influence of those parties and movements that demanded its radical break began to grow. The communist parties, which came out in the years of the crisis for an immediate socialist revolution, have noticeably strengthened. The fascists, as the only means of national revival, considered the replacement of democracy by dictatorship. During the crisis, they became a considerable force.
Fascism is a predominantly European political movement of the 20th century and a special, specific form of government. He brought untold disasters to the peoples of the world. The word itself is of Italian origin. The German fascists called themselves Nazis. Fascism has a number of characteristic features. He is characterized by nationalism, rejection of democracy, the desire to create a totalitarian state and worship of violence. German fascism was characterized by extreme nationalism and racism. The desire to win world domination for the Germans made him the most aggressive. The Nazi movement in Germany emerged after the First World War. Almost immediately it was headed by Adolf Hitler. The rapid growth of the influence of fascism falls on the years of the economic crisis.
The inability of the Weimar Republic to soften the plight of the people at this time caused its crisis and massive disillusionment with democracy in general. The Fascist Party began to receive many votes in elections. In 1933, Hitler received the right to form the government of Germany. Once in power, the Nazis destroyed democracy. All power was in the hands of Hitler, political parties, except for the fascist, were liquidated, and the role of punitive organs increased. The economy has also been transformed. The state began to regulate it in order to accelerate the way out of the crisis and create a powerful military industry. It established control over prices, wages, subordinated all entrepreneurs to state bodies. Anti-Semitism has become open state policy. Jews were deprived of their German citizenship and began to be resettled in specially designated quarters of cities. They were required to wear a yellow star on their clothes and not appear in public places. The Nazis sought to establish control over the minds of the people. The press, radio, art and literature were directly subordinate to the Ministry of Propaganda and were obliged to glorify Hitler, the superiority of the Germans as a superior race and the new order. The entire population was required to be a member of various Nazi organizations and participate in all mass campaigns. The coming to power of the Nazis in Germany changed the situation in Europe. Germany's desire for world domination threatened the world. By 1939, Germany had already prepared for the outbreak of war.
The internal political stability of Western countries in the second quarter of the 20th century is a thing of the past. In some, a frequent change of governments began, in Spain there was even a revolution, the monarchy was overthrown. Political parties, while consolidating power, tried to create broader coalitions. In other cases, governments began to rule over the heads of parliaments, issuing emergency decrees. But all these political maneuvers did not remove the question from the agenda: how to get out of the crisis and defuse social tension.
The central issue of Western countries in the 1930s was the search for ways out of the crisis. Several main directions of their development have been identified. In some countries (as was shown above with the example of Germany), fascism has established itself. In others, they took the path of continuing reforms. In the second half of the 1930s, Popular Fronts appeared in Europe. They united the left forces in their fight against fascism. Its basis was made by communists and social democrats. They realized that fascism had become their main danger, and decided to abandon the mutual struggle. In France, the Popular Front was formed in 1935. The following year, the Popular Front won the parliamentary elections. The government of the Popular Front, headed by the socialist Leon Blum, banned the paramilitary organizations of the Nazis. The wages of workers were raised, paid leave was introduced, pensions and benefits were increased. After the implementation of the program of the Popular Front, disagreements arose between its participants. This led to the fall of the Popular Front government. Many of his reforms were eliminated. In Spain, after the revolution of 1931, which destroyed the monarchy, there was a sharp struggle. Fascism emerged. The leftist parties formed the Popular Front. He won elections to the Cortes (parliament) and formed a government. The right-wing forces in response tried to carry out a military coup and shift the legitimate government. General Francisco Franco became the head of the military government. A civil war broke out in Spain. Franco received help from Italy and Germany. Republican government - only from the USSR. The rest of the countries pursued a policy of non-intervention in the affairs of Spain. The regime in the republic gradually changed. Democracy was curtailed under the pretext of fighting fascism. In 1939, Franco won. In Spain, a fascist dictatorship was established for many years.
Nevertheless, with all the differences in the options for the development of Western countries, they had something in common - the role of the state has grown everywhere.
The crisis also affected international relations. Western countries preferred to shift the burden of the crisis on each other, instead of looking for joint ways out of it. This strained relations between the great powers and paralyzed their ability to maintain the world order they themselves had established. Japan was the first to take advantage of this, openly violating the agreements reached at the Washington Conference on China. In 1931, she occupied Manchuria (Northeast China) and turned it into a base for preparing further aggression against China and the USSR. The timid attempts of the League of Nations to call Japan to order led to her defiant withdrawal from this international organization. Her actions ended up going unpunished. In Germany, in 1933, the Nazis came to power with their program to revise the Treaty of Versailles and revise the borders. The Italian fascists put forward a plan for expansion in Africa and the Mediterranean. All this led to an obvious threat to the Versailles-Washington system.

2. Renewal of Western European civilization in the second
half of the XX century.

The renewal of Western European civilization in the second half of the 20th century was marked by the idea of ​​a "welfare state" (a democratic state that guarantees its citizens a certain level of social security and well-being while maintaining a market economy). The idea of ​​such a state made its way for a long time. In the 19th century, the idea prevailed that everyone should take care of himself, and if, in extreme cases, someone needs help, then it should be provided not by the state, but by charitable organizations. But the opinion gradually began to spread that the social protection of citizens is their right, and if so, the state should guarantee the implementation of this right. The implementation of this idea proceeded slowly, sporadically. The most profound shift in this direction occurred in the 1930s. The reforms of the "new course", the transformations carried out by the government of the Popular Front in France, are proof of this.
The final formation of the "welfare state" falls on the 40s - 50s. The new democratic wave after the Second World War played an important role in this. Social reforms were one of the main demands of the democratic forces, just as after the First World War. Contributed to the formation of the "welfare state" and the "cold war". According to the policy of "containment" the West had to strive to create a just and prosperous society in order to protect itself from the penetration of subversive communist ideas. The condition for the formation of the "welfare state" was a favorable economic situation in the countries of the West after the Second World War. After all, social programs require large expenditures. Rapid economic growth made it possible to carry them out.
Among the striking features of the post-war development of the economy of the Western countries is its rapid growth in the 50-60s. The average annual growth rates of the economy in Germany and Italy grew 4 times, in the UK - almost doubled. At the same time, the starting point was taken in 1950, when the pre-war level had already been surpassed. There were several reasons for such a dynamic development of Western countries. The undoubted impetus for it was the Marshall Plan. Until 1951, the United States provided the countries of Western Europe with 13 billion dollars, which went mainly to the purchase of industrial equipment. An important condition for economic growth was the expansion of the market. The domestic market was affected by the emerging "welfare state". Incomes of the population grew, and consumer spending grew accordingly. As incomes grew, the structure of consumption began to change. An ever smaller share in it was occupied by food expenses, an increasing share - by durable goods: houses, cars, televisions, washing machines, directly stimulating production. A feature of the post-war development of the Western economy was the rapid growth of international trade. If, after the First World War, countries sought to isolate themselves from the world economy with high customs duties, then after the Second World War, a course was taken to liberalize world trade, and economic integration began in Western Europe. As a result, exports grew at an unprecedented pace: its annual growth in 1948-1960, for example in Germany, was 16.2%. Thus, foreign trade became a stimulus for the development of the economy. The years of economic growth coincided with the era of cheap oil. After the war, intensive exploitation of the world's largest oil reserves in the Persian Gulf began. Its low cost, high quality and colossal scale of production have created a unique situation in the field of energy supply. Oil began to displace coal, production costs were reduced, further stimulating production. A necessary condition for any economic growth are investments, capital investments. Their rates in these years in some countries reached the maximum values ​​in the entire history of statistics of this kind. Their level was determined by the very nature of industrial development in the 1950s and 1960s. There was a qualitative restructuring of industry based on the introduction of many scientific and technical developments during the war; mass production of televisions, transistor receivers, new means of communication, plastics and artificial fibers began, jet aircraft and nuclear energy appeared. The Cold War stimulated the development of the military industry. Finally, maintaining economic growth has been the policy of Western governments; they actively promoted it, encouraging investment, stimulating consumer demand.
The result of these reforms was the emergence of the "welfare state". Its formation took place in the 40-50s, its heyday - in the 60s - early 70s. By 1975, all Western countries had created social security systems that provided citizens with a variety of services - social insurance and social assistance, guaranteeing them state support throughout their lives. The state took upon itself the organization of assistance to widows, orphans, the disabled, large families, citizens living below the poverty line established in many countries. From 52 to 67% of the entire working-age population of Western countries was covered by unemployment insurance, from 48 to 94% - by accident insurance, from 72 to 100% - in case of illness, from 80 to 100% - pensions. Social spending has become the largest item of government spending, accounting for 50-60% of the budget.
Regulation of labor relations. The system of state regulation of labor relations has become an important component of the welfare state. The legal framework for the interaction of trade unions and entrepreneurs was established, which ensured their partnership. Labor legislation has provided employees with a number of guarantees in the field of employment, hiring and firing. The contradiction between labor and capital remained, but took legal, regulated and therefore less destructive forms. Real wages (wages adjusted for rising prices) doubled in Europe during the 1950s; in the US, they increased by 20% only during the years of Eisenhower's presidency (1953-1961).
In order to ensure the implementation of social programs, the "welfare state" intervened in economic life. At first, the main task of the Western countries in this area was to prevent economic upheavals equal to the crisis of 1929-1933. All of them pursued an anti-crisis policy, trying to reduce the scale of the decline in production. This task has largely been achieved; there were fewer crises, the decline in production was not deep, there were no global crises in terms of scale. This made it possible to put forward a more far-reaching task - to achieve an acceleration of economic growth.
The formation and development of the "welfare state" was one of the manifestations of a trend that became noticeable from the beginning of the 20th century - a trend towards expanding the functions of the state. She showed up in different ways. In the USSR and in the fascist states, the expansion of the functions of the state was accompanied by the liquidation of democracy. Social protection of the population in them was considered not as an inalienable right of citizens, but as a manifestation of the "care" of the state. After the collapse of fascism, the expansion of the functions of the state was accompanied not by the curtailment, but by the strengthening of democracy. Social protection, labor, welfare began to be regarded as inalienable rights of citizens, like the right to freedom of speech, assembly, press, etc.
When the "welfare state" entered its heyday, it began to seem to many that it could solve all problems, that it would make Western societies prosperous and just, save them from poverty and unemployment, drunkenness and drug addiction, give everyone a job and confidence in the future. And although the welfare state certainly made these problems less acute, it did not possess any miracle cures. And as it turned out soon, its capabilities were very limited.
In the mid-1970s, the "welfare state" went through hard times. At this time, the economic situation in the West changed. In 1974-1975, the first truly global economic crisis erupted. Rapid economic growth has stopped. There were interruptions in supplying Western countries with raw materials and, above all, with oil. In 1973, the Arab countries, in order to force the West to refuse assistance to Israel, stopped selling it oil, and then began to increase its price: by the end of the 70s, it had grown 10 times. The rise in oil prices caused the price of all goods and services to rise. Rising prices - inflation - has become a major economic problem. The slowdown in economic development coincided with the entry into the labor market of a large generation born after the war. The economy of the West could no longer absorb all job seekers. Unemployment began to rise: by the end of the 70s, it reached 16.8 million people. The growth of real wages stopped. As a result, the need for social services of the state increased, and its possibilities were reduced: the system of social protection began to work intermittently.
The "welfare state" has become an object of criticism. Until recently, it was seen as a magic key to the gates to the earthly paradise, and now it has become in the eyes of the population the source of all troubles. The opinion was established that inflation was the result of excessive government spending on social needs. They are the ones who devalue money.
As a result, a political movement appeared advocating the abolition of the "welfare state". This movement was called the "conservative wave". Its representatives, the so-called neoconservatives, came to power in most Western countries in the 1980s and indeed took measures to weaken state regulation of the economy and create more favorable conditions for the development of private entrepreneurship. They, as a rule, carried out a tough credit and financial policy in order to curb inflation and cut government spending. In countries where there was a significant public sector in the economy, its privatization was carried out.
However, there is no reason to consider all these phenomena as evidence of the collapse of the "welfare state". Social protection systems survived the "conservative wave" well, but were brought into line with economic realities. It became clear that many of the goals that were thought possible were unattainable, such as full employment. It became obvious that one should strive to avoid excessive state intervention: competition and the market must have the necessary freedom.
By the mid-1980s, due to savings in budget expenditures, a tight credit and financial policy managed to stop inflation. Stabilize oil and other energy prices. This created the prerequisites for the growth of capital investments. Moreover, by that time there was a need to update the fixed capital in connection with the technological revolution that had begun. The computer has become its main driving force and symbol. Electronic computers were created during the war years. The first generation of these machines, based on the use of vacuum tubes, looked like giant monsters. Created in 1951 by the American firm IBC (International Business Corporation), the UNIVAC-1 model weighed 30 tons, it used 18,000 lamps connected by 200 miles of wires. Finally, in 1972, the microprocessor was invented, making computing technology a miniature. In 1973, the American Stephen Jobs created the first personal computer, and in 1977 their mass production began. Computerization paved the way for the use of new technologies in production: robots, flexible production systems, automatic design systems - At the same time, the widespread introduction of new materials such as silicon, gallium, indium and their derivatives began. New types of industrial ceramics and composite materials have appeared. For the first time, biotechnology began to be widely introduced into the production, the use of genetic engineering methods began. All this taken together led to a steady recovery of the economy from 1982 until the early 1990s. His pace, however, was slow. He did not touch metallurgy, the coal industry, shipbuilding. As a result, the rise did not lead, as before, to full employment, the army of the unemployed did not decrease. However, behind these not very impressive quantitative indicators, a profound qualitative shift has begun. The technological revolution ensured a rapid increase in labor productivity, it made the economy of Western countries less energy-intensive, the specific consumption of raw materials decreased, and production became more environmentally friendly.
The technological revolution has created new means of communication. Facsimile, e-mail, portable radiotelephones and satellite telephones appeared. They in turn contributed to the rapid growth of world trade. The leading role in the Western economy began to be played by transnational corporations, which produced and sold their products in many countries at once. The interconnection and interdependence of national economies has become even greater.

List of used literature.

1. Babin Yu. Post-war Europe // North. –1994, No. 12.
2. World History: In 24 volumes / Ed. Badak A.V., L.A. Voinich T. 21. - Minsk.: Literature, 1998.
3. Zagorsky A. Europe after the Cold War // UNESCO Courier. - 1993, December.
4. Zaritsky B. Secrets of the "German miracle" // New time. –1995, No. 14.
5. Kostyuk V.N. History of Economic Thought. M.: Center, 1997.
6. Narinsky M. M. The USSR and the Marshall Plan // Comprehension of history. - M., 1996.
7. Fedyashin A. From monetary union - to the superpower "Europe" // Echo of the planet. - 1997, No. 12.
8. Khachaturyan V. M. History of world civilizations. – M.: Bustard, 1996.

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