Trends in the development of society as a complex dynamic system. Signs of a legal norm

Society as a complex dynamic system. Public relations

The existence of people in society is characterized by various forms of life and communication. Everything that has been created in society is the result of the cumulative joint activity of many generations of people. Actually, society itself is a product of the interaction of people, it exists only where and when people are connected with each other by common interests.

In philosophical science, many definitions of the concept of "society" are offered. In a narrow sense society can be understood as a certain group of people united for communication and joint performance of any activity, as well as a specific stage in the historical development of a people or country.

In a broad sense society — it is a part of the material world isolated from nature, but closely connected with it, which consists of individuals with will and consciousness, and includes ways of interaction of people and forms of their association.

In philosophical science, society is characterized as a dynamic self-developing system, i.e., such a system that is capable of seriously changing, at the same time retaining its essence and qualitative certainty. The system is understood as a complex of interacting elements. In turn, an element is some further indecomposable component of the system that is directly involved in its creation.

To analyze complex systems, like the one that society represents, scientists have developed the concept of "subsystem". Subsystems are called "intermediate" complexes, more complex than the elements, but less complex than the system itself.

1) economic, the elements of which are material production and relations that arise between people in the process of production of material goods, their exchange and distribution;

2) social, consisting of such structural formations as classes, social strata, nations, taken in their relationship and interaction with each other;

3) political, including politics, the state, law, their correlation and functioning;

4) spiritual, embracing various forms and levels public consciousness which, being embodied in the real process of the life of society, form what is commonly called spiritual culture.

Each of these spheres, being an element of the system called "society", in turn, turns out to be a system in relation to the elements that make it up. All four realms public life not only interconnect, but also mutually determine each other. The division of society into spheres is somewhat arbitrary, but it helps to isolate and study certain areas in a real way. whole society, diverse and complex social life.

Sociologists offer several classifications of society. Societies are:

a) pre-written and written;

b) simple and complex (the criterion in this typology is the number of levels of management of society, as well as the degree of its differentiation: in simple societies there are no leaders and subordinates, rich and poor, and in complex societies there are several levels of government and several social strata of the population, arranged from top to bottom as income decreases);

c) society of primitive hunters and gatherers, traditional (agrarian) society, industrial society and post-industrial society;

d) primitive society, slave society, feudal society, capitalist society and communist society.

In Western scientific literature in the 1960s. the division of all societies into traditional and industrial became widespread (at the same time, capitalism and socialism were considered as two varieties of industrial society).

The German sociologist F. Tennis, the French sociologist R. Aron, and the American economist W. Rostow made a great contribution to the formation of this concept.

The traditional (agrarian) society represented the pre-industrial stage of civilizational development. All societies of antiquity and the Middle Ages were traditional. Their economy was dominated by subsistence agriculture and primitive handicrafts. Extensive technology and hand tools predominated, initially providing economic progress. In his production activities, man sought to adapt to the environment as much as possible, obeyed the rhythms of nature. Property relations were characterized by the dominance of communal, corporate, conditional, state forms of ownership. Private property was neither sacred nor inviolable. The distribution of material wealth, the product produced depended on the position of a person in social hierarchy. The social structure of a traditional society is corporate by class, stable and immovable. There was virtually no social mobility: a person was born and died, remaining in the same social group. The main social units were the community and the family. Human behavior in society was regulated by corporate norms and principles, customs, beliefs, unwritten laws. Providentialism dominated the public consciousness: social reality, human life were perceived as the implementation of divine providence.

The spiritual world of a person of a traditional society, his system value orientations, way of thinking - special and noticeably different from modern ones. Individuality, independence were not encouraged: the social group dictated the norms of behavior to the individual. One can even speak of a “group man” who did not analyze his position in the world, and indeed rarely analyzed the phenomena of the surrounding reality. He rather moralizes, evaluates life situations from the standpoint of their social group. The number of educated people was extremely limited (“literacy for the few”) oral information prevailed over written information. The political sphere of traditional society is dominated by the church and the army. The person is completely alienated from politics. Power seems to him of greater value than law and law. In general, this society is extremely conservative, stable, immune to innovations and impulses from outside, being a "self-sustaining self-regulating immutability." Changes in it occur spontaneously, slowly, without the conscious intervention of people. spiritual realm human being priority over economics.

Traditional societies have survived to this day mainly in the countries of the so-called "third world" (Asia, Africa) (therefore, the concept of "non-Western civilizations", which also claims to be well-known sociological generalizations, is often synonymous with "traditional society"). From a Eurocentric point of view, traditional societies are backward, primitive, closed, unfree social organisms, to which Western sociology opposes industrial and post-industrial civilizations.

As a result of modernization, understood as a complex, contradictory, complex process of transition from a traditional society to an industrial one, the foundations of a new civilization were laid in the countries of Western Europe. They call her industrial, technogenic, scientific and technical or economic. The economic base of an industrial society is industry based on machine technology. The volume of fixed capital increases, long-term average costs per unit of output decrease. In agriculture, labor productivity rises sharply, natural isolation is destroyed. An extensive economy is replaced by an intensive one, and simple reproduction is replaced by an expanded one. All these processes occur through the implementation of the principles and structures of a market economy, based on scientific and technological progress. A person is freed from direct dependence on nature, partially subordinates it to himself. Stable economic growth is accompanied by growth real income per capita. If the pre-industrial period is filled with the fear of hunger and disease, then the industrial society is characterized by an increase in the well-being of the population. In the social sphere of an industrial society, traditional structures and social barriers are also collapsing. Social mobility is significant. As a result of the development of agriculture and industry, the share of the peasantry in the population is sharply reduced, and urbanization is taking place. New classes appear, the industrial proletariat and the bourgeoisie, and the middle strata are strengthened. The aristocracy is in decline.

In the spiritual sphere, there is a significant transformation of the value system. The man of the new society is autonomous within the social group, guided by his personal interests. Individualism, rationalism (a person analyzes the world around him and makes decisions on this basis) and utilitarianism (a person acts not in the name of some global goals, but for a certain benefit) are new systems of personality coordinates. There is a secularization of consciousness (liberation from direct dependence on religion). A person in an industrial society strives for self-development, self-improvement. Global changes are also taking place in the political sphere. The role of the state is growing sharply, and a democratic regime is gradually taking shape. Law and law dominate in society, and a person is involved in power relations as an active subject.

A number of sociologists somewhat refine the above scheme. From their point of view, the main content of the modernization process is to change the model (stereotype) of behavior, in the transition from irrational (characteristic of a traditional society) to rational (characteristic of an industrial society) behavior. The economic aspects of rational behavior include the development of commodity-money relations, which determines the role of money as a general equivalent of values, the displacement of barter transactions, the wide scope of market operations, etc. The most important social consequence of modernization is the change in the principle of distribution of roles. Previously, society imposed sanctions on social choice, limiting the possibility of a person occupying certain social positions depending on his belonging to a certain group (origin, pedigree, nationality). After modernization, a rational principle of distribution of roles is approved, in which the main and only criterion for taking a particular position is the candidate's preparedness to perform these functions.

Thus, industrial civilization is opposed to traditional society in all directions. The majority of modern industrialized countries (including Russia) are classified as industrial societies.

But modernization gave rise to many new contradictions, which eventually turned into global problems(environmental, energy and other crises). By resolving them, progressively developing, some modern societies are approaching the stage of a post-industrial society, the theoretical parameters of which were developed in the 1970s. American sociologists D. Bell, E. Toffler and others. This society is characterized by the promotion of the service sector, the individualization of production and consumption, an increase in the share of small-scale production with the loss of dominant positions by mass production, the leading role of science, knowledge and information in society. In the social structure of post-industrial society, there is an erasure of class differences, and the convergence of the incomes of various groups of the population leads to the elimination of social polarization and the growth of the share of the middle class. The new civilization can be characterized as anthropogenic, in the center of it is man, his individuality. Sometimes it is also called information, which reflects the ever-increasing dependence Everyday life society from information. The transition to a post-industrial society for most countries of the modern world is a very distant prospect.

In the course of his activity, a person enters into various relationships with other people. Such diverse forms of interaction between people, as well as connections that arise between different social groups (or within them), are usually called social relations.

All social relations can be conditionally divided into two large groups - material relations and spiritual (or ideal) relations. Their fundamental difference from each other lies in the fact that material relations arise and develop directly in the course of a person’s practical activity, outside the consciousness of a person and independently of him, and spiritual relations are formed, having previously “passed through the consciousness” of people, determined by their spiritual values. In turn, material relations are divided into production, environmental and office relations; spiritual on moral, political, legal, artistic, philosophical and religious social relations.

A special type of social relations are interpersonal relations. Interpersonal relationships are relationships between individuals. At In this case, individuals, as a rule, belong to different social strata, have different cultural and educational levels, but they are united by common needs and interests in the sphere of leisure or everyday life. The well-known sociologist Pitirim Sorokin identified the following types interpersonal interaction:

a) between two individuals (husband and wife, teacher and student, two comrades);

b) between three individuals (father, mother, child);

c) between four, five or more people (the singer and his listeners);

d) between many and many people (members of an unorganized crowd).

Interpersonal relations arise and are realized in society and are social relations even if they are in the nature of purely individual communication. They act as a personified form of social relations.

In a broad sense society - it is a part of the material world isolated from nature, but closely connected with it, which consists of individuals with will and consciousness, and includes ways of interaction of people and forms of their association.

1) economic, the elements of which are material production and relations that arise between people in the process of production of material goods, their exchange and distribution;

2) social, consisting of such structural formations as classes, social strata, nations, taken in their relationship and interaction with each other;

3) political, including politics, the state, law, their correlation and functioning;

4) spiritual, covering various forms and levels of social consciousness, which, being embodied in the real process of the life of society, form what is commonly called spiritual culture.

Each of these spheres, being an element of the system called "society", in turn, turns out to be a system in relation to the elements that make it up. All four spheres of social life are not only interconnected, but also mutually condition each other. The division of society into spheres is somewhat arbitrary, but it helps to isolate and study certain areas of a truly integral society, a diverse and complex social life.

Sociologists offer several classifications of society. Societies are:

a) pre-written and written;

b) simple and complex (the criterion in this typology is the number of levels of management of a society, as well as the degree of its differentiation: in simple societies there are no leaders and subordinates, rich and poor, and in complex societies there are several levels of management and several social strata of the population, arranged from top to bottom in descending order of income);

c) society of primitive hunters and gatherers, traditional (agrarian) society, industrial society and post-industrial society;

d) primitive society, slave society, feudal society, capitalist society and communist society.

The German sociologist F. Tennis, the French sociologist R. Aron, and the American economist W. Rostow made a great contribution to the formation of this concept.

The traditional (agrarian) society represented the pre-industrial stage of civilizational development. All societies of antiquity and the Middle Ages were traditional. Their economy was dominated by subsistence agriculture and primitive handicrafts. Extensive technology and hand tools predominated, initially providing economic progress. In his production activities, man sought to adapt to the environment as much as possible, obeyed the rhythms of nature. Property relations were characterized by the dominance of communal, corporate, conditional, state forms of ownership. Private property was neither sacred nor inviolable. The distribution of material wealth, the product produced depended on the position of a person in the social hierarchy. The social structure of a traditional society is corporate by class, stable and immovable. There was virtually no social mobility: a person was born and died, remaining in the same social group. The main social units were the community and the family. Human behavior in society was regulated by corporate norms and principles, customs, beliefs, unwritten laws. Providentialism dominated the public consciousness: social reality, human life were perceived as the implementation of divine providence.

The spiritual world of a person of a traditional society, his system of value orientations, way of thinking are special and noticeably different from modern ones. Individuality, independence were not encouraged: the social group dictated the norms of behavior to the individual. One can even speak of a “group man” who did not analyze his position in the world, and indeed rarely analyzed the phenomena of the surrounding reality. Rather, he moralizes, evaluates life situations from the standpoint of his social group. The number of educated people was extremely limited (“literacy for the few”) oral information prevailed over written information. The political sphere of traditional society is dominated by the church and the army. The person is completely alienated from politics. Power seems to him of greater value than law and law. In general, this society is extremely conservative, stable, immune to innovations and impulses from outside, being a "self-sustaining self-regulating immutability." Changes in it occur spontaneously, slowly, without the conscious intervention of people. The spiritual sphere of human existence is a priority over the economic one.

As a result of modernization, understood as a complex, contradictory, complex process of transition from a traditional society to an industrial one, the foundations of a new civilization were laid in the countries of Western Europe. They call her industrial, technogenic, scientific and technical or economic. The economic base of an industrial society is industry based on machine technology. The volume of fixed capital increases, long-term average costs per unit of output decrease. In agriculture, labor productivity rises sharply, natural isolation is destroyed. An extensive economy is replaced by an intensive one, and simple reproduction is replaced by an expanded one. All these processes occur through the implementation of the principles and structures of a market economy, based on scientific and technological progress. A person is freed from direct dependence on nature, partially subordinates it to himself. Stable economic growth is accompanied by an increase in real per capita income. If the pre-industrial period is filled with the fear of hunger and disease, then the industrial society is characterized by an increase in the well-being of the population. In the social sphere of an industrial society, traditional structures and social barriers are also collapsing. Social mobility is significant. As a result of the development of agriculture and industry, the share of the peasantry in the population is sharply reduced, and urbanization is taking place. New classes appear - the industrial proletariat and the bourgeoisie, the middle strata are strengthened. The aristocracy is in decline.

In the spiritual sphere, there is a significant transformation of the value system. The man of the new society is autonomous within the social group, guided by his personal interests. Individualism, rationalism (a person analyzes the world around him and makes decisions on this basis) and utilitarianism (a person acts not in the name of some global goals, but for a certain benefit) are new personal coordinate systems. There is a secularization of consciousness (liberation from direct dependence on religion). A person in an industrial society strives for self-development, self-improvement. Global changes are also taking place in the political sphere. The role of the state is growing sharply, and a democratic regime is gradually taking shape. Law and law dominate in society, and a person is involved in power relations as an active subject.

A number of sociologists somewhat refine the above scheme. From their point of view, the main content of the modernization process is in changing the model (stereotype) of behavior, in the transition from irrational (characteristic of a traditional society) to rational (characteristic of an industrial society) behavior. The economic aspects of rational behavior include the development of commodity-money relations, which determines the role of money as a general equivalent of values, the displacement of barter transactions, the wide scope of market operations, etc. The most important social consequence of modernization is the change in the principle of distribution of roles. Previously, society imposed sanctions on social choice, limiting the possibility of a person occupying certain social positions depending on his belonging to a certain group (origin, pedigree, nationality). After modernization, a rational principle of distribution of roles is approved, in which the main and only criterion for taking a particular position is the candidate's preparedness to perform these functions.

Thus, industrial civilization opposes traditional society in all directions. The majority of modern industrialized countries (including Russia) are classified as industrial societies.

But modernization gave rise to many new contradictions, which eventually turned into global problems (environmental, energy and other crises). By resolving them, progressively developing, some modern societies are approaching the stage of a post-industrial society, the theoretical parameters of which were developed in the 1970s. American sociologists D. Bell, E. Toffler and others. This society is characterized by the promotion of the service sector, the individualization of production and consumption, an increase in the share of small-scale production with the loss of dominant positions by mass production, the leading role of science, knowledge and information in society. In the social structure of post-industrial society, there is an erasure of class differences, and the convergence of the incomes of various groups of the population leads to the elimination of social polarization and the growth of the share of the middle class. The new civilization can be characterized as anthropogenic, in the center of it is man, his individuality. Sometimes it is also called informational, which reflects the ever-increasing dependence of the daily life of society on information. The transition to a post-industrial society for most countries of the modern world is a very distant prospect.

a) between two individuals (husband and wife, teacher and student, two comrades);

b) between three individuals (father, mother, child);

c) between four, five or more people (the singer and his listeners);

d) between many and many people (members of an unorganized crowd).

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1. What is a society? signs of society.

2. Thinkers of the past about society.

1. Under society usually understand the social organization of a particular country, nation, people or tribe. Society is a concept that comes from ordinary, non-scientific language, and therefore is difficult to define precisely. However, in science, the word "society" is usually used to refer to the largest associations of people who are not components of other communities.

The boundaries of society usually coincide with the boundaries of the country, although this is not always the case. Such a coincidence is characteristic of the modern world. In ancient times, when there were many nomadic peoples, the boundaries of society did not always coincide with the boundaries of the country, since not every people lived in a certain territory. And at present, not every nationality has statehood, that is, it has a clearly defined territory of residence, as well as legalized power and other state structures. However, a nationality can be a separate society if its life is organized in accordance with certain rules and the members of the nationality are aware of their difference and their delimitation from other similar associations of people. The feeling of one's own characteristics is created due to the traditions and customs that are unique for a given association of people, due to the common language in which its members communicate, due to living in a certain territory, clearly demarcated from others, that is, the homeland, etc.

If these signs are lost for some reason, then the society may lose its boundaries and merge into a larger association. For example, many peoples live on the territory of Russia, for whom our country is the main place of residence. Such peoples include, for example, the peoples of the North (Yakuts, Chukchi, Nanai, etc.). Of course, such peoples exist separately from other peoples, since they have a national language, an original culture. And at the same time, they are not completely isolated from other peoples and other cultures and are part of a larger community of people.

For this reason, these peoples can be called separate societies only with some reservations.

The society has the following characteristics:

1. Every society has a history that is kept in its memory. This story may differ significantly from what historians describe. Sometimes this leads to extremely funny consequences. So, in the USA, studies were conducted on how the citizens of this state see its history. At the same time, researchers often received completely unexpected answers. For example, when asked about what was before the discovery of America, some (few) respondents answered: then dinosaurs lived Naturally, this speaks of the extremely low level of culture of some representatives of American society, who cannot imagine the general picture of world history.However, such ideas are very indicative, since they reflect their attitude to the society in which people live.

In addition, ideas about the history of society are reflected in historical symbols, that is, in those iconic cultural phenomena that make up the color of a given society. It can be images of historical figures and events. For Russia, such key images are, for example, Patriotic War 1812, the Great Patriotic War, images of Prince Vladimir, Ivan the Terrible, Peter I, Lenin, Stalin, and to a lesser extent Gorbachev and Yeltsin. These images reflect important stages in the history of Russia.

2. Each society has its own culture. Naturally, at the present time, when there is a strong mutual influence of cultures, culture should be understood as the core of the native culture, that is, traditions, thanks to which the Individual is aware of his involvement in this, and not in another society. A developed culture allows society to form norms and values that form the basis of social ties.

3. Each society is the largest unit of social reality, that is, it is not included as an integral part of a larger society. Naturally, at present, in connection with globalization trends, the stability of society from this point of view is becoming more and more conditional, but it is impossible to say that this sign is invalid.

4. Society reproduces itself at the expense of children from marriages between recognized members of society: in the usual case, a child born to members of a society himself becomes a member of this society. The population can be replenished, and due to migration, but the bulk of the population is still replenished by representatives of what is usually called the "indigenous nation" (this is an unscientific concept). This distinguishes the society from most other social communities.

5. The population as a subject of society lives in a certain territory. Currently, migration processes have intensified very much, and it is to be expected that they will intensify even more. However, societies isolated from a specific territory have not yet appeared: in the case of migration, a person loses direct contact with the society from which he left, ceases to be a member of it.

6. Very important, although not mandatory, is the existence of a state. Although society is primary in relation to the state, it can be argued that societies that do not have state forms of life lag behind in their development.

7. Society is characterized by social differentiation, which is the most important mechanism for its development. In society, there are classes, estates, relatively closed social groups, that is, associations of people according to different features which may or may not be recognized by their people. Periodically, tensions and conflicts arise between these groups. A typical example in this case is the confrontation between the rich and the poor: the poor may want a more equitable distribution of social wealth, while the rich may prevent this. Such a conflict leads either to the victory of one side, or to the preservation of the existing situation with a fairly active transition of people from one side. social category to another (that is, from the poor to the rich and, conversely, from the rich to the poor). And in any case, this confrontation leads to changes within society, and, therefore, is the driving force behind development.

Society is different from such phenomena as the state and the population.

The differences between society and the state are mainly due to the fact that they are relatively independent of each other.

1. First of all, society is primary, it arises before the state, while the state appears later than society, and therefore is secondary. State structures and state power arise only at the "advanced" stages of the development of society and indicate that society is developed. The state presupposes citizenship, that is, the formally fixed belonging of a person to it and certain rights and obligations that a citizen and the state assume. However, not every society is civil. From the point of view of the presence or absence of citizenship, as well as the features of the status of a citizen, one can distinguish:

but not civil society. There are dozens of peoples who have not created their own statehood. Without a state, society as a whole is doomed to a primitive existence;

b) pre-civil society. Society has a state that in one way or another and form suppresses the freedom of citizens, that is, does not respect the rights and freedoms that are inherent in citizens as independent, independent people. Citizenship is a big step forward compared to stateless societies, but from the point of view of modern sociology there is no reason to call a society civil;

c) civil society. The freedom of the individual is the main indicator that a society is civil. Civil society is understood as a set social relations that are not related to the struggle for power in society and public administration.
Civil society existed even before the advent of the state.

Civil society has the following features:

- The majority of the population owns private property. It is private property that leads to the emergence of a middle class - people who live off their own labor and are not financially dependent on the state;

- the presence of developed non-political organizations. Members of civil society are united in organizations that protect certain interests of the citizens themselves or society as a whole (for example, trade unions, religious, youth, women's, environmental and other organizations). Such organizations do not seek to obtain state power and, of course, exist independently of state power. However, thanks to such organizations, the state cannot appropriate the rights of citizens and control over them;

- Grassroots democracy, that is, the participation in public life of all citizens of society without exception. In addition, grass-roots democracy also lies in the democratic procedure for resolving issues that arise in other associations of people (for example, in labor collectives).

2. Society is wider than the state: all functions of the state can be performed by society, but not all functions of society can be performed by the state. For example, society forces people to act in a certain way and to abandon unacceptable ways to achieve goals with the help of social control, which is expressed in relation to others to the actions of a person. And the state power only assumes some functions of society, fixing the norms of behavior in the form of legislation.

The difference between society and the population lies in the fact that the population is the "carrier" of society, that is, what makes society exist, but does not yet form it.. The independence of these two categories is indicated, for example, by the fact that changes in society do not always mean that the population has changed, and, conversely, a change in the population does not always mean that society has changed. A change in society with an unchanged population can be observed in the present period of development of our country, since as a result of economic and political reforms, the stratification of society has changed, new social and cultural phenomena have appeared, and this despite the fact that the change in the population was not so significant. People have remained the same, their habits, level and style of life, sphere of activity have changed.

The change in the population with the invariance of society is a phenomenon that is also very common at the present time, since mass migrations of the population occur. People move from country to country and are forced to "integrate" into the social structures that exist in another country. The way of life in the host country does not change, but the composition of the population does not remain the same. An example is the emigration of citizens Russian Federation to European countries and the USA. In ancient times, such changes occurred mainly during conquests.

Society is a multi-level entity. It includes:

– social interactions and relationships that bind people;

– social groups and communities;

4) social institutions;

5) norms and values.

All of these elements are closely related to each other. So, social action, interaction and relation Relationships bind people together and form groups, communities, and institutions. Values and norms exist thanks to institutions, groups and communities, and an individual becomes a person only if, in the process of group communication, as well as communication within the community and under the influence of its institutions, he has learned norms and values.

Questions and tasks

1. Prove that society and the state are different from each other.

2. How can you prove that society is different from the population?

3. What are the main features of society. What ensures its integrity? What are the characteristics of any society?

4. Name three main approaches to the study of society. What is taken as a reference point in each of them?

5. What are the main stages in the development of society can be identified?

ANCIENT INDIA

The main source of our knowledge about the social representations of the ancient Indians are Veda- an extensive collection of texts, mostly religious content. The Vedas do not have a single author and were compiled from 1500 to 600 BC. BC, that is, for about nine centuries. The same period saw the formation of the first slave-owning states, which became possible only after the transition from a nomadic to a settled way of life, as well as the emergence of communities and agriculture.

Under the great influence of Vedic ideas, Buddhism was formed. Its founder is Siddhartha Guatama Buddha- was born into a royal family, at the age of 29 he became a monk and led an extremely ascetic lifestyle prescribed for the Brahmins. However, he then came to the conclusion that neither asceticism nor hedonism (that is, the pursuit of life's pleasures) guarantee salvation.

Indian society had a very rigid division into castes, of which there were four: brahmins (priests), kshatriyas (warriors), vaishyas (artisans, farmers) and shudras (slaves). The highest position in the hierarchy was occupied by the Brahmins, the lowest by the Shudras. Relations between castes were regulated by very strict rules, and the transition from one caste to another was simply impossible. The latter was connected with the karmic ideas of the ancient Indians. On the one hand, a person's belonging to one or another caste was explained by the laws of rebirth, and therefore, a person had to fully atone for the sins that he committed in a past life if he was born as a representative of the lower castes. On the other hand, compliance with all the requirements and norms that governed the social life of ancient India was a guarantee that in future life a person will be reborn into a representative of the upper class.

In Buddhism, attachment to life was recognized as the main misfortune of a person. Only renunciation of this attachment could free a person from the endless chain of rebirths. The natural way to break this chain was considered to be the rejection of passions, "thirst", that is, from attachment to the world. Buddhism has proposed a radical way of liberation from this attachment - non-action. Any action of a person draws him even more into an endless cycle. The same goes for desires. Therefore, a righteous person must free himself from desires, from striving for action. The rejection of desires automatically led to the rejection of attachment to life, and therefore the person turned out to be "inaccessible" to all worldly misfortunes and troubles - illness, birth, death, losses.

First of all, monks could apply for release, although such a possibility could not be excluded for ordinary people leading a righteous lifestyle. For the latter, the main thing was to observe five precepts of Buddhism: do not take someone else's, do not harm living beings, do not talk idle and false, do not engage in forbidden sexual intercourse and do not drink intoxicating drinks.

Ancient China. Chinese civilization has given rise to many philosophical schools and trends, but the most influential, the most important for the Chinese worldview was Confucianism. Confucianism only later became a religious doctrine, but first it took shape as a social theory. Certainly, The emphasis in Confucianism was placed not on an objective description of social processes, but on "recipes" for creating an ideal, harmonious society. However, this does not mean that Confucianism is not a social theory.

Its founder was Confucius(Kung Fu Tzu, 551-479 BC). On the territory of China then there were several independent monarchies, which were constantly at enmity with each other.

The upper strata of society also constantly fought for power and influence on sovereigns. Rigid centralized power was established, destroying the traditional communal way of Chinese life. All this could not but lead to the destruction of moral norms, and, consequently, to the disorganization of public life.

Confucianism was a conservative trend in social life that idealized the past. It was based on two principles. First of all, all the misfortunes of life at that time were the result of the fact that people deviated from the traditions followed by their ancestors. And therefore, in order to restore harmony in the state, it was necessary to return to these traditions, to revive them. In-second, from the point of view of Confucius and his followers, the ideal state should be organized as a family in which the roles between members are strictly distributed.

The concept was central to her. "jen", which can be translated as "humanity", "humanity", "philanthropy". This principle can be formulated as follows: "do not do to others what you do not want yourself, and help them achieve what you would like to achieve yourself."

An important role in Confucianism was played by the principle " whether"- observance of rituals (order). It boiled down to the fact that a person must clearly follow the norms prescribed to him by society., follow all the rules that he must follow. Relationships in Chinese society were governed by a complex system of rules and regulations relating to people and social groups. Without this, from the point of view of Confucius, the normal functioning of society was impossible. It was this principle that later became the main principle of organizing the life of Chinese society. Confucius invested in this principle a meaning somewhat different from the simple observance of the rules of etiquette. However, after his death, when Confucianism became the dominant ideology in China, this principle began to be understood more formally as following etiquette, and the humanistic aspects of the teachings of Confucius faded into the background.

Ancient Greece . Antiquity is rightfully considered the cradle of European civilization. The social ideas expressed by Eastern thinkers have not had much impact on how we now see society. This is not the case with antiquity. It was during the period of antiquity that the foundations of the sciences that exist today were laid. These include the social sciences. Of course, in those days no one was talking about sociology, political science and economics, but social, political and economic issues were already the object of consideration in various philosophical systems.

The first and one of the most significant thinkers for antiquity was Plato (427-347 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, the founder of philosophical idealism.

The social theory of Plato is set forth in his works "State", "Laws" and "Politician". In The Republic, Plato argues that the main reason for the emergence of society was the need for association, without which people could not satisfy their needs.

Plato, like many ancient thinkers, did not offer an objective, impartial, descriptive concept of society. Plato's social theory is largely subjective, as it describes the ideal state structure rather than social reality. This was due to the fact that his theory of the state was a continuation of his doctrine of ideas. This was especially pronounced in The State.

At the same time, Plato proposed a classification of forms of power. He singled out: 1) aristocracy, that is, the power of the elect; 2) monarchy; 3) timocracy, that is, the power of warriors; he cites Sparta as an example; 4) oligarchy - the power of a small number of rich people; 5) democracy, the extreme form of which is ochlocracy, that is, the power of the mob; 6) tyranny; and 7) an ideal state that cannot be embodied in. reality, the aristocracy and the monarchy were attributed by Plato to the right types state structure, the following four forms are incorrect.

Democracy (literally "power of the people") Plato considered as the power of the poor. Plato had a negative attitude towards democracy, since freedom, which is the main good of democracy, will cause its death: according to the philosopher, it is from democracy that tyranny is gradually born, since a tyrant usually comes to power as a protege of the people. Plato believed that a person does not know how to use his freedom and sooner or later directs it to the detriment of himself and others. Criticism of democracy had a more specific meaning, since it was aimed at criticizing the state structure of Athens, in which Plato lived long time

Plato was one of the first to attempt to analyze the structure of society. He singled out three estates: the estate of philosophers who govern the state; the estate of warriors, or guards, ensuring the security of the state; and the class of farmers and artisans who ensure the life of the state. Each estate has its own virtue: philosophers - wisdom, warriors - courage, artisans and farmers - prudence. Only the fourth virtue - justice - is inherent in society as a whole.

Aristotle (384-322 BC) is a student of Plato, who later turned out to be his fierce opponent, becoming the founder of materialism. Aristotle played a huge role in the development modern science, since it was he who described the system of sciences, which is still preserved without fundamental changes. According to Aristotle, the basis of knowledge is sensory perception, which does not allow consciousness to fall into speculation. In addition, the very ideas of Aristotle determined the face of science in general - with its ideals of universality, the need for evidence, as well as the orientation towards explaining any described fact.

Social views Aristotle outlined in the treatise "Politics". In it, Aristotle was the first to formulate the signs of democracy, which are now shared by all political scientists. In particular, he argued that the basis of democracy is the middle class, since it is he who ensures the stability of power. In addition, Aristotle considered the election of government bodies to be an obligatory feature of democracy. Finally, Aristotle believed that democracy is the most durable state structure because it is based on the opinion and desire of the majority, which is opposed by the minority.

Aristotle considered the family to be the fundamental foundation of the state, but not in the modern sense: he referred to the family not only the husband, wife, children, but also slaves. For this reason, he considered the ideal state structure to be a slave-owning state in which power belongs to the middle layer - slave owners, and not to the rich and poor (in this idea one can see another prototype of modern ideas about the stratification of society).

Aristotle proposed his own typology of forms of power. He singled out normal and abnormal"forms of government. To the first he attributed the monarchy, aristocracy and polity, to the second tyranny, oligarchy and democracy. Monarchy and tyranny, aristocracy and oligarchy, polity and democracy form pairs based on one principle. As you can see, in assessing the existing real forms of power Aristotle is much softer than Plato.

Questions and tasks

1. Describe the structure of ancient Indian society. What are castes?

2. What teachings played the greatest role in the Ancient East? State their main points. What works of the philosopher Plato do you know?

3. What structure did Plato's ideal society have?

4. How did Plato and Aristotle understand democracy? What is the difference between their points of view?

5. How did Plato and Aristotle classify forms of power? What do their classifications have in common? How do they differ?

6. What form of government, according to Aristotle, is the most correct and most just?

7. What works did Aristotle write?

SOCIAL THOUGHT IN THE MIDDLE AGES, REVIVAL AND MODERN TIMES

Middle Ages and Renaissance. Medieval science existed within the framework of a theological culture that contrasted earthly low life with the divine world of the pure, eternal, and beautiful. And all the scientific constructions of the Middle Ages fit into the Christian ideology, did not contradict it.

In the Middle Ages, man was seen as a dual being. Since man has a soul, of all things he is closest to God. However, a person is sinful, and his body is an earthly, diabolical beginning, prone to sin. And for this reason, man was seen as a battlefield between God and the devil, between good and evil.

In the center of the medieval picture of the world was God - the highest being, the creator of the world, capable of deciding its fate. Of course, the freedom of man was not denied: since man is closest to God, he, unlike other creatures, also has maximum freedom. He is free to choose between good and evil. For this reason, the church sought to put on the true path - the path of faith in God and observance of moral and religious norms - as many people as possible.

One of the largest figures of the Middle Ages was Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), a theologian who developed a philosophical concept that is still recognized by the Catholic Church as the only correct one. From his point of view, all knowledge constitutes a hierarchically organized system in which highest point is theology as a doctrine closest to the divine mind. Philosophy is the expression of the mind of man, and it cannot and must not oppose theology; the difference between them lies only in the fact that the human mind and the divine mind occupy a different position in the world hierarchy.

The power of the sovereign and social inequality Thomas Aquinas deduced from the divine will: God arranged the world this way, and we have no choice but to obey his will; any attempt to move from one's estate to a higher one is sinful by nature.

However, Thomas made a clear distinction between divine and temporal authority. Since the world is a place where only the perishable body exists, only it belongs to worldly authorities, but not the immortal soul, which is in the power of God.

Aquinas considered the monarchy to be the best type of state government, since it reproduces the structure of the world, which is ruled by God. However, the ruler cannot identify himself with God and must recognize the priority of ecclesiastical authority over earthly authority. This is most evident in tyranny. Thomas also considered democracy to be the worst form of government.

Roger Bacon (1214-1294) is a Franciscan monk who developed an independent theory, for which he was imprisoned, where he spent nearly fourteen years. His influence on social thought was not very great, but it was he who laid the foundations of empirical science, that is, a science based on empirical knowledge. Bacon contrasted this science with scholasticism.

Renaissance- this is the period in which the gradual separation of science from theology began, which ended later, in the New Age. This period is characterized by the highest achievements in the field of art. In the economic sphere, there was a gradual promotion to the fore bourgeoisie which became a prerequisite for the subsequent formation of capitalism. AT political sphere there was a strengthening of state power, the first states appeared, characterized by a strong centralized power. The political views of the time remained largely unscientific. Thus, in the Renaissance, projects of an ideal state system, presented as descriptions of fantastic states, were very popular. The most famous were "Utopia" by Thomas More and "City of the Sun" by Tommaso Campanella.

It was during this period that the experimental method of scientific research began to take shape. The development of science has also led to significant changes in ideas about the world and the place that a person occupies in it.

During the Renaissance, thinkers such as Michelle Montaigne and Erasmus of Rotterdam . Their work contains a thorough critique of religious morality, which these thinkers considered it necessary to replace with a simpler and more human morality. Montaigne and Erasmus of Rotterdam were among the first people in Europe who realized that morality and morality do not depend on religion and are universal values inherent in man as a thinking being.

Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) - a major Italian ruler and diplomat of the Renaissance. His treatise "The Sovereign". Machiavelli continues the tradition begun by Plato's "State", but pays more attention not to the state as such, but to the personality of the political leader. This emphasis can be explained biographically (Machiavelli was a politician, diplomat), as well as the cultural context of the Renaissance: it is during this period that the personality comes to the fore.

According to Machiavelli, politics is a special sphere to which the norms of general morality cannot be applied. The state fulfills independent goals, and therefore the rules by which the sovereign must act are different from the rules that regulate the life of ordinary people. Machiavelli draws the image of a cunning, treacherous and cruel ruler, the prototype of which can be considered Caesar Borgia. However, these qualities are not exclusive to the sovereign. They are inherent in all other people, whom Machiavelli considers as evil, greedy and vengeful. In particular, this is indicated by the principles (laws) by which the ruler should be guided in his activities:

1. At the heart of any human action are ambition and the desire for power; a person seeks either to keep what he has, or to get what another has.

2. A smart sovereign should not fulfill all the promises that he made to his subjects. Machiavelli substantiates this principle by the fact that ordinary people also do not always fulfill their obligations to the sovereign. Here, in general, for the first time a promise is considered as a way to attract supporters, a way to win people over. In addition, Machiavelli believed that the ruler, who remembers his promises and fulfills them, inevitably falls into dependence on his subjects, and, therefore, can fall under their control.

3. Good should be done gradually, and evil - immediately. It is human nature to strive to remember the good and forget the bad. Cruelty is considered more just and easier to bear if it is done all at once, rather than gradually. People value awards and praises because they are pleasant to them, even when these awards are rare.

Machiavelli justified the cruelty of the sovereign by the fact that the state exists for the common good, that is, it ensures order, security and welfare of citizens.

Machiavelli proposed his own typology of forms of government: 1) the monarchy is one of the main forms; it can be limited, despotic and tyrannical; 2) republic - the second of the main forms; it can be balanced (Rome) and massive (Athens); 3) oligarchy; 4) plebiscite monarchy.

The last two forms of government Machiavelli considered as transitional between the monarchy and the republic. Republic is the most correct state structure, however absolutism more acceptable in situations where the state needs to establish order.

New time. New time - new stage in the development of European thought. If in the Middle Ages, the emerging science was entirely dependent on the church, and in the Renaissance, its separation from theology was only outlined, then in modern times, the liberation of science from theology became a reality.

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) is an English philosopher who worked for some time as a secretary for F. Bacon.

He developed the concept social contract, on the basis of which the concept was subsequently developed civil society. The natural state of mankind war of all against all. It would be wrong to think that a person from birth seeks cooperation. Man is an extremely selfish being who strives for honors and wealth; since goods cannot be shared equally, rivalry and competition must be the only forms of interaction within society. To avoid constant struggle and threat to life, people decided to conclude a social contract, as a result of which a civil society appeared. It is based on laws, and thanks to this, it can protect the rights of a citizen.(for example, ownership). According to Hobbes, civil society involves the renunciation of freedom in favor of the security that the state provides with the help of such institutions as the court, army, police, government.

Hobbes identified three types of government: 1) democracy, 2) aristocracy, and 3) monarchy. He considered the monarchy to be the best form of government.

Another great philosopher of that time John Locke (1632-1704) He created the concept of " natural law", according to which people are equal from birth. Based on this, he concluded that no one - even the monarch - has the right to encroach on the freedom, health and life of another person. If the monarch violates these rules, citizens have the right to disobey to him, that is, to terminate the contract concluded with him.Subsequently, Locke's ideas formed the basis of the idea of human rights, which is very relevant today.

John Locke was also at the forefront the doctrine of the branches of government. He singled out three branches: executive, federal and legislative. The legislature is to make laws, the executive is to supervise and enforce them, and the federal is to be responsible for foreign policy. At present, the branches of government are distinguished differently, but their allocation is based on the idea of John Locke.

Charles Louis Montesquieu (1689-1755) can rightfully be considered the founder geographic direction in sociology, political science and geopolitics. In his works "Persian Letters" and "On the Spirit of Laws" he formulated a theory according to which the customs of peoples, their character, the political structure of their states depend on the territory in which they live. Geographical determinism, developed by such scientists as G. T. Bockl, F. Ratzel, L. I. Mechnikov, suggests that the political and social structure of society is determined by the shape of the landscape, access to the seas, and the vastness of the territory inhabited by the representatives of the nation.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) - French writer and philosopher who created the theory "natural man". According to his theory, a person is an initially good being, which then deteriorates under the influence of society, becomes evil. Accordingly, a "social contract" is needed, which would be based on the ideals of equality and freedom.

According to Rousseau, society is created by people, and therefore its laws should be an expression of the general will of people. In order to test how strong this general will is, and also whether the laws by which the society lives correspond to it, it is necessary to hold referendums. The most favorable conditions for this are social formations reminiscent of ancient city-states, in which there were not so many members that it was impossible to come to an agreement.

Society is a system .

What is a system? “System” is a Greek word, from other Greek. σύστημα - whole, composed of parts, connection.

So, if it is about society as a system, it means that society consists of separate, but interconnected, complementary and developing parts, elements. Such elements are spheres of public life (subsystems), which, in turn, are a system for their constituent elements.

EXPLANATION:

Finding an answer to a question about society as a system, it is necessary to find an answer that contains elements of society: spheres, subsystems, social institutions, that is, parts of this system.

Society is a dynamic system

Recall the meaning of the word "dynamic". It is derived from the word "dynamics", denoting movement, the course of development of a phenomenon, something. This development can go both forward and backward, the main thing is that it happens.

Society - dynamic system. It does not stand still, it is in constant motion. Not all areas develop in the same way. Some change faster, some slower. But everything is moving. Even a period of stagnation, that is, a suspension in movement, is not an absolute stop. Today is not like yesterday. “Everything flows, everything changes,” he said. ancient Greek philosopher Heraclitus.

EXPLANATION:

The correct answer to the question about society as dynamic system there will be one in which we are talking about any kind of movement, interaction, mutual influence of any elements in society.

Spheres of public life (subsystems)

Spheres of public life	Definition	Elements of the sphere of public life
Economic	creation of wealth production activity society and relations arising in the process of production.	economic benefits, economic resources, economic objects
Political	includes relations of power and subordination, management of society, the activities of state, public, political organizations.	political institutions, political organizations, political ideology, political culture
Social	the internal structure of society, social groups in it, their interaction.	social groups, social institutions, social interaction, social norms
Spiritual	includes the creation and development of spiritual goods, the development of public consciousness, science, education, religion, art.	spiritual needs, spiritual production, subjects of spiritual activity, that is, who creates spiritual values, spiritual values

EXPLANATION

The exam will be presented two types of tasks on this topic.

1. It is necessary to find out by signs what area we are talking about (remember this table).

More difficult is the second type of task, when it is necessary, after analyzing the situation, to determine the connection and interaction of which spheres of public life are represented here.

Example: The State Duma adopted the law "On Competition".

In this case, we are talking about the relationship between the political sphere (the State Duma) and the economic (the law concerns competition).

Material prepared: Melnikova Vera Alexandrovna

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Society is the social organization of the country, which ensures the joint life of people.

This is a part of the material world isolated from nature, which is a historically developing form of connections and relations of people in the process of their life activity.

Character traits societies:

1. Territory- a certain physical space in which communications are formed and developed (most often within the framework of one state).

2 .Population - a large social group with common social characteristics.

3. Autonomy and self-sufficiency.

autonomy means that the society has its own territory, own history, own system management.
self-sufficiency- the ability of society to self-regulate, that is, to ensure the functioning of all vital spheres without outside interference, for example, to reproduce the size of the population.

General history(becoming, common overcoming obstacles, solving joint problems, common heroes)

Shared values and culture

Economy (allowing society to be self-sufficient)

Should last for 1 generation (20-25 years)

8. social structure ( a set of interconnected and interacting social communities, social institutions and relations between them)

Consistency.

System (Greek)- a whole made up of parts, a combination, a set of elements that are in relationships and connections with each other, which form a certain unity.

Society - a complex system that brings people together. They are in close unity and interrelation.

The main element of society as a system is a person who has the ability to set goals and choose the means of carrying out their activities.

Society has different subsystems.. Subsystems that are close in direction are usually called spheres human life:

· Economic (material - production): production, property, distribution of goods, money circulation, etc.)

· Political (management, politics, state, law, their correlation and functioning).

· Social (classes, social groups, nations, taken in their relationship and interaction with each other).

· spiritual and moral (religion, science, art).

There is a close relationship between all spheres of human life. Each of these spheres, being an element of the system called "society", in turn, turns out to be a system in relation to the elements that make it up. All four spheres of social life are not only interconnected, but also mutually condition each other. The division of society into spheres is somewhat arbitrary, but it helps to isolate and study certain areas of a truly integral society, a diverse and complex social life.

Public relations- a set of various connections, contacts, dependencies that arise between people (the relationship of property, power and subordination, the relationship of rights and freedoms).

Determine the role of law in the system of social regulators. Describe the main elements of the system of law.

Law is a system of generally binding rules of conduct established by the state, norms, the implementation of which is ensured by the power of state coercion.

Right is a public phenomenon. It arises as a product of society at a certain stage of its development.

Right to eat regulator of socially significant human behavior, variety social norms. It deals with the social sphere, which includes:

b) relations between people (public relations);

c) the behavior of the subjects of public relations.

SIGNS OF LAW

general obligation; normativity; consistency; connection with the state; regulativeness.

The right is considered social regulator Social regulation is necessary because it ensures the normal functioning of society. The essence of social regulation is in influencing the behavior of people and the activities of organizations . But in addition to the social purpose, the right also has functional purpose . The functional purpose of law is best expressed in the fact that law acts as regulator of public relations .

OTHER REGULATORS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

social norm- these are, simply put, the rules of human behavior in society, so that both he and society are in agreement. But these rules do not apply to a specific person, but to all people in a given society, and they are not only general, but also mandatory. The social norms that operate in modern society are divided according to the way they are established and on the means of protecting their claims from violations .

There are the following types of social norms:

1. Law- rules of conduct that are established and protected by the state.

2. Norms of morality (ethics)- rules of conduct that are established in society in accordance with the moral ideas of people and are protected by the power of public opinion or inner conviction.

3. Corporate regulations- the rules of conduct that are established by the public organizations themselves and are protected by them.

4. Norms of customs- rules of conduct that have developed in a certain social environment and, as a result of their repeated repetition, have become a habit of people.

5. Traditions - the most generalized and stable rules of conduct that arise in a certain area of human life (family, professional, military, national and other traditions).

6. Religious norms- a kind of social norms that determines the rules of human behavior in the performance of rituals and is protected by measures of moral influence.

7. aesthetic standards- the concept of beautiful and terrible, harmonious and disharmony, proportional, awkward, etc. in the public mind.

ELEMENTS OF THE SYSTEM OF LAW

Structure of the legal system is an objectively existing internal structure the rights of this state. The main structural elements of the system of law:

a) Law- the initial component, those "bricks" from which the entire "building" of the system of law is ultimately formed. The rule of law is always a structural element of a certain institution of law and a certain branch of law

The norm is a complex formation, structurally consisting of three elements: hypotheses, dispositions and sanctions.

-Hypothesis- part of the norm, which contains an indication of the conditions or circumstances, in the presence or absence of which the norm is implemented. For example, in the event of the birth of a child, the right to receive a lump-sum allowance for the birth of a child arises. The hypothesis here is the birth of a child.

-Disposition- this is the very rule of conduct, according to which the participants in the legal relationship must act. This part of the norm contains the rights and obligations of subjects, i.e. it determines the measure of permitted and proper behavior. In the example above, the disposition is the entitlement to benefits.

-Sanction- part of the norm, which indicates the adverse consequences arising from the violation of the disposition of the legal norm. These consequences can be of a different nature: punishment (measure of responsibility) in the form of a reprimand, a fine, arrest, imprisonment, etc.; various types of coercive measures (preventive - drive, seizure of property; protective measures - reinstatement of an illegally dismissed employee in his previous job, recovery of alimony), etc.

b) Institute of Law- this is a separate part of the branch of law, a set of legal norms that regulate a certain side of qualitatively homogeneous social relations (for example, property law, inheritance law - civil law institutions).

in) Branch of law- this is an independent part of the system of law, a set of legal norms that regulate a certain area of qualitatively homogeneous social relations (for example, civil law regulates property relations).

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Population

3. Public authority(professionally engaged in the management and protection of society (state apparatus)

4. Legislation(a system of legal norms binding on the entire population)

5. Army(protection of the population and the sovereignty of the state)

6 . The right to make mandatory taxes and fees(for the maintenance of the state apparatus, army, budget payments)

7. Legal right to legal enforcement(from various administrative, criminal penalties, restriction of freedom). To perform the functions of coercion, the state has special bodies: the army, the police, the security service, the court, the prosecutor's office.

8. Sovereignty(the right and ability to manage one's inner and outer life independently, without the intervention of some other force).

CHALLENGES OF THE ECONOMY

Economic activity is necessary in order to turn resources into the necessary economic benefits, goods and services that satisfy one or another human need.

The process of transforming natural objects into commodities:

Every economic system is faced with the need to perform certain basic kinds of choice.

Among them, the following are the most important:

1 TO what goods to produce. The inability to produce as many goods as people would like is a consequence of the scarcity of the resources used to produce these goods. The need for each of these choices is dictated by limited resources.

2. How they should be produced ( For almost any product or service, there are several ways of production: manual and automatic assembly of a car; nuclear or thermal power plant). Everything depends on the availability of means of production and its efficiency.

3. Who and what work should be done. The question of who should perform what kind of work is related to the organization of the social division of labor - specialty, qualifications, etc.

4. For whom the results of this work are intended. The distribution of any given quantity of a good can be improved through an exchange that will satisfy more than one person's preferences. According to the concept of equality, all people, by the very fact of belonging to humanity, deserve to receive a portion of the goods and services produced by the economy.

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Bylaws

NLA |5. Decrees and resolutions of the Head of the LPR(Decree "On the curfew regime")

|6. Decrees and orders of the Council of Ministers of the LPR(Decree "On the approval of Sanitary rules in the forests of the Luhansk People's Republic")

|7. Acts of executive bodies of the LPR(Order of the Ministry of Justice of the LPR "On approval of forms of registration cards")

|7. NLA of local governments(Decree of the Head of the Administration of the city of Alchevsk "On the organization of work on spring sanitary cleaning and improvement of the territory of the city of Alchevsk"

|8. Local legal acts ( Order of the director of LEPLI "On the enrollment of NNN in the contingent of 10-B class" ).

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LAWS OF DEMAND AND SUPPLY

In the market there is a relationship between price and demand, as well as between price and supply.

Law of supply and demand - an economic law that establishes the dependence of the magnitude of demand and supply of goods on the market on their prices.

Demand– the need of the buyer for the goods and services he needs, for the purchase of which he is willing to pay.

Demand is affected: incomes of buyers, their tastes and preferences, quantity of goods on the market, prices of goods.

The market provides an alternative at different prices. People can buy more products if their price goes down and vice versa. The higher the price of a product, the lower the demand.

Offer – the set of goods that producers are willing to sell at alternative prices.

The proposal is affected by: number of sellers in the market, manufacturing techniques, product prices, costs, taxes, number of sellers.

The higher the price, the more the supply of products from sellers increases.

When the supply of goods exceeds the demand of buyers, then there is an overstocking of the market with surplus products that do not find a market - there is a crisis of overproduction. The way out is to reduce prices (markdown of goods, seasonal sale).

The offer applies exclusively to goods produced for sale. For example, a farmer can use part of his production for his own needs (this is not an offer), and send part of it to a storage warehouse for subsequent sale or sell at the moment.

When demand exceeds supply, there is a shortage of goods.(if the money income of the population grows faster than the output of goods in demand).

Exceptions: price increases may not reduce the sale of products, and sometimes, on the contrary, stimulate. This phenomenon in the market is manifested in the conditions of expectation of price growth. The buyer strives to stock up on goods at not yet extremely high prices. For example: the expectation of a price decrease can reduce the demand for gold or foreign exchange.

In order to circumvent the law of supply and demand in the European Union, overproduction of butter is stored in warehouses, on the so-called "mountain of butter". Thus, there is an artificial containment of supply and the price remains stable.

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1. Expand the relationship between biological and social in a person. Give examples of the relationship between nature, man and society.

June 2014, the Law of the LPR "On Urgent Measures" was adopted social protection citizens living on the territory of the Lugansk People's Republic in the conditions of aggression of the armed forces and armed formations of Ukraine"

Where installed (Art. 1) lump sums families of those killed as a result of the aggression of the Armed Forces of Ukraine, wounded and shell-shocked among the civilian population, servicemen who were maimed and injured.

Established (art. 2) surcharge medical workers, students, graduate students - 25% of the salary, scholarships.

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Describe society as a complex dynamic system. Name the main areas of society.

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Trends in the development of society as a complex dynamic system. Signs of a legal norm

Spheres of public life (subsystems)

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