What are the principles of national policy proclaimed by the Soviet government. Education of the USSR and national policy in the Soviet period
The national policy of the Soviet state and modernity
The morbidity and sharpness of relations between nations are not an exclusive feature of our Soviet life - it is still visible all over the world. And we can try to understand our problems only by realizing them as a refraction on our soil of laws common to all mankind.
In general, the slogan "the right of the nation to self-determination" was present on the banner of the revolution from its very beginnings. After the overthrow of the monarchy in Russia in Feb. Finland and Poland gained independence in 1917. The Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia on November 2(15), 1917 proclaimed the equality and sovereignty of the peoples of Russia and the right of the peoples of Russia to free self-determination up to secession and the formation of independent states. In the first years after the Bolsheviks came to power, independence was proclaimed by Ukraine, the republics of Transcaucasia (Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Abkhazia) and the Baltic countries (Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia). Autonomist movements unfolded among the large peoples of the Volga region (Tatars and Bashkirs).
In the situation with the formation of a new national policy, the authorities preferred to maintain external stability, avoiding sudden movements, dialogue with the national intelligentsia, and work with youth. Problems that had actually existed for several decades were driven into the system, although the only way to cure them required completely different actions. The abscess, sooner or later, had to be opened, but even then the extent and nature of the disease were not assessed to the necessary extent.
The national policy in the USSR, carried out according to the "residual principle" was contradictory by definition. Now many contemporaries of those events, former party leaders, employees of special services, journalists and writers are trying to find an external explanation for the factor of aggravation of national contradictions. I will not go into the analysis of conspiracy theories, but will try to formulate my own version of the answer to a question that is often asked at the everyday level: how could it be possible to move so quickly from friendship to enmity, if at the level of communication of ordinary Soviet people almost never appeared so characteristic of modern societies of the phenomenon of national hostility and intolerance?
The national question is a matter so subtle that there are only two ways to settle it.
Either the harsh suppression of any forms, any attempts to rethink it in a direction different from the official ideology - the Soviet people as a new historical community. Or the maximum consideration of all the specific features of the development of each people inhabiting the territory of the country. As long as the Stalinist system severely suppressed any manifestations of "bourgeois nationalism," the mechanism of national relations functioned within the framework of this logic. The thaw and subsequent stagnation loosened the tight grip but offered nothing in return. In addition to reviving methods of suppression in the event that the national elite or intelligentsia in the Union republics violated the established rules of the game.
This circumstance did not concern ordinary people at all, they built their relations as neighbors, and not as residents of closed enclaves, while maintaining their identity, although having lost a significant proportion of national customs, culture, traditions, language (somewhere in a larger, somewhere to a lesser extent). But at the same time, the national factor did not disappear anywhere, it persisted in a multinational environment, but did not manifest itself in any way "publicly" until a certain time. Incidentally, it was the first to "activate" before Almaty in Yakutsk.
Now there is a lot of talk about the fact that the events in Kazakhstan were, to some extent, provoked by contradictions within the republic itself. Perhaps this was so. But for the present, independent Kazakhstan, Zheltoksan is the "moment of truth", the point of "awakening the Kazakh people." No documentary studies, testimonies of eyewitnesses and direct participants in the events, even if they say otherwise, will not change this logic. December 1986 is a great date for modern Kazakhstan. And for Russian historians? We somehow cannot find a point of application of scientific knowledge about the subject - "the history of perestroika". We are circling in several pine trees and are trying to either refute or agree with the statements of the new national historiographies of the independent republics.
As before, all the sins and problems of interethnic relations in the space of the Soviet Union are attributed to the short-sighted and generally unconstructive national policy of Mikhail Gorbachev and his rival, and then the successor of the first President of Russia, Boris Yeltsin. But after all Kolbin's appointment was quite sustained in apparatus traditions. In Moscow, it seems to me, they simply could not understand what happened in Almaty and why the protest was so massive. Let me emphasize once again - the unpreparedness for new challenges, the inertia of thinking, ultimately, made it impossible to clearly understand the ways to solve the ever-increasing national problems - after Almaty there were events in Tbilisi, then in Baku - outwardly having a different nature and consequences, but acting as links of one chains.
Just as perestroika did not have a clear concept, a clear plan, so the national reorganization of the country proceeded chaotically, without taking into account the real ethno-political situation in various regions, which ultimately led to the emergence of local armed conflicts on interethnic grounds. It seems to me that the events in January 1990 are already the final cross that was put on the peaceful reform of the system, and, ultimately, on the very possibility of preserving the Union.
But the first crack in the monolith lay precisely in December 1986. We must remember this, and strive to understand the mistakes and miscalculations of the then leadership of the country in order to avoid their repetition in the current practice of our states.
The problem of Soviet nationality policy stems from the thesis that the isolation of various nations, the desire for the greatest national independence, proceeded in parallel with the subordination of all life to socialist ideology. “These were such closely intertwined processes that in many cases their manifestation is difficult to distinguish. For example, when tendencies towards the isolation of non-Russian nations deliberately developed as a counterbalance to Russian patriotism, which was then considered the main danger. But on the other hand, these national aspirations soon collided with deep, basic aspects of socialist ideology - hostility to the idea of the nation, the desire to subjugate it to oneself, as well as human individuality, "writes I. Shafarevich. From this it follows that, in the end, the problems were solved by suppression and the desire to Russify non-Russian peoples.
In many respects, the methods tested in the 20s turned out to be progressive methods.
There are amazing examples when, in the shortest possible time, a national alphabet was created among pre-literate peoples, and just a few years later there was already a branch of the Writers' Union, their own newspapers. The National Committees and departments informed the peoples about the measures of the Soviet government in the field of national policy. Local Soviet bodies carried out political, cultural and educational work, assisted in resolving economic issues, and settled conflicts that arose between the center and nationalities.
Time has highlighted the socio-political significance of the creation of the USSR for the multinational family of peoples inhabiting it. A dual historical task was immediately solved: to preserve and use the advantages of a large state that had developed over the centuries and a single economic space, to give nations and peoples the right to create and develop their own statehood.
The subsequent experience of interethnic relations showed that it was precisely the voluntary addition of efforts, the friendship of the peoples that were part of the Union, that allowed them in an unprecedentedly short time to overcome the former centuries-old technical, economic and cultural backwardness and reach the frontiers of modern civilization. And above all, the Russian people gave their knowledge and energy for the development of the economy and culture of the republics of the former USSR. national politics of the ussr
It was only thanks to the Union of the SSR that the republics were able to defend their national independence and inflict a decisive defeat on Nazi Germany and its satellites during the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945.
With all the difficulties, deformations and miscalculations made by the political leadership in the past, the USSR stood the test of time and was a great power. It collapsed in December 1991. occurred against the will of the peoples and threw the republics far back, entailed heavy, unjustified material, social and moral losses for all nations and nationalities. Having lost their "common home", today most people, as well as many politicians, have sadly realized the need to revive cooperation within the CIS, taking into account the mutual interests of the subjects of integration and the need to join efforts for sustainable social progress of peoples who have lived together for centuries.
The integration of cultures of different peoples leads to the emergence of a culture that is qualitatively higher than one of them could create. The culture of the largest nation also acquires a new dimension, which it would not have otherwise. It seems that this path is not closed to the peoples of our country, but it is very difficult to find it now, and this requires changes in the usual points of view, and efforts, and good will.
We can count on sympathy, or at least on a non-hostile attitude of our peoples, only if we see, for example, in the Karelians, not just people equal to us in all respects, but we feel how much richer our country is from the fact that this person lives next to us. a small courageous people, ready to bear any sacrifices, but not to give up their national identity.
After all, the problem of interethnic relations cannot be solved on the basis of mutual reproaches and hatred. It is necessary to get off this ground, and for this it is necessary to reorient the attitudes that have developed over decades, and sometimes centuries, and turn the forces of repulsion into forces of rapprochement. This is necessary not only to try to maintain ties between the peoples of our country, but in this direction everyone who is responsible for the fate of his people, regardless of their future, should make their efforts.
Of course, in the life of nations there may come a moment when all spiritual connection is lost, and living together within the framework of one state will only increase mutual bitterness. Whatever the solution, the only healthy way to it is the rapprochement of peoples. The alternative to it is only the path of strength, on which each decision turns out to be only temporary, leading only to the next, more severe crisis.
One can hope, there are indeed real grounds for this, that in many respects the lessons of the past have not been in vain for our peoples. By our experience we are protected from many temptations - but not from all. In a troubled era, class hatred will probably no longer be the match that will set fire to our house. But the national one may well. By the tremors that are being heard now, one can judge what a destructive force it can become when it breaks out. It is naive to think that someone will be able to introduce this element into the framework that is desirable for him - the forces of malice and violence obey their own laws and always devour those who unleashed them.
This is the last reason for the extreme degree of acuteness that the national question has - it can become a question of the existence of our peoples "- I. Shafarevich.
Based on an assessment of the policy of the union state, the following significant points should be noted that can form the basis for resolving national conflicts:
- -increasing the level of education;
- - the fight against stereotypes through the media, the Internet, etc.;
- - formation of an accurate and uniform national policy;
- -real provision of rights and freedoms;
- - intercultural dialogue.
A multinational state is not a sentence.
In conclusion, I would like to make the following comparisons of nationalities: a nation is a flower, it is certainly beautiful and unique, it smells in a special way; many nations - this is a bouquet in which beauty and uniqueness are multiplied. Merging together, they create harmony and balance.
Sources
- 1. Barsenkov A.S. The Russian question in national politics. XX century / A.I. Vdovin, V.A. Koretsky. - M.: Moskovsky worker, 1993. - 163 p.
- 2. Bezborodov A. Perestroika and collapse of the USSR. 1985-1993 / A. Bezborodov, N. Eliseeva, V.
Shestakov. - St. Petersburg: Norma, 2010. - 216 p.
- 3. Mavridina M.N. The history of homeland. Textbook / M. N. Mavridina. - M.: Thought, 2001. - 650 p.
- 4. Syrykh V.M. History of the state and law of Russia. Soviet and modern periods / V.M. Raw. - M.: Jurist, 1999. - 488 p.
- 5. Shafarevich I.R. The path from under the blocks / I.R. Shafarevich. - M.: Sovremennik, 1991. - 288 p.
National history. Crib Barysheva Anna Dmitrievna
56 NATIONAL POLICY OF THE SOVIET STATE. EDUCATION OF THE USSR
After the October Revolution and the victory of the Bolsheviks, one of the first decrees of the new government was the Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia, proclaiming the equality and sovereignty of all peoples, their right to self-determination up to secession and the formation of independent states, the free development of all national minorities. Legislatively, the federal principle, as well as the right of peoples to freely decide on the issue of joining the Soviet Federation, was enshrined in the Declaration of the Rights of the Working and Exploited People, which became an integral part of the text of the first Constitution of the RSFSR (1918).
In accordance with the principle of the right of nations to self-determination, the Soviet government recognized the state independence of Finland, a decree was signed renouncing the treaties on the previous partitions of Poland.
The peoples and nationalities of the North Caucasus, Transcaucasia, Central Asia, Siberia and the Far East received national autonomy.
Taking advantage of the right of nations to self-determination up to secession during the years of the Civil War, many peoples of the former Russian Empire created their own national-state formations.
Not all of them were sustainable, their existence was not long.
The newly formed national republics, as Soviet power was established in them, were formed around the RSFSR as a federal center. This made it possible to stop the process of disintegration of the unified centralized Russian state. After the Civil War, a process of unification movement began, which led to the formation of a new Russian statehood - the USSR.
The act of establishing the USSR was the Treaty concluded between four republics: the RSFSR, Ukraine, Belarus and the Transcaucasian Federation (Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan). On December 30, 1922, the congress of plenipotentiaries of these republics (I Congress of Soviets of the USSR) approved the Treaty on the Formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).
The foundations of the state structure of the USSR were enshrined in the Constitution of the USSR, adopted in 1924.
According to the Constitution, a federal structure was fixed in the USSR (JV Stalin proposed a plan for autonomization) and the right to freely secede from the USSR. But by this time, real power was concentrated in the structures of the RCP (b), based on a single control center - the Central Committee. Republican organizations were part of the RCP(b) as regional subdivisions and did not have independence.
Therefore, the Soviet Union in reality acquired the character of a unitary state.
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National policy of the Soviet power. Formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
The unifying movement to create a Soviet multinational state began immediately after the victory of the October Revolution and the collapse of the empire and went through three stages. First (October 1917 - mid-1918) was marked by the birth of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, which consistently, as the course towards equality of peoples was realized, turned into a federation of a new type. The Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets emphasized that the Soviet government "... will ensure to all the nations inhabiting Russia the true right to self-determination."
The legal basis of the Soviet national policy at the first stage was the "Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia" of November 2, 1917, which proclaimed the equality and sovereignty of the peoples of Russia; their right to free self-determination up to secession and formation of an independent state; the abolition of all and any national and national-religious privileges and restrictions; free development of national minorities and ethnographic groups inhabiting the territory of Russia.
In the appeal "To all the working Muslims of Russia and the East," the Council of People's Commissars guaranteed complete and unhindered freedom to organize the life of Muslims. By the end of 1917, the Council of People's Commissars adopted a Manifesto to the Ukrainian people, a decree on Turkish Armenia, a decree recognizing the state independence of Finland. All these documents explained the principles that guided the Soviet government in resolving the national question. “We want the largest possible state,” V.I. explained. Lenin, - the closest possible union, the largest possible number of nations living in the neighborhood of the Great Russians; we want this in the interests of democracy and socialism...”.
At the first stage, autonomous republics, territorial autonomies, taking into account the national composition of the population, appeared on the territory of the former tsarist Russia, sovereign Soviet republics appeared.
Second the stage of the unifying movement of the peoples of the Soviet republics is associated with the period of the civil war and foreign military intervention (1918–1920). By this time, a group of Soviet republics had formed, linked with each other by cooperation on a wide variety of issues. The decree of June 6, 1919 formalized the military-political union of Russia, Ukraine, Latvia, Lithuania and Belarus. Its essence was reduced to a close association: 1) military organization and military command; 2) councils of the national economy; 3) railway management and economy; 4) finance and 5) labor commissariats of the republics - so that the leadership of these industries is concentrated in the hands of single collegiums. The All-Russian Central Executive Committee carried out the unification of the efforts of the republics on the basis of an agreement with the Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars of the indicated republics. During this period, bilateral agreements were concluded between the RSFSR and the Ukrainian SSR, the BSSR and other republics. The second stage is characterized by the formation of Soviet statehood in the national regions, where a sharp struggle unfolded against the nationalist counter-revolution.
On the third At the stage of the unifying movement of the peoples of the Soviet republics (1921–1922), they agree on a military-economic alliance and organize a united diplomatic front. Time has shown that the federation based on bilateral agreements had significant shortcomings. The urgent need for closer cooperation between the republics in economic and state life necessitated the creation of a new union state.
The constitutional design of the USSR was preceded by the formation of national statehood on the basis of the Soviets with the direct participation of the All-Russian and Republican Congresses of Soviets, the Council of People's Commissars and the Central Executive Committee of the RSFSR. Among the first 13 people's commissariats established on October 26 (November 8), 1917 is the People's Commissariat for Nationalities of the RSFSR. Narkomnats operated until 1923 under the leadership of the Council of People's Commissars and the Central Committee of the RCP (b), was closely associated with national sections, national centers and local party organizations.
The tasks of the People's Commissariat for National Affairs included the creation of conditions for the implementation of measures that ensure fraternal cooperation and the interests of all nationalities and national minorities. The People's Commissariat of Nationalities assisted in the organization of national republics, autonomous regions, worked with national cadres, fought against manifestations of chauvinism and nationalism, separatism, published literature in national languages, and participated in the preparation of documents on national-state building.
The National Commissariats (National Committees) and national departments worked as part of the People's Commissariat of Nationalities. At the end of 1918, there were 11 national committees - Polish, Lithuanian, Muslim, Jewish, Armenian, Belarusian, Volga Germans, mountaineers of the Caucasus, Georgian, Latvian, Czechoslovak; 8 departments - Kirghiz, Mari, peoples of Siberia, Ukrainian, Estonian, Votyak, Chuvash, peoples of the Volga region.
The National Committees and departments informed the peoples about the measures of the Soviet government in the field of national policy. Local Soviet bodies carried out political, cultural and educational work, assisted in resolving economic issues, settled conflicts between the center and nationalities, and prepared for the formation of autonomies.
In August 1918, 222 people worked in the apparatus of the People's Commissariat of Nationalities. By the beginning of 1919, there were 21 commissariats in the Narkomnats. They were headed by prominent figures of the RCP (b): Yu.M. Leshchinsky, V.S. Mickevicius-Kapsukas, V.A. Avanesov, A.G. Chervyakov, S.M. Dimanstein, M.Yu. Kulik, A.Z. Kamensky, A.G. Meshcheryakov, M.A. Molodtsova, G.K. Klinger, N.N. Narimanov, T.R. Ryskulov and others.
The activities of the People's Commissariat for National Affairs were headed by a collegium headed by the People's Commissar for Nationalities I.V. Stalin. However, over the 6 years of the existence of the People's Commissariat, he personally participated in the work of the collegium for no more than three months due to frequent trips to the fronts of the civil war and other tasks of the Council of People's Commissars and the Central Committee of the RCP (b). Thus, the main burden of this complex work was carried out by the members of the board.
At first, the commissariats and departments of the People's Commissariat of Nationalities worked with nationalities on almost all issues: they dealt with the fate of refugees, employment, social security, education, agriculture, etc. After the III All-Russian Congress of Soviets proclaimed the formation of the RSFSR in January 1918, the activities of the has changed. Work on issues of culture, education, social security was transferred to the relevant people's commissariats of the national republics. The main task of the Narkomnats was to prepare the creation of autonomous Soviet republics and regions.
After the end of the civil war, Narkomnats began to pay more attention to plans and projects to improve the economic and cultural development of the peoples of the Russian Federation. Since May 1920, the restructuring of the central apparatus of the people's commissariat began. In 1921, instead of the commissariats, 14 national representations were created, a Council of Nationalities was formed, consisting of 26 people, which served as a large collegium of the people's commissariat. Along with this, the institute of commissioners of the People's Commissariat for National Affairs of the RSFSR began to work under the governments of the republics and in the regions. They were instructed to "observe the implementation of national policy on the ground", to study the historical, ethnographic and cultural life of nationalities and national groups of autonomies, to protect the rights and interests of small peoples. In this regard, the staff of the People's Commissariat also grew. For example, as of September 1, 1921, there were 875 people in the People's Commissariat for National Affairs, including 374 clerical workers, 79 instructors and agents, 6 writers, 37 accountants, 84 economists, lawyers, school workers, agronomists, medical workers, engineers, mechanics, technicians - 37, workers - 162, drivers - 36, etc. The national composition of the People's Commissariat was quite representative: Russians - 521, Jews - 85, Tatars - 37, Germans - 28, Latvians - 17, Poles - 14, Lithuanians - 8 and others.
The People's Commissariat of National Affairs worked fruitfully to create a number of educational, scientific, cultural and educational institutions and organize their activities. Among them were the Communist Universities of the Workers of the East and National Minorities of the West (KUTV named after I.V. Stalin and KUNMZ named after Yu.Yu. Markhlevsky, 1921–1938). KUTV published the journal "Revolutionary East". During its work, the University has trained several thousand specialists. Under the People's Commissariat for National Affairs, the Institute of Oriental Studies and several publishing houses functioned.
With the assistance of the People's Commissariat for National Affairs, the national regions received tangible assistance in material resources, food, and loans. Specialists were sent from the center of Russia to train and educate local personnel. In Moscow, teachers were trained to eliminate illiteracy in the languages of the indigenous nationalities. Established in 1922 under the People's Commissariat for National Affairs, the Eastern Publishing House published primers and textbooks, socio-political, agricultural, popular science, and fiction in native languages. At the printing house of the publishing house there was a school for training compositors for printing national regions.
Thanks to the activities of the People's Commissariat for National Affairs, a wide network of national schools, universities, educational societies, libraries, and national theaters arose. For the first time in the history of Russia, the gigantic task of eliminating the illiteracy of the non-Russian population was successfully solved. The most important documents relating to nation-building were translated into national languages. At the end of 1919, Narkomnats published newspapers in almost 60 languages and dialects and had its own print organ - the newspaper "Life of Nationalities" (since 1922 - a magazine with a circulation of 7 to 12 thousand copies).
In January 1918, the Third All-Russian Congress of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies adopted the Declaration of the Rights of the Working and Exploited People. Soviet Russia was established on the basis of a union of free nations in the form of a federation of Soviet national republics and became known as the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic. The principles of the federation were: voluntary entry, equality of nations, proletarian internationalism, democratic centralism. The supreme body of the federation was the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, which elected the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars.
In the early days of the existence of the RSFSR, such a form of nation-state building as an autonomous republic arose within it. By the end of 1918, an autonomous labor commune appeared. In 1920 - an autonomous region. The labor commune and the autonomous region had the rights of a province, but differed in their national-state status. The highest form of autonomy was the Autonomous Republic (ASSR) - the state. The Autonomous Republic had the highest bodies of power and administration, close to the all-Russian ones, its own legal system, constitution. During the years of the civil war, some autonomous republics had their own armed forces, diplomatic and foreign trade relations, managed transport, and regulated monetary relations. In 1920, these functions, in agreement with the lower subjects, were taken over by the center.
The 5th All-Russian Congress of Soviets on July 10, 1918 approved the Constitution of the RSFSR, summarizing and legally fixing the first experience of Soviet nation-state construction.
With the victory in the civil war, work continued on the creation of autonomous nation-states within the framework of the RSFSR.
In 1920–1921 nation-state building in the RSFSR acquired a wide scale. The creation of autonomies followed different paths: some peoples acquired their statehood for the first time, others restored their statehood at a new level. Ultimately, by the end of 1922, the RSFSR included 8 autonomous republics (Turkestan, Kirghiz (Kazakh), Tatar, Bashkir, Mountain, Dagestan, Yakut, Crimean); 11 autonomous regions (Chuvash, Mari, Kalmyk, Votskaya (Udmurtia), Komi (Zyryan), Buryat, Oirot, Karachay-Cherkess, Kabardino-Balkarian, Cherkess (Adygea), Chechen); 2 labor communes (Labor commune of the Volga Germans and Karelian labor commune, which became an autonomous republic in 1923). Autonomies were also created in other republics. So, in 1923, the autonomous region of Nagorno-Karabakh arose in Azerbaijan.
In 1921, there were 7 socialist republics on the territory of the former Russian Empire: the RSFSR, the Ukrainian SSR, the BSSR, the Azerbaijan SSR, the Armenian SSR, the Georgian SSR, the Socialist Soviet Republic of Abkhazia, the Bukhara and Khorezm People's Soviet Republics, and the Far Eastern Republic.
The tasks of overcoming the most severe post-war devastation, the economic revival of the republics, and overcoming the centuries-old cultural backwardness of the peoples of the border regions hastened their rapprochement with the RSFSR. Reflecting this line, the Tenth Congress of the RCP (b) in March 1921 set a course for the organization of a state union of republics.
Based on the decisions of the IX All-Russian Congress of Soviets and the IV All-Russian Congress of Economic Councils (May 1921), a unified system of industrial management of the entire federation was formed. Industry was divided into federal and local. Heavy and light industry, agriculture, transport and communications were subject to unification.
In 1921–1922 a federal budget was formed, although not all issues were resolved. So, in the RSFSR, the Ukrainian SSR and the BSSR there was a single monetary system since the time of the civil war, and in the Transcaucasian republics there were their own banknotes, along with and on a par with the banknotes of the RSFSR. Often in the documents of the republics economic plans were drawn up without taking into account the general federal tasks of restoring, first of all, the most important national economic objects.
The restoration of the national economy with the help of the RSFSR strengthened and expanded the cooperation of the republics. There was a need for the adoption of federal legislation. This was due to the fact that national-separatist tendencies also took place in the republics, that is, tendencies towards secession, isolation.
The peoples of the Soviet republics, along with domestic political reasons, were pushed to form a single union state by foreign political factors. So, in April-May 1922, an international economic and financial conference was held in Genoa, at which the delegations of the RSFSR were instructed to represent the diplomatic unity of the Soviet republics.
In March 1922, the Transcaucasian Federation of Socialist Soviet Republics was formed with the task of ensuring fraternal cooperation between the peoples of Transcaucasia and eradicating interethnic enmity. The improvement in the economic and political situation of the Soviet republics of Transcaucasia led in December 1922 to the transformation of the federative union into a federal state - the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (TSFSR) as part of the Georgian SSR, the Armenian SSR, the Azerbaijan SSR, the SSR of Abkhazia.
The formation of the union state was accompanied by sharp controversy. Variants were proposed to base the union of republics on a confederation or a federation based on autonomy, or to preserve, with some improvement, the existing contractual relations. The confederation was a form of government in which its members remained completely independent, but could coordinate their actions for certain purposes through joint bodies (military, foreign policy, etc.). The proposal for a confederation was not supported.
Since the summer of 1922, the Central Committee of the RCP (b) has come to grips with the issue of preparing for the unification of the Soviet republics. In early August, the commission began its work under the chairmanship of V.V. Kuibyshev. Individual figures: I.V. Stalin, D.Z. Manuilsky, G.K. Ordzhonikidze and some others were in favor of a federation based on "autonomization". I.V. Stalin proposed that the Soviet republics - Ukraine, Belarus, Azerbaijan, Armenia and Georgia become part of the RSFSR on an autonomous basis. This project minimized the independence of the Soviet republics and led in fact to the formation of a centralized, unitary state.
Against this proposal were the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Ukraine, Georgia. The Stalinist project was supported by the Transcaucasian Regional Committee of the RCP (b), the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Armenia and Azerbaijan. The Central Committee of the Communist Party (b) of Belarus preferred the preservation of contractual relations. Having criticized the project of "autonomization", V.I. Lenin put forward a new form of voluntary and equal union of the Soviet republics. Being opposed to excessive centralism, he proposed to strengthen the sovereignty of each republic as an indispensable condition for the rallying of peoples. Back in December 1919, V.I. Lenin, considering possible options for a close union of the republics in a letter to the workers and peasants of Ukraine, wrote: “We want voluntary an alliance of nations - such an alliance that would not allow any violence of one nation against another - such an alliance that would be based on complete trust, on a clear consciousness of fraternal unity, on completely voluntary consent.
In September 1922 V.I. Lenin declared in his letter "On the Formation of the USSR": "We recognize ourselves as equal in rights with the Ukrainian SSR and others, and together and on an equal footing with them we enter into a new union, a new federation." The plenum of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) on October 6, 1922 adopted Lenin's proposal on the form of unification of the Soviet republics into a union multinational state.
But the idea of "autonomization" showed its vitality even after this Plenum, and led to an aggravation of local nationalism. It manifested itself especially sharply in Georgia, where the so-called "Georgian incident" arose. At the end of October 1922, the Central Committee of the Communist Party (b) of Georgia collectively resigned. Supporting the decisions of the October Plenum of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) in 1922 on the formation of the Union, F.I. Makharadze, on behalf of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Georgia, proposed instead of the clause on the entry of the Transcaucasian Federation into the Union of the SSR, to provide for the possibility of an independent, i.e. separate entry into the Union of Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan.
The Transcaucasian Regional Committee of the Bolshevik Party was headed by G.K. Ordzhonikidze, he reacted rudely to this statement by F.I. Makharadze, accusing the Georgian leaders of chauvinism. However, the other side responded in kind. In November, a commission headed by F.E. Dzerzhinsky to review the incident. IN AND. Lenin was dissatisfied with the work of the commission, as it condemned the Georgian leadership and approved the line of the Zakkraykom. IN AND. Lenin could not actively intervene in this matter, as he fell seriously ill. However, at the end of December 1922, he dictated the letter “On the question of nationalities, or on “autonomization”, where he sharply condemned administration and rudeness in interethnic relations, a formal attitude to the national question.
X All-Russian Congress of Soviets (December 23-27, 1922), having discussed the report of I.V. Stalin on the unification of the Soviet republics and speeches by delegates - representatives from other republics (M.V. Frunze from the Ukrainian SSR, M.G. Tskhakaya from Georgia, G.M. Musabekov from Azerbaijan, etc.), adopted a resolution on the entry of the RSFSR into the union states.
On December 30, 1922, the First Congress of Soviets of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics worked at the Bolshoi Theater in Moscow. It was attended by 1727 delegates from the RSFSR, 364 from the Ukrainian SSR, 33 from the BSSR, 91 from the ZSFSR. According to the data of the credentials commission, workers prevailed among the delegates - 44.4%, peasants were 26.8%, employees and intellectuals - 28.8%. The congress was attended by representatives of more than 50 nationalities. A brief report was made by I.V. Stalin. He read out the texts of the Declaration on the Formation of the USSR and the Union Treaty, approved the day before by the Conference of Plenipotentiary Delegations of the Soviet Republics.
The Declaration emphasized the conclusion about the great role of the Soviets in uniting the peoples of the country, in creating a federation of a new type. It was emphasized that the Union guarantees external security, economic and cultural upsurge, and freedom for the national development of peoples. The Declaration noted that the union is a voluntary association of equal peoples, that each republic has the right to freely secede from the Union, and that access to the Union is open to all socialist republics - existing and future.
The agreement on the formation of the USSR contained 26 articles that determined the competence of the USSR and its bodies. The jurisdiction of the Union included foreign policy issues, diplomatic, economic, military and the basics of organizing a unified armed forces. Within the framework of the Union, the most important economic and political levers of management were united. The foundations of a general plan for the development of the national economy, a single state budget, monetary and credit systems, land management, judicial organization and legal proceedings, civil and criminal federal legislation were established, transport, post and telegraph were combined. The Union was instructed to regulate labor relations, public education, health care, and statistics.
The Union had the right to cancel resolutions of the congresses of Soviets, the Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars of the Union republics that violated the Treaty. A single union state was established for all citizens of the republics.
The Congress of Soviets of the USSR was recognized as the supreme body of power, and between congresses its functions were carried out by the Central Executive Committee of the USSR, elected by the congress. The executive body of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR was the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR, elected by the Central Executive Committee of the USSR, consisting of the Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR, his deputies and 10 people's commissars.
The treaty delimited the powers of the USSR and the union republics, which voluntarily gave up part of their rights in the name of common interests. The Union Treaty secured the sovereignty of the Union republics. Article 13 affirmed the independence of acts of the supreme bodies of the Union for all republics. At the same time, Article 15 secured the right of the Central Executive Committee of the Union Republics to protest the documents of the Union bodies, and in exceptional cases, under Article 17, the Central Executive Committee of the Union Republics had the right to suspend the execution of the order of the People's Commissars of the Union, informing the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR and the People's Commissar of the Union.
The congress ended with the election of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR (371 members and 138 candidates - in proportion to the population of the Union republics). At the same time, the RSFSR and the Ukrainian SSR voluntarily ceded a number of seats in favor of the less populated republics. Among the elected members of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR, workers accounted for 46.2%, peasants - 13.6% and intelligentsia - 40.2%.
The first session of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR elected the Presidium of the USSR from 19 members and 13 candidates. Then the Central Executive Committee of the USSR elected four of its chairmen - M.I. Kalinin - from the RSFSR, G.I. Petrovsky - from the Ukrainian SSR, N.N. Narimanov - from ZSFS, A.G. Chervyakov - from the BSSR. A.S. was approved as the Secretary of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR. Yenukidze. The session instructed the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR to prepare a draft of the first Constitution of the USSR and the formation of executive authorities.
The CEC session approved the composition of the first Council of People's Commissars of the USSR. V.I. Lenin. His deputies were approved by L.B. Kameneva, A.I. Rykova, A.D. Tsyurupu, V.Ya. Chubar, G.K. Ordzhonikidze, I.D. Orakhelashvili. All-Union people's commissariats headed: for foreign affairs - G.V. Chicherin, in military and naval affairs - L.D. Trotsky, foreign trade - L.B. Krasin, means of communication - F.E. Dzerzhinsky, post and telegraph - I.I. Smirnov. The united people's commissariats of the Union were headed by: Supreme Economic Council - A.I. Rykov, food - N.P. Bryukhanov, labor - V.V. Schmidt, Finance - G.Ya. Sokolnikov, Workers' and Peasants' Inspectorate - V.V. Kuibyshev.
In the process of working on the draft Constitution of the USSR, additions were made regarding the strengthening of political guarantees for the representation of all national republics and regions on the basis of equality in the Central Executive Committee of the USSR. To this end, along with the already existing Union Council , a new, equal body was created - Council of Nationalities .
The jurisdiction of the Union of the USSR additionally included "settlement of the issue of changing the borders between the union republics" and the resolution of disputes between them.
The second session of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR, having heard on July 6, 1923 the report of A.S. Yenukidze, discussed chapter by chapter and enacted the Constitution of the USSR. The final approval of the Basic Law of the USSR took place at the Second Congress of Soviets of the USSR.
The Second All-Union Congress of Soviets on January 31, 1924 approved the first Constitution of the USSR, formalizing the creation of a single union state as a federation of sovereign Soviet republics.
With the formation of the USSR, the Narkomnats was abolished in July 1923. It was believed that those who took shape in independent republics and regions of nationality could do without the specified people's commissariat. This was stated in the resolution of the 2nd session of the Central Executive Committee of the RSFSR of the X convocation on July 7, 1923. The implementation of the national policy on the ground was entrusted to the presidiums of the Central Executive Committee of the autonomous republics and the executive committees of the Soviets of regions and provinces.
To manage the work on the implementation of national policy in the republic and coordinate the work of representatives of autonomies under the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the RSFSR, by a decree of the Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR of April 9, 1923, the Department of Nationalities was established under the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the RSFSR. The interests of national minorities were taken into account in each republican sectoral body.
With the creation of the USSR, as part of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR, along with the chamber of the Union Council, the chamber of the Council of Nationalities took shape constitutionally. The Presidium of the Council of Nationalities sent directives to the Central Executive Committees of the Union and Autonomous Republics on issues of national policy, controlled the work of departments and national commissions. The Council of Nationalities published the journal "Revolution and Nationalities", newspapers in German, Jewish, Tatar, directed the activities of the Research Institute of Nationalities of the USSR.
On January 31, 1924, the Second Congress of Soviets of the USSR finally approved the text of the Constitution of the USSR and completed the constitutional design of a single union state, legally secured the full legal equality of peoples, their sovereignty, unconditional recognition of equal rights and equal duties for all peoples. By that time, there were 33 national-state formations in the voluntary union of republics: union republics - 4, autonomous republics - 13, autonomous regions - 16.
In May 1925, the Third Congress of Soviets of the USSR adopted a resolution "On the entry into the USSR of the Turkmen and Uzbek Socialist Soviet Republics." In 1929, the Tajik SSR was formed. In 1936, the Kazakh and Kirghiz autonomous republics received the status of union republics. In the same year, the Azerbaijan, Armenian and Georgian Soviet republics, formerly part of the TSFSR, directly entered the USSR as union republics. In 1940, the Latvian, Lithuanian and Estonian Soviet Socialist Republics entered the USSR. By the time of the collapse of the USSR in 1991, it included: union republics - 15, autonomous republics - 20, autonomous regions - 8, autonomous regions - 10.
Time has highlighted the socio-political significance of the creation of the USSR for the multinational family of the peoples inhabiting it. A dual historical task was immediately solved: to preserve and use the advantages of a large state that had developed over the centuries and a single economic space, to give nations and peoples the right to create and develop their own statehood.
The subsequent experience of interethnic relations showed that it was precisely the voluntary addition of efforts, the friendship of the peoples that were part of the Union, that allowed them to overcome their former centuries-old technical, economic and cultural backwardness in an unprecedentedly short time and reach the frontiers of modern civilization. And above all, the Russian people gave their knowledge and energy for the development of the economy and culture of the republics of the former USSR.
It was only thanks to the Union of the SSR that the republics were able to defend their national independence and inflict a decisive defeat on fascist Germany and its satellites during the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945.
With all the difficulties, deformations and miscalculations made by the political leadership in the past, the USSR withstood the test of time and was great power . Its collapse in December 1991 occurred against the will of the peoples and threw the republics far back, entailed heavy, unjustified material, social and moral losses for all nations and nationalities. Having lost their "common home", today the majority of people, as well as many politicians, have sadly realized the need to revive cooperation within the CIS, taking into account the mutual interests of the subjects of integration and the need to join efforts for sustainable social progress of peoples who have lived together for centuries.
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Introduction ................................................ ................................................. 3
1. Education of the USSR and the national policy of the Soviet government. 3
3. Industrialization and collectivization. Their Political, Socio-Economic and Demographic Outcomes and Consequences .............................................................. ................................................. .................... 7
4. The formation of a totalitarian regime in the USSR .............................. 9
5. Foreign policy of the Soviet state in the years. eleven
6. The development of national culture in the years. fourteen
Conclusion................................................. ................................................. ..... sixteen
Literature................................................. ............................................ eighteen
Introduction.
The October Revolution of 1917 led to the collapse of the Russian Empire. There was a disintegration of the former unified state space that had existed for several centuries. The Bolshevik idea of world revolution and the creation in the future of the World Federative Republic of Soviets has forced a new unification process. An active role in this movement was played by the RSFSR, whose authorities were interested in restoring a unitary state on the territory of the former Russian Empire. In connection with the victory of Soviet power in the main territory of the former Russian Empire, other prerequisites for the unification process arose - a single character of the political system (the dictatorship of the proletariat in the form of a republic of Soviets), similar features of the organization of state power and administration. In most of the republics, power belonged to the national communist parties that were part of the RCP(b). The instability of the international position of the young Soviet republics in the conditions of the capitalist encirclement also dictated the need for unification. The need for unification was also caused by the common historical destinies of the peoples of the multinational state, the presence of long-term economic and cultural ties.
In the summer of 1919, there was military-political union Soviet republics. On June 1, 1919, a decree was signed "On the unification of the Soviet republics of Russia, Ukraine, Latvia, Lithuania, Belarus to fight world imperialism." bilateral agreements have been signed military-economic union between Russia and Azerbaijan, military and economic union between Russia and Belarus, alliance agreements between Russia and Ukraine, Russia and Georgia. In the spring of 1921, in response to an indication of the economic unification of Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, the creation of the Transcaucasian Federation (TSFSR) began, which organizationally took shape in March 1922.
The practice of the first years of Soviet power was to create autonomies in the Russian Federation on a national, territorial, and economic basis. In the years peoples, mostly small and compactly living surrounded by Great Russian lands, received two levels of autonomy within the RSFSR: republican and regional. The federation was seen by the Bolsheviks as a transitional stage on the eve of the world revolution. proposed a form of federal union as " voluntary and equal association" independent Soviet republics, transferring on a parity basis a number of their sovereign rights in favor of the all-Union authorities. The First All-Union Congress of Soviets opened on December 30, 1922, which basically approved Declaration and Treaty on the formation of the USSR as part of four republics - the RSFSR, the Ukrainian and Byelorussian SSR and the ZSFSR. Proclaiming the federal principle of the state structure, the Constitution of the USSR contained unitary tendencies, providing the opportunity for the intervention of the center and its control over the republican authorities. From the time of the adoption of the Constitution of 1924 to the Constitution of 1936, the process of nation-state building took place. In 1924, as a result of the national-state demarcation in Central Asia, where the borders did not coincide with the ethnic boundaries of the settlement of peoples, the Turkmen and Uzbek SSRs were formed, in 1931 - the Tajik SSR. In 1936, the Kirghiz and Kazakh SSRs were formed. In the same year, the Transcaucasian Federation was abolished, and the Republics - Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, directly became part of the USSR. In 1939, after the signing of the Soviet-German non-aggression pact and the introduction of troops into the territory of Poland, Western Ukraine and Western Belarus were annexed to the USSR. After the end of the war with Finland (March 1940) and the annexation of new territories to the Karelian ASSR, the latter was transformed into the Karelian-Finnish SSR. In the summer of 1940, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, as well as Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina became part of the USSR.
The formation of the USSR contributed to the development of the economy, culture, overcoming the backwardness of some republics. The formation of a multinational union state corresponded to many cultural and historical traditions of the peoples living on the territory of the former Russian Empire. The creation of the USSR contributed to the strengthening of the geopolitical position of the new state within the framework of the world community. However, the initial commitment of the Bolsheviks to the ideas of unitarism had a negative impact on the further development of statehood. After 1936, it already existed within the framework of an established administrative system. By the end of the 30s. there was a final transition to the unitary model of the state in its Stalinist version.
2. The essence of the new economic policy of the Bolsheviks.
The beginning of the 20s is the beginning of a new economic policy - the economic sphere has undergone decentralization: the largest technically equipped enterprises united in trusts, endowed with the rights to plan, distribute funds, and conduct trading operations. The piecework wage system began to be widely used again. Wages depended on the qualifications of the worker and the quantity of products produced. The state began to lease small enterprises to private individuals, they were also allowed to sell private industry items. One of the characteristic features of the NEP was concessions - enterprises based on agreements between the state and foreign firms.
Thus, with the transition to the New Economic Policy, an impetus was given to private capitalist entrepreneurship. Despite this, state regulation remained in a fairly high volume in the form of supervision, control, etc. The scope of activity of private traders in industry was limited to the production of consumer goods, the extraction and processing of certain types of raw materials, the manufacture of the simplest tools, in trade - mediation between small commodity producers, the sale of goods of private industry.
The results of the new economic policy contributed to the stabilization of the economy and the growth of production indicators. In the autumn of 1922, the famine ended. By the mid-1920s, light and heavy industry enterprises had largely restored their pre-war output. Improved economic performance in the countryside: after the abolition of the surplus appropriation and replacing it with a tax in kind, which was much lower than the first, the peasants had incentives to work. At the same time, the additional allotment of land under the decree “On Land” also affected. Permission of small private enterprise and private trade made it possible to relatively quickly revive small industry and fill the shelves of shops with goods of daily demand.
The factors of the international position played a big role in choosing the model of the country's economic development. At the end of the 1920s, few doubted that a world revolution would not happen in the near future, and the young Soviet republic would find itself in an atmosphere of capitalist encirclement under the pressure of a rapidly growing military threat. The course towards the world revolution, the original revolutionary romanticism, is being replaced by an attitude towards pragmatism - a line towards building "socialism in a single country."
To successfully confront the capitalist camp, it was necessary to create a strong economic base. It was necessary to create a powerful industry, primarily heavy, associated with the production of weapons. As a result, at the end of the 1920s, the party leadership took a course towards the industrialization of the country, the strengthening of the planned and directive construction of socialism, and the "curtailment of the NEP."
3. Industrialization and collectivization. Their political, socio-economic and demographic outcomes and consequences.
The 16th Party Conference (April 1929), and then the 5th Congress of Soviets, approved after repeated upward revisions the "optimal version" of the five-year plan. The strongholds, the main base of the ongoing industrialization of the country were to become the old industrial regions.
Economic policy was aimed at strengthening the role of directive planning and launching grandiose mass campaigns aimed at accelerating the pace of socialist construction. The industrialization plan provided for a change in technology and methods of production in the direction of developing energy capacities, expanding mass production, transferring advanced American and European technology to the country's economy, rationalization, and the scientific organization of labor.
In practice, this policy resulted in the active construction of new industrial facilities against the backdrop of strengthening the austerity regime, the voluntary-compulsory distribution of industrialization loans, and the establishment of card supply to the population of cities and workers' settlements.
Speaking about the economic results of industrialization, it can be noted that the Soviet leadership as a whole was able to successfully overcome the absolute lag behind the states of Western Europe in the production of the main types of industrial products. A number of modern industries are emerging, such as the aviation and automobile industries, tractor and combine building, the production of tanks, and much more, which were previously practically absent in our country before the turn to forced industrialization.
The very process of expanding industrial production was impossible without a regular supply of workers with food, but the grain crisis of 1927-1928 threatened the plan for forced industrialization and the supply of food to the city. In this situation, the government took a course towards the production cooperation of agriculture and an attack on the kulaks.
It was in the collective farms that the Stalinist leadership saw the production and distribution mechanism that made it possible to distribute funds and supply the cities and the army with bread without creating the threat of economic and political upheavals.
The policy of collectivization involved the abolition of land leases, the prohibition of hired labor, the confiscation from wealthy peasants (kulaks) of the means of production, household and residential buildings, and enterprises for processing agricultural products. The means of production and property were transferred to the indivisible funds of the collective farms as contributions for the poor and laborers, with the exception of the part that went to pay off the debts of the kulak farms to the state. At the same time, part of the kulaks were supposed to be arrested and repressed as political criminals, another part was sent along with their families to the northern and remote regions of the country, and the third part was to be resettled within the region on specially allotted lands outside the collective farms.
Such measures naturally met with mass resistance from the peasantry. Anti-kolkhoz actions and other acts of disobedience on the part of the kulaks, the middle peasants, and part of the poor were suppressed through the use of the most severe measures of violence.
The created large-scale collective production demonstrated a number of economic and social advantages. During the years of collectivization, more than 5,000 machine and tractor stations (MTS) were built, which provided the village with agricultural machinery: tractors, combines and other machines. Labor productivity increased by 71% between 1928 and 1940.
The structure of sown areas has changed in the direction of increasing the production of industrial crops (sugar beet, cotton, potatoes, sunflower), which are necessary for an industrialized country. The country produced a minimum sufficient amount of bread, exceeding its production before collectivization.
Consequences of industrialization and collectivization.
The main social consequence of industrialization and collectivization was the formation of a massive multi-million core of industrial workers.
The policy of accelerated industrialization plunged the country into a state of general, as in war, mobilization and tension. The choice of a forced strategy presupposed a sharp weakening, if not complete elimination, of the commodity-money mechanisms for regulating the economy and the absolute predominance of the administrative and economic system. This variant of economic development contributed to the growth of totalitarian principles in the political system of Soviet society, and sharply increased the need for the widespread use of administrative-command forms of political organization.
4. The formation of a totalitarian regime in the USSR.
The accelerated economic development led to the tightening of the political regime in the country. The choice of a forced strategy presupposed a sharp weakening, if not complete destruction, of the commodity-money mechanisms for regulating the economy, with the absolute predominance of the administrative and economic system. Planning, production, technical discipline in the economy, devoid of the levers of economic interest, was most easily achieved by relying on the political apparatus, state sanction, and administrative coercion. As a result, the same forms of strict obedience to the directive on which the economic system was built prevailed in the political sphere.
The strengthening of the totalitarian principles of the political system was also required by the very low level of material well-being of the vast majority of society, which accompanied the forced version of industrialization, attempts to overcome economic backwardness. The formation of a totalitarian regime was also favored by a special type of political culture, characteristic of Russian society throughout its history. Thus, we can conclude that a combination of economic, political, cultural factors contributed to the formation of a totalitarian regime in the USSR in the 1930s, the system of Stalin's personal dictatorship.
The main characteristic feature of the political regime in the 1930s was the transfer of the center of gravity to party, emergency and punitive bodies.
Along with the executive committees of the Soviets in industry, agriculture, science, culture, party committees functioned, whose role in fact becomes decisive. Under conditions of concentration of real political power in party committees, the Soviets carried out mainly economic, cultural and organizational functions.
The party's ingrowth into the economy and the public sphere has since become a distinctive feature of the Soviet political system. A kind of pyramid of party and state administration was built, the top of which was firmly occupied by Stalin as General Secretary of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks. Thus, the originally minor position of the general secretary turned into a paramount one, giving its holder the right to supreme power in the country.
The assertion of the power of the party-state apparatus was accompanied by the rise and strengthening of the power structures of the state, its repressive bodies. Already in 1929, so-called "troikas" were created in each district, which included the first secretary of the district party committee, the chairman of the district executive committee and a representative of the Main Political Directorate (GPU). They began to carry out out-of-court trials of the guilty, passing their own sentences. In 1934, on the basis of the OGPU, the Main Directorate of State Security was formed, which became part of the People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs (NKVD). Under it, a Special Conference (OSO) is established, which at the union level has consolidated the practice of extrajudicial sentences.
During the repressions, the national economic, party, state, military, scientific and technical personnel, representatives of the creative intelligentsia were subjected to purges.
As a result of mass repressions, a political system was entrenched, which is called the regime of Stalin's personal power (Stalin's totalitarianism). During the repression, most of the country's top leaders were destroyed. They were replaced by a new generation of leaders ("promoters of terror"), wholly devoted to Stalin. Thus, the adoption of fundamentally important decisions finally passed into the hands of the General Secretary of the CPSU (b).
Principles of foreign policy. The Soviet foreign policy concept was built in accordance with two contradictory goals: the preparation of a world proletarian revolution and the establishment of peaceful relations with the capitalist states.
The main directions of foreign policy. In the first half of the 1920s, the economic blockade of Russia by the capitalist countries was broken. In 1920, after the fall of Soviet power in the Baltic republics, the government of the RSFSR concluded Peace Treaties with the new governments of Estonia, Lithuania, and Latvia, recognizing their independence and autonomy. Since 1921, the establishment of trade relations between the RSFSR and England, Germany, Austria, Norway, Denmark, Italy, and Czechoslovakia began. The negotiating political process with England and France reached a deadlock. Using the contradictions of the leading European powers with Germany, the Soviet representatives in the town of Rapallo (near Genoa) concluded an agreement with her. The treaty resumed diplomatic and consular relations between the countries and thereby brought Russia out of diplomatic isolation. In 1926, the Berlin Treaty of Friendship and Military Neutrality was signed. Germany, thus, became the main trade and military partner of the USSR, which made significant adjustments to the nature of international relations in subsequent years. In 1934, the Soviet Union was admitted to League of Nations, which meant his return to the world community. The USSR signed a series of non-aggression pacts with Finland, Latvia, Estonia, Poland, Romania and Iran. The Franco-Soviet non-aggression agreement (1932) was supplemented by an agreement on mutual assistance in the event of any aggression in Europe.
AT gg. a new course of Soviet diplomacy was outlined, the main principles of which were non-aggression and the observance of neutrality in any conflict; appeasement policy towards Germany and Japan; efforts to create a system of collective security. In the years civil war in Spain in. The USSR provided the Spanish Republican government with significant assistance - economic, political, military, including sending three thousand Soviet military men - pilots, tankers, etc. under the guise of volunteer advisers. In the summer of 1938, Japan stepped up its operations on the Soviet-Manchurian border. In August 1938, the battle of the Red Army took place (commander of the troops ) with Japanese troops in Eastern Siberia, in Lake Hassan area. In August 1939, there was a clash on the Manchurian-Mongolian border in the area R. Khalkhin Gol where he commanded the troops of the Red Army . As a result of military conflicts, the Red Army managed to significantly improve its position on these frontiers. In April 1941, a neutrality pact was signed between the USSR and Japan for a period of 4 years.
Western countries preferred a course of provoking German aggression in an easterly direction. From April 1939, contacts began between experts from the three countries on issues of mutual assistance in the event of a possible German aggression, but by the summer of 1939 the negotiation process had reached an impasse. Simultaneously with the start of negotiations with Britain and France, in the spring of 1939. The USSR began contacts with German diplomacy about a possible rapprochement between the two countries. Preliminary secret negotiations with Germany ended on 23 August 1939 with the signing by the German foreign ministers ( Ribbentrop) and the USSR () non-aggression pact for a period of 10 years. The agreement also included an additional secret protocol on the delimitation of the spheres of influence of Germany and the USSR in Eastern Europe. The conclusion of the Soviet-German pact interrupted the diplomatic contacts of the USSR with England and France, followed by the rejection of anti-fascism, which disorientated the world communist movement. In accordance with the secret articles of the Soviet-German pact, the Soviet leadership began to expand the borders of the USSR. Western Ukraine and Western Belarus, captured by Poland in 1920, were annexed to the USSR. On November 30, 1939, the USSR began a war with Finland. The Soviet-Finnish war, for which the Red Army turned out to be ill-prepared and suffered heavy losses, ended with the signing of a peace treaty (dated 01.01.01), according to which the Karelian Isthmus and a number of islands in the Gulf of Finland ceded to the USSR. The Council of the League of Nations condemned the actions of the Soviet Union directed against Finland and adopted a resolution on its exclusion from the organization. In June 1940 (simultaneously with the offensive of German troops in France), after the presentation of ultimatums to the governments of Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia, additional troops were introduced into the territory of the Baltic states. The use of forceful pressure contributed to the formation of pro-Soviet governments here. Since August 1940, the Baltic (now Soviet republics) became part of the USSR. Following this, the regions of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina, occupied by Romania in 1918, were also annexed to the USSR. Foreign policy measures taken by the Soviet leadership pushed back, but did not prevent the war. The conclusion of the Soviet-German pact led to the termination of all diplomatic contacts between the USSR, Britain and France. As a result of Nazi diplomacy, it was possible to prevent the creation of a single anti-Hitler bloc and to force Stalin, in the context of the unfolding world war, to pursue a policy of appeasement of Germany, taking part in hostilities and fulfilling all the conditions of the agreement.
6. The development of national culture in the years.
cultural revolution considered by the Bolsheviks as the most important condition for building socialism. The main task in this area was to create a new (socialist) culture and raise the general cultural level of the people. The most significant of the public cultural, educational, literary and artistic organizations of the post-revolutionary years was Proletcult. The proletarian movement set itself the task of creating a new proletarian culture and subordinating art to the goals of the proletarian struggle. In the second half of the 20s. over public literary, educational and other organizations, including communist ones, tighter control was established, and in the early 1930s their activities completely ceased. Bodies of sectoral management of culture were created - Soyuzkino (1930), the All-Union Committee for Radio and Broadcasting (1933), the All-Union Committee for Higher Education (1936), the All-Union Committee for Art (1936), etc. The unification and regulation of culture, its obedience to common ideological principles. The creative intelligentsia united in single all-union organizations - the Union of Soviet Architects, Composers (1932), writers, artists (1934). The authorities supported those representatives of science and art who accepted the revolution. Repressions unfolded against the intelligentsia, which openly took anti-Soviet positions.
A heavy legacy of pre-revolutionary Russia was mass illiteracy. The Constitution of the RSFSR secured the right to "complete, comprehensive and free education. The proportion of literate people among the population increased from 40% in 1917 to 90% in 1939. universal compulsory primary education.
The main feature of the development of science in the 1930s was its orientation towards the practical, sometimes utilitarian-industrial needs of the country. Conducted research in the field of nuclear physics. At the same time, a number of scientific areas were closed as "false".
In the post-revolutionary years, the situation in the field of literature and art has seriously changed. A significant part of writers and artists accepted the tasks of the cultural revolution. In this direction, the creativity of pre-revolutionary avant-garde. In the 20s. a new generation of creative intelligentsia emerged. Among its members were , and others. In August. was created All-Russian Union of Proletarian Writers, RAPP(Russian Association of Proletarian Writers). The unconditional priority of the universal human principle over the class principle was defended in his work , and etc.
The revolution contributed to the development of a new director's theater. At the end of 1920 the program "Theatrical October" was put forward, embodied on the stage of the 1st theater of the RSFSR. In the 30s. sound cinema appeared in cinematography. Many outstanding films were created by directors S. Yutkevich, S. Gerasimova, Vasiliev brothers and etc.
The leading direction of the new Soviet architecture was constructivism, art forms were developed on the basis of the functional purpose of things. In sculpture remained relevant monumentalism.
The results of the transformations of the first years of Soviet power in the field of culture were far from unambiguous. On the one hand, certain successes were achieved in the elimination of illiteracy, there was a rise in the activity of the creative intelligentsia, which was expressed in the organization of new and the revival of old societies and associations, the creation of values in the field of spiritual and material culture. On the other hand, culture became part of the state policy, falling under the control of the party and government apparatus.
Conclusion.
Speaking about the specific results achieved by the country by the end of the 30s, the following can be noted:
In industry, the entire complex of mechanical engineering, chemistry, and the defense industry was reconstructed, expanded, and in many respects recreated. Modern production of airplanes, automobiles, tractors, combines, tanks, etc. appeared, which were practically absent before the turn to forced industrialization. A cadre of workers and specialists quickly formed. At the same time, per capita production of many types of industrial products in the late 1930s remained noticeably lower than in most countries of Western Europe and North America.
The situation was more difficult in agriculture. Collectivization was carried out in the country by such methods, and collective farm life was built in such forms that, simultaneously with the socialization and mechanization of the means of production, the quality of the main productive force of agriculture - the peasant, his ability and desire to manage the land decreased. In fact, the search for economic methods of managing the national economy has ceased. Although much was said about the introduction of cost accounting, the development of Soviet trade, and so on, in practice hypertrophied command and administrative methods of leadership prevailed, and commodity-money relations were reduced to the level of accounting and registration categories.
The material condition of the people remained at a low level. The economy was unable to provide the country's population with basic food, consumer goods and other social benefits at a decent human level.
Literature.
1. Kozmenko for universities "History of Russia IX-XX centuries." Access mode: [Electronic resource] http://humanities. /, Thursday, 01.02.2006 13:17.
2. Samygin. / , / Series "Textbooks and teaching aids". Rostov n / a: "Phoenix", 2003. - 480s.
3. Tereshchenko of Russia XX - early XXI centuries. / - Philological Society "Word"; Rostov on / D .: Publishing house "Phoenix", 200p.
The foundations of Soviet statehood were enshrined in the first Constitution, which was adopted by the All-Russian Congress of Soviets in July 1918: 1) it legislated the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat in the form of Soviet power; 2) the federal structure of the country and the name of the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (RSFSR) were fixed; 3) The All-Russian Congress of Soviets became the highest authority, and in the intervals between successive congresses, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee elected by him was in charge; 4) executive power belonged to the Council of People's Commissars (SNK); 5) ministries were replaced by people's commissariats. People's commissariats were formed: labor, internal, foreign affairs, etc.
Much attention was paid to the creation of the state apparatus, which was called upon to protect the power of the Bolsheviks: 1) the police, people's courts, revolutionary tribunals, the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution (VChK) were created; 2) in December 1917, the Supreme Council of the National Economy (VSNKh) was organized under the Council of People's Commissars, which regulated the problems of organizing the national economy; 3) in January 1918, decrees were adopted on the creation of the Workers 'and Peasants' Red Army and the Workers' and Peasants' Red Fleet.
Activities that were carried out in the social sphere: 1) estates and former ranks were abolished; 2) the church is separated from the state; 3) a decree on civil marriage has been adopted; 4) free education and medical care were introduced; 5) the Labor Code has been adopted.
On January 5, 1918, the Constituent Assembly opened. Its delegates were for the most part Socialist-Revolutionaries and Mensheviks. The Bolsheviks put forward a demand before the assembly - to recognize the already existing government, its decrees and policies. But the Constituent Assembly refused to approve the legislative acts of the Soviet government, then it was dissolved.
The Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia, which proclaimed the equality and sovereignty of all peoples, their right to self-determination up to secession and the formation of independent states, the free development of all national minorities, was one of the first decrees of the new government after the October Revolution and the victory of the Bolsheviks.
The Declaration of the Rights of the Working and Exploited People, which was included as an integral part of the text of the first Constitution of the RSFSR (1918), legally formalized the federal principle, as well as the right of peoples to freely decide on their entry into the Soviet Federation. In accordance with the principle of the right of nations to self-determination, the Soviet government recognized the state independence of Finland, and a decree was signed renouncing the treaties on the previous partitions of Poland.
Taking advantage of their right to self-determination up to secession during the years of the Civil War, many peoples of the former Russian Empire created their own national-state formations, although not all of them were stable. After the end of the Civil War, the process of movement towards unification began, which resulted in the formation of a new Russian statehood - the USSR.
Formation of the USSR: 1) the act that established the Union of the SSR was the Treaty, which was signed by four republics: the RSFSR, Ukraine, Belarus and the Transcaucasian Federation; 2) On December 30, 1922, the congress of plenipotentiaries of these republics (I Congress of Soviets of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) approved the Treaty on the Formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR); 3) the foundations of the state structure of the USSR were fixed by the Constitution of the USSR, which was adopted in 1924. In accordance with the Constitution of the USSR, a federal structure was fixed (I.V. Stalin originally proposed an autonomization plan) and the right to freely secede from the USSR.
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