Active and passive vocabulary of the literary Russian language. Active vocabulary

The vocabulary of the language of a particular era is a fixed constancy remaining from the previous time with some updates. The active vocabulary of a language is the central part of the vocabulary that is relevant for modern speakers of a language word. Passive vocabulary includes words rarely used in everyday communication and not always understandable to native speakers. It includes obsolete and new words.

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Active and passive vocabulary of the Russian language.Vocabulary is the most mobile part of the language system, it is constantly evolving. The vocabulary of the language of a particular era is a fixed constancy, remaining from the old time, with some updates. The active vocabulary of a language is the central part of the vocabulary that is relevant for modern native speakers of a language word. This includes common vocabulary. Passive vocabulary includes words that are rarely used in everyday communication and are not always understood by native speakers. It includes obsolete and new words.

Each period of language development is characterized by a certain ratio of active and passive vocabulary. The boundaries between passive and active vocabulary are characterized by mobility, because in the process of language development, they are constantly changing. Vocabulary of the Russian language organically combines conservatism and mobility.

Outdated words.Obsolete are words that have gone out of active use, but have been preserved in passive vocabulary. These words are used by native speakers, but are perceived by them as obsolete.

According to the degree of obsolescence stand out:

1) words understandable to most native speakers of the Russian language (king, boyar, clerk, eyes);

2) words whose meanings are not clear to anyone without referring to a special dictionary (soon - skin, fat - wealth, tuk - fat, odrina - bedroom).

Obsolete words are divided into two groups: historicisms and archaisms.

historicisms - words denoting disappeared from modern life objects, phenomena that have become irrelevant concepts (volost, district, armyak, constable, serf, oprichnik, nepman, Komsomol member). Semantic historicisms are currently irrelevant meanings of polysemantic words (battering ram - a battering ram, a shield - part of the weapon). Historicisms do not have synonyms in the modern Russian language, therefore their meaning can be explained only by resorting to an encyclopedic description. The composition of the historicisms of the Russian language is most actively replenished during periods of a radical change in the socio-political structure of the country (the October Revolution, the collapse of the USSR). Soviet historicisms - Sovietisms (tax in kind, NEP, kombed, labor faculty). Historicisms over time can return to the modern language composition (general, admiral, midshipman, minister, ladies and gentlemen).

Archaisms (Greek - arrahaious ) - unlike historicisms, these are obsolete names of modern objects, phenomena, displaced by synonyms from the active vocabulary (this - this one, the enemy - the enemy, green - very, mirror - mirror, eyelids - eyelids, neck - neck).

Types of archaisms:

1 Phonetic archaisms - words that have an outdated sound form (closet - closet, English, number, eighteen).

2 Accentological - words with an old stress (epigraph, foundation, perspective).

3 Derivatives had a different composition of the word (nervous, restaurants, fishing).

4 Grammar - obsolete forms of words that do not exist in modern language (elder, God, friend, father, man; piano, swan (female), hall, veil (m.)).

5 Actually lexical - words that are completely obsolete (so that, right hand, shuytsa, in vain, retreat, thief, abyss).

6 Semantic archaisms are obsolete meanings of those words that exist in modern Russian, but call another phenomenon, another object (verb, shame, presence, belly).

Archaisms are used as a means of stylizing ancient speech, creating a historical speech flavor, and in journalism they can give the story a solemn character.

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Independent work

On the topicat:" BUTactive and passive vocabulary of the literary Russian language"

Mastyugina A.

In modern Russian, obsolete words include those that are known from the works classical literature. They are rarely used in speech.

Reasons for the obsolescence of words:

1) non-linguistic; 2) intralinguistic.

Historicisms are words whose semantic changes are due to extralinguistic factors. These are the names of objects and phenomena of the old way of life, old culture, social, economic and political relations that have gone into the past. Historicisms include the names of social institutions (corvée, dues, zemshchina), household items, clothes (arshin, frock coat, caftan), names of people according to social status (smerd, boyar, prince, count, nobleman, hetman, centurion). the word historicism non-linguistic

Neologisms at one time were such words as budenovka, tachanka, kombed, surplus appraisal, educational program, rabfak, but for a short time they have become historicisms.

The intralinguistic reasons that led to the emergence of obsolete words include synonymous competition, as a result of which one of the synonymous words gives way to another. Such a process occurred at one time with the words eye and eye, forehead and forehead, airplane and plane, helicopter and helicopter, etc.

In addition, the processes of expanding or narrowing the meaning of words as a result of the elimination of more specialized names should be attributed to intralinguistic factors. The following example is given in the linguistic literature: in Russian, each finger had a separate name. But the word FINGER was called only big, the word FINGER - index, etc. Over time, the special names of the fingers became irrelevant and the word FINGER acquired general meaning, spreading to all others, and the word PERST began to be used as an archaic synonym for it.

Varieties of archaisms

Obsolete words that have fallen out of use as a result of intralinguistic processes are called archaisms. In the process of language development, they are replaced by other words that are more acceptable to the next generations. Old nominations are moving into the category of passive vocabulary.

In linguistics, there are several classifications of archaisms. So, N.M. Shansky divides all archaisms into lexical and semantic ones. M.I. Fomina, A.V. Kalinin and others divide archaisms into the following groups: proper lexical, lexico-phonetic, lexical-derivational, lexical-semantic.

Actually lexical archaisms are completely outdated (eye, forehead, finger, battle).

Lexico-phonetic archaisms include words whose sound form has changed in the process of historical development (bakcha - melon, Busulman - Muslim, stora - curtain, clob - club number - number, calm - style).

Lexical and derivational archaisms are words in which individual word-building elements are outdated (friendship - friendship, nervous - nervous, rest - rest, buyer - buyer).

Lexico-semantic archaisms have retained their sound form, but have changed their meaning (the word warrior is perceived by modern native speakers as a member of a voluntary association, and not a person who was a member of the prince's squad).

Historicisms, archaisms are an important stylistic means in a literary text, by which one can determine the era in a work on a historical theme.

Neologisms and their types

Neologisms are new words or meanings that have recently appeared in the language. These are the names of new objects that have appeared in the process of development of science, culture, technology, production, everyday life, the names of new phenomena, actions, processes.

A neologism remains new until it becomes common and quite frequent (programmer, computer, cybernetics). These words quickly entered the language and became an integral part of the vocabulary.

There are such neologisms in the language that name phenomena that are obviously transient (new materials - krimplen, bologna, styles of clothing and shoes - Romanian, body shirt, hairstyles - gavroche, babeta), etc. Such words from the category of neologisms very quickly fall into the category of obsolete vocabulary.

Linguistics scientists single out lexical neologisms - new derivatives and borrowed words (moon rover, nuclear ship, cruise, broiler), which make up about 90%, and semantic ones that have arisen as a result of the emergence of new meanings for words functioning in the language, for example: dynasty - 1) a series of sequentially reigning monarchs from the same family, and 2) representatives of different generations from the same family with the same profession (working dynasty), etc.

Occasionalisms are individually authored formations. They are characterized by a single use, created "on the occasion", inherent only in a given context. Everyone knows the occasionalisms in the work of V. Mayakovsky (hammered, sickle, chamberlain, etc.), K. Fedin (starry eyes), E. Yevtushenko (beznerony, nesgubinka, teaser, etc.), etc.

Dictionaries of obsolete and new words

There are no special dictionaries of historicisms and archaisms yet. However, many obsolete words entered the dictionary of V.I. Dahl. Their meanings are reflected in the great academic encyclopedia.

For a long time there were no dictionaries of neologisms. However, even in the times of Peter the Great, a "Lexicon of new vocabulary" was compiled, which in essence was concise dictionary foreign words. Some words were included in the dictionary of V.I. Dalem. Significant in the composition of neologisms was the "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" edited by D.N. Ushakov. A large number of them entered the dictionary of S.I. Ozhegov.

In 1971, a reference dictionary was published, prepared according to the materials of the press and literature of the 60s, "New Words and Meanings", edited by N.Z. Kotelova and Yu.S. Sorokin. The dictionary explains about 3500 words, which received wide use.

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Target lectures - to deepen the concept of passive stock vocabulary, to characterize obsolete words and neologisms.

1. Active and passive stock Russian language.

2. Obsolete words (archaisms and historicisms). Types of archaisms and historicisms.

3. New words. Types of neologisms.

4. The use of passive stock vocabulary in fiction.

1. Active and passive stock of the Russian language

The vocabulary of the language is not something frozen, unchanged. Over the centuries, the sound system has changed, there have been changes in grammar and vocabulary. Changes in vocabulary are especially noticeable in the era of various social, social transformations, in a period of rapid changes in the life of society.

The changes are of a dual nature - on the one hand, the vocabulary is enriched with new words, on the other hand, it is freed from unnecessary words. this stage elements. Therefore, there are two layers in the language - active and passive vocabulary. The term "active and passive reserve" was introduced into lexicographic practice by L.V. Shcherba, but there is no unity in understanding the vocabulary of passive vocabulary. For example, in the works of M.V. Arapova, A.A. Reformatsky, L.I. Barannikova and others, passive vocabulary includes not only obsolete words, but also dialectisms, terms, names of rare realities and phenomena.

Active vocabulary includes those words that are relevant to modern stage, words that meet the requirements of modernity and do not have signs of antiquity or newness.

The passive composition consists of words that have gone out of use due to their outdatedness, irrelevance, and new words that have not yet lost their sign of unusualness and novelty.

2. Obsolete words. Types of archaisms and historicisms

Words that have gone or are going out of the active stock due to their rare use are called obsolete words. The process of obsolescence is complex and lengthy, so obsolete words are distinguished by the degree of obsolescence.

The first group includes words that are unknown or incomprehensible to most native speakers. Several categories of words can be included here:

- words that have disappeared from the language and are not found even in the composition of derivative bases: grid "warrior", stern "uncle", neti - "nephew", loki - "puddle", vyya - "neck";

- words that are not used independently, but are found as part of derivative words (sometimes that have survived the process of simplification): absurdity "beauty" - ridiculous, memoria - "memory" - memorial, orator - "orator" - ornate, think - "think" - suspicious;

- words that in the modern language are preserved only as part of phraseological turns of speech: all - “village, village” - in cities and villages; pupil - "pupil" - to keep, like the apple of an eye; more - "more" - more than aspirations.

The second group includes obsolete words known to native speakers of the modern language, for example: verst, arshin, tithe, pound, sazhen, konka, bursa, cold, voice, finger, barber, eye, etc. Many of them have recently been used in the active dictionary .

Obsolete words differ not only in the degree of archaization, but also in the reasons that led them to the category of obsolete. From this point of view, outdated vocabulary can be divided into historicisms and archaisms.

Historicisms are words that name disappeared objects and phenomena of reality. With the development of society, new socio-political relations arise, the economy and military affairs become different, the way of life and culture of the people change. With the disappearance of certain objects, phenomena, there is no need for words that designate them.

Historicisms can be divided into a number of semantic groups:

1) names of phenomena of a socio-political order, names of members royal family, representatives of estates, etc.: young lady, serf, smerd, purchase; king, queen, prince, princess, boyar, nobleman, prince, count, steward, master, merchant, cadet, cadet, kulak, landowners, etc .;

2) the names of administrative institutions, educational and other institutions: order, exchange, gymnasium, pro-gymnasium, tavern, monopoly, treasury, charitable institution, etc .;

3) the names of positions and persons according to their occupation: virnik, collector, assessor, caretaker, trustee, mayor, policeman, high school student, student, manufacturer, breeder, beekeeper, barge hauler, etc.;

4) the names of military ranks: centurion, hetman, archer, musketeer, dragoon, reiter, volunteer, warrior, lieutenant, rynda, halberdier, broadsword, cuirassier, etc.;

5) the names of types of weapons, military armor and their parts: chasing, flail, mace, mortar, pischal, reed, samopal, halberd, broadsword, arquebus, chain mail, armor, cuirass, etc.;

6) names of means of transportation: stagecoach, dormez, horse-drawn carriage, landau, cab, cabriolet, carriage, charaban, etc.;

7) the names of old measures of length, area, weight, monetary units: arshin, sazhen, verst, ten; pound, batman, spool, lot, hryvnia, altyn, forty, golden, penny, polushka, etc.;

8) the names of disappeared household items, household items, types of clothing, food, drinks, etc .: torch, svetets, valley, prosak, gimp, barma, salop, epancha, kazakin, armyak, camisole, boots, sbiten.

In addition to the historicisms discussed above, which can be called lexical, there is also a relatively small group of historicisms in the passive dictionary, in which the former meaning or one of the meanings has become obsolete. For example, the lexeme dyak has lost its meaning " executive, leading the affairs of some institution (order) - in ancient Russia; the lexeme prikaz has an obsolete meaning “an institution that was in charge of a separate branch of government in the Muscovite state of the 16th-17th centuries, cf.: Posolsky prikaz. Similar words in the linguistic literature are called semantic historicisms.

A special place among historicisms is occupied by words that appeared in the Soviet era to denote transient phenomena, for example: NEP, NEPMAN, NEPMANSH, Torgsin, tax in kind, surplus appropriation, food order, etc. Having arisen as neologisms, they did not last long in the active dictionary, turning into historicisms.

Archaisms (Greek archaios - “ancient”) are outdated names of modern things and concepts. They went into a passive reserve because new names of the same concepts appeared in the language. Archaisms have synonyms in the active dictionary. In this they differ from historicisms.

In modern Russian, several varieties of archaisms are distinguished. Depending on whether the word as a whole or only its meaning is obsolete, archaisms are divided into lexical and semantic.

Lexical archaisms, in turn, are divided into proper-lexical, lexical-derivative and lexical-phonetic.

1. Proper lexical archaisms are words that are displaced from the active stock by words with a different root: memoria - “memory”, odrina - “bedroom”, sail “sail”, shoulder pad - “comrade-in-arms”, cheekbones - “cheeks”, mouth - “lips”, bosom - “chest;

2. Lexical and derivational archaisms are words that have been replaced in active use by single-root words with other forming morphemes (more often - suffixes, less often - prefixes); shepherd - "shepherd", friendship - "friendship", fantasy - "fantasy", fisherman - "fisherman";

Z. Lexico-phonetic archaisms are words that are synonymous in the active dictionary with lexemes with a slightly different sound: mirror - "mirror", prospect - "avenue", hospital - "hospital", Gishpansky - "Spanish". A variety of lexico-phonetic archaisms are accentological archaisms, in which the place of stress has changed: symbol, epigraph, ghost, helpless, music, etc.

4. Grammatical archaisms (morphological and syntactic) words with obsolete grammatical forms film - film, black piano - black piano, white swan - White Swan, rings - rings, elder, lord, prince (vocative form good fellow, honest father, mother sometimes missed them.

5. Unlike all other semantic archaisms, these are words that have been preserved in the active vocabulary, for which the meaning (or one of the meanings) is outdated: shame - “spectacle”, station - “institution”, partisan - “supporter, person belonging to which - either party"; statement - "news", the operator - "surgeon", splash - "applause".

3. New words. Types of neologisms

Along with the obsolescence of words, new words appear in the language - neologisms (Greek neos - "new", logos - "word"). There are linguistic neologisms, or national, and individual stylistic, or author's.

Linguistic neologisms are new formations that arise in the national language:

a) as the names of new concepts (cosmodrome, aquanaut, lunodrome, mendelevium, mixer, melan, punched tape, resuscitation, docking, etc.),

b) as new names to replace obsolete ones (zeppelin - airship, aviator - pilot, pulmonologist - tuberculosis specialist, slang - jargon),

c) as words with new semantics while maintaining or losing old meanings (marching - "the main jet engine of a rocket or aircraft", archer - "an athlete involved in archery", memory "an electronic machine device for recording, storing and issuing information" and etc.).

Language neologisms can be divided into lexical and semantic. Lexical neologisms are new names for new or pre-existing concepts, semantic neologisms are new meanings of existing words.

At present, there is an active process of expanding the vocabulary in the following groups: in the economic, economic sphere, in the field of science, its practical application, in medicine, in the field of sports, culture, in the field of computer technology: brand manager, soft maker, marketer, distributor, hirudotherapist, parapsychologist, site holder, web design, couturier, top model, curler, diver, sale, prime - time, multiplex, etc.

Most of the new words are borrowed words.

Popular neologisms are contrasted with author's or individual stylistic neologisms. They not only denote concepts, but are also a figurative, expressive means that more specifically characterizes the subject, more fully, accurately expresses the thought. They are created according to the word-formation models existing in the language. Unlike linguistic neologisms, they retain their novelty and originality for many years: ogoncharovan, kyukhelbekerno, semi-scoundrel, semi-ignorant (by A. Pushkin), pompadours, biliberdonist, clo-leading (by M. Saltykov-Shchedrin), smart-thin, quivering ( by N. Gogol), utreet, golden (by A. Blok), drunk, pozitseronist, sourness (by A. Chekhov), dragonfly, shyness, likbezit, jubilee, monte-dwarf (by V. Mayakovsky).

4. The role of obsolete words in modern Russian

Historicisms differ from archaisms in their purpose. They are the only names for certain concepts, and therefore perform mainly a nominative function in the language. Historicisms have no parallels in the modern Russian language, and therefore they are turned to when it becomes necessary to name some objects or phenomena that have gone out of use. In modern language, historicisms have a limited use, for example, in scientific works on history.

Archaisms, being synonyms in relation to commonly used words, differ from them in additional shades. Therefore, they are used as a bright stylistic means to create the color of the era, to stylize speech, to social characteristics characters through speech.

Archaisms can be used not only in the speech of the characters, but also in the language of the author.

Archaisms are also used to create an elevated, solemn style (and very often Old Slavonicisms are used for this purpose). In this function, archaisms also appear in the language fiction, and in journalism, and in oratory, and in judicial speech.

Literature

1. Emelyanova O.N. On the “passive vocabulary of the language” and “outdated vocabulary” // Russian speech. - 2004. - No. 1.

2. Modern Russian: Theory. Analysis of language units: In 2 hours / Ed. E.I. Dibrova. - M., 2001. - Part 1.

3. Fomina M.I. Modern Russian language. Lexicology. - M., 2001.

4. Shansky N.M. Lexicology of the modern Russian language. - M., 1972.

test questions

1. What groups of words are included in the passive vocabulary? On what basis?

2. What are the reasons for the obsolescence of words in Russian?

3. What is the reason for the selection of types of archaisms?

4. What are the functions of obsolete words of artistic speech?

Vocabulary is the most mobile language level. Changing and improving vocabulary is directly related to the production activity of a person, to the economic, social, political life of the people. The vocabulary reflects all the processes of the historical development of society. With the advent of new objects, phenomena, new concepts arise, and with them, words for naming these concepts. With the death of certain phenomena, the words that call them go out of use or change their sound appearance and meaning. Given all this, the vocabulary of the common language can be divided into two large groups: active vocabulary and passive vocabulary.

In active lexicon includes those everyday words, the meaning of which is clear to people who speak this language. The words of this group are devoid of any shades of obsolescence.

The passive vocabulary includes those that are either outdated, or, conversely, due to their novelty, have not yet become widely known and are also not used everyday. Thus, the words of the passive stock are divided, in turn, into obsolete and new (neologisms). Those words that have gone out of active use are among the obsolete. For example, words that have ceased to be used due to the disappearance of the concepts they denoted are clearly obsolete: boyar, clerk, veche, archer, oprichnik, vowel (member of the city duma), burmistr, etc. The words of this group are called historicisms, they are more or less known and understood by native speakers, but not actively used by them. In the modern language, they are referred to only when it is necessary to name obsolete objects, phenomena, for example, in special scientific and historical literature, as well as in the language works of art in order to recreate a particular historical epoch.

If the concept of an object, phenomenon, action, quality, etc. is preserved, and the names assigned to it are replaced in the process of language development with new ones that are more acceptable for one reason or another for a new generation of native speakers, then the old names also become the category of passive vocabulary, into the group of so-called archaisms (Greek archaios - ancient). For example: better - because, eyelids - forever, guest - merchant, merchant (mainly foreign), guest - trade, etc. Some of the words of this type are practically already outside even the passively existing lexical stocks of modern literary language. For example: thief - thief, robber; stry - paternal uncle, stryina - paternal uncle's wife; uy - maternal uncle; stirrup - down; sling - 1) roof and 2) vault of heaven; vezha - 1) tent, wagon, 2) tower; fat - fat, lard and many others. Some of the archaisms are preserved in the modern language as part of phraseological units: to get into a mess, where the slip is a spinning rope machine; you can’t see where the zga (stga) is the road, the path; beat with the forehead, where the forehead is the forehead; rage with fat, where fat is wealth; cherish like the apple of an eye, where the apple is the pupil, etc.

The process of transition of words from the group of active use to the passive group is long. It is also due to non-linguistic reasons, for example social change, and actually linguistic ones, of which the systemic connections of obsolete words play a very significant role: the more extensive, diverse and stronger they are, the more slowly the word passes into the passive layers of the dictionary.

Obsolete include not only those words that have long been out of use, but also those that have arisen and become obsolete quite recently, for example: educational program (elimination of illiteracy), food requisition, tax in kind, combed, etc. Obsolete words can also be primordial words (for example , helmet, good, oboloko, etc.) and borrowed ones, for example, Old Slavonicisms (vezhdy - eyelids, alkati - starve, fast, riza - clothes, hand - palm, etc.).

Depending on whether the word becomes obsolete completely, whether its individual elements are used, whether the phonetic arrangement words, highlight a few; types of archaisms: proper lexical, lexical-semantic, lexical-phonetic and lexical-word-building.

Actually lexical ones appear when the whole word becomes obsolete and passes into passive archaic layers, for example: kdmon - horse, stupidly - perhaps, glebeti - sink, get stuck, zanyo - because, because, etc.

Lexico-semantic words include some polysemantic words that have one or more meanings outdated. For example, the word guest has the obsolete meaning “foreign trader, merchant”, while the rest are preserved, although somewhat rethought (2): guest - 1) a person who came to visit someone; 2) a stranger (in modern language - an outsider invited or admitted to any meeting, session). One of the meanings of the words belongs to such archaisms: shame is a spectacle; humanity - humanity, humanity; lie - tell (see A.S. Pushkin: A friend of mankind sadly notices Everywhere ignorance is a disastrous shame), etc.

Lexico-phonetic archaisms include words in which, in the process of the historical development of the language, their sound form has changed (while maintaining the content): prospekt - prospect, English - English, Svejsky - Swedish, state - state, voksal - station, piit is a poet and many others. Lexical and derivational archaisms are those that have been preserved in the modern language in the form individual elements, cf .: burr and sleep - skin, broadcasting and broadcasting - to speak, r. The gum and the right hand are the right hand, to arouse and flash - anxiety, it is impossible and lie - freedom (hence the benefit, benefit) and many others.

The stylistic functions of obsolete vocabulary (historicisms and archaisms) are very diverse. Both are used to reproduce the color of the era, to recreate some historical events. For this purpose, they were widely used by A.S. Pushkin in Boris Godunov, A.N. Tolstoy in "Peter I", A. Chapygin in the novel "Stepan Razin", V. Kostylev in "Ivan the Terrible", L. Nikulin in the novel "Faithful Sons of Russia" and many others.

Both types of obsolete words, especially archaisms, are often introduced into the text by writers, poets, and publicists to give speech a special solemnity, loftiness, and pathos.

Outdated vocabulary can sometimes be used as a means of humor, irony, satire. In this case, archaizing elephants are often used in a semantically alien environment.

New words, or neologisms (Greek pe-os - new logos - concept), are called, first of all, such words that appear in the language to denote new concepts, for example: cybernetics, lavsan, letilan (antimicrobial fiber), interferon (medicine), oceanaut, eveemo (computer - electronic computer), lepo (power line - power line), etc. Especially a lot of neologisms arise in the field of scientific and technical terminology. In the time of Pushkin, neologisms also arose, but on this moment they are irrelevant to us. Such words form a group of proper lexical neologisms.

The emergence of new names for those concepts that already had a name in the language is also one of the ways in which neologisms appear. In this case, some words are lost due to the activation of others that are synonymous with the first, then the repressed words move into passive layers of vocabulary, i.e., their archaization. Such a path at one time was passed by the words difference (instead of diversity and difference; compare with A.S. Pushkin in "Eugene Onegin": At first they were boring to each other ... and also: I am always glad to notice the difference Between Onegin and me), disaster (instead of disaster), steamboat (instead of pyroscaphe, steamboat and steam ship), steam locomotive (instead of steamboat, cf. in the poem 19th poet in. Puppeteer: A steamboat, a helicopter (instead of a helicopter and a gyroplane) rushes quickly in an open field, etc.

Neologisms are also words newly formed according to certain normative models from words that have long existed. For example: asset -- activist, activist, activist, activism, activation; atom - nuclear-powered ship, nuclear scientist, nuclear scientist; moon - lunar, lunar, moon rover; rocket - rocket launcher, rocket carrier, rocket launcher, rocket launcher; space - cosmodrome, astronaut, space helmet, space vision and many other simple and Difficult words, which make up the group of so-called lexical-derivational neologisms.

Neologisms also include such previously known words and phrases in the Russian language that have developed a new meaning, cf., for example: pioneer - discoverer and pioneer - member of the children's communist organization; foreman - a military rank in the tsarist army and foreman - the leader of a team of people at an enterprise, factory1; noble - famous and noble - belonging to the top of the privileged class (noble milkmaid, noble nobleman); dynasty - a series of successively ruling monarchs from the same family and dynasty - representatives of different generations from the same family with the same profession (working dynasty2, mining dynasty), etc. Words that arose as a result of rethinking earlier nominations known to the language, some researchers call lexico-semantic neologisms. The semantic renewal of words is one of the most active processes that replenish the lexical system of the modern Russian language. Around the word that begins to live anew, completely new lexemes are grouped, new synonyms, new oppositions arise.

A neologism that arose along with a new object, thing, concept is not immediately included in the active composition of the dictionary. After a new word becomes commonly used, publicly available, it ceases to be a neologism. Such a path was followed, for example, by the words soviet, collectivization, link, tractor driver, Komsomol member, Leninist, pioneer, Michurinist, metro builder, virgin lands, satellite, cosmonaut and many others.

Due to the continuous historical development of the vocabulary of the language, many words, back in the 19th century. perceived as neologisms (freedom, equality, citizen, public, humanity, realism, fiction, freedom, reality, immediacy, idea, and the like1), in modern Russian are the property of an active stock of the dictionary.

Consequently, the specific language repertoire that characterizes and reveals this concept is changeable and depends on the historical process of the development of society and language.

In addition to neologisms, which are the property of the national language, new words are distinguished, educated topics or another writer with a specific stylistic goal. The neologisms of this group are called occasional (or individual stylistic) and some of them subsequently enriched the vocabulary of the general literary language. Others remain among the occasional formations, they perform a figurative and expressive role only in a certain context.

If you can get the necessary ideas about obsolete vocabulary (historicisms and archaisms) in explanatory dictionaries, as well as in special historical dictionaries of the Russian language, then a special dictionary of new words did not exist until recently, although interest in neologisms arose a very long time ago. So, in the times of Peter the Great, the “Lexicon of New Vocabularies” was compiled, which in essence was a concise dictionary of foreign words.

In addition to the recently published explanatory dictionaries (Ozhegov's dictionary, BAS, MAC), in 1971 the dictionary sector of the Institute of the Russian Language of the Academy of Sciences published a dictionary-reference book based on the materials of the press and literature of the 60s "New words and meanings" (ed. N .3 Kotelova and Yu.S. Sorokin). This is the first experience of publishing such a dictionary. In the future, such reference books are supposed to be published every 6-8 years.

The dictionary, as compilers and publishers note, is not normative. He explains and illustratively confirms that part of the new words and meanings (about 3500) that have become more or less widespread (this should not be confused with the concept of an active vocabulary).

Thus, the meanings of words form a system within a single word (polysemy), within the vocabulary as a whole (synonymy, antonymy), within the entire language system (links of vocabulary with other levels of the language). The specifics of the lexical level of the language are the orientation of the lexicon to reality (sociality), the permeability of the system formed by words, its mobility, and the impossibility of an accurate calculation of lexical units associated with this.

The vocabulary of the Russian language, as in a mirror, reflects the entire historical development of society. The processes of human production activity, economic, social, political, cultural development of life - everything is reflected in the vocabulary, which is constantly changing and improving. Indeed, with the development of science, technology, industry, agriculture, culture, with the emergence and development of new social and international relations, new concepts arise, and hence words for naming these concepts. On the contrary, with the disappearance of any phenomenon of reality or an object from life, the words that name them go out of use or change their meaning. After the October Revolution left

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from the use of the word strike, auction, charity, charitable, governor, province, zemstvo, governess, prefecture, divine service, gymnasium, philanthropist, merchant, nobleman. Now, with the return of these phenomena to life, these words have again entered our speech.

Depending on how actively words are used in speech, the entire vocabulary of the Russian language is divided into two large groups: active vocabulary (or active vocabulary) and passive vocabulary (passive vocabulary). Active vocabulary consists of everyday words (common words), the meaning of which is clear to all people who speak Russian. As a rule, they call the concepts of modern life. These may be old, but not obsolete words: man, water, work, bread, house and etc.; terms: lawyer, court, industry, science, atom etc.

The passive stock includes such vocabulary, which is very rarely used in everyday communication. It is, as it were, stored in memory until a convenient, necessary occasion. These are either outdated words, or new ones that have not yet received widespread use.

Outdated vocabulary

So, outdated words. If they name objects of old life, culture, old socio-political and economic relations disappeared from life, for example: boyar, chain mail, smerd, armyak, serf, then before us historicisms. Some words that arose in the Soviet era and called phenomena of the first or later years of Soviet power also became historicisms: nepman, food detachment, tax in kind, food requisitioning, people's commissar, stakhanovite, economic council, Komsomol and others. In the post-perestroika period, the word becomes historicism penny.

In addition, obsolete words can denote currently existing phenomena and objects, for example: cheeks(cheeks), piit(poet), airplane(airplane), this(this), hood(robe), lad(teenager), etc., i.e. these are outdated names of modern things and phenomena. And these words are called archaisms. In the process of language development, they were replaced by synonyms: cavalry - cavalry, cod - bed, provinces - periphery, province - region, orphanage - orphanage etc. The last three words seem to be returning to our speech again.

The use of obsolete words in every text must be justified. Historicisms are usually used in special,

148 Part I. The functioning of language units in the speech of a lawyer

scientific and historical literature, where they denote the phenomena of past years. Archaisms, as a rule, perform stylistic functions, giving speech a touch of solemnity, pathos or irony. So, F.N. Plevako, in a well-known speech on the case of an old woman who stole a 30-kopeck teapot, deliberately uses the archaic form twelve languages, which not only gives solemnity to the speech, but also colors it with an ironic tinge. The same function in the defensive speech of Ya. S. Kiselev is performed by the archaic form of the name of the imaginary victim - Natalia Fedorovna and outdated - stolen . In colloquial speech, obsolete words most often give an ironic coloring, create humor.

In the written speech of a lawyer, which is a kind of formal business style, obsolete words are out of place. However, they may be recorded in the record of the interrogation in the answers of the interrogated. The use of obsolete words without taking into account their expressive coloring leads to stylistic mistakes: The accused Shishkin, who has committed beatings of the household members, is in the arrest house. Inappropriately used obsolete words can give the text a purely clerical color: A certificate of rent is attached to this application. Their frequent repetition leads to a tautology.

Archaisms and historicisms are presented in large numbers in the Criminal Code of 1903 1: requisitions, police, excise, gambling house, nobles, merchants, zemstvo service, hard labor, class meetings, treba, Alms, fortress, workhouse, usury, code, work, health, permission, blasphemy, deed, shops, this, these, koi, these, natives, midwife, adultery, exchange, therefore, foreign tribes, subjects, trustworthy, prisoner, deanery, arrest, province, county, rank, distemper, extortion, imprisonment, worker, indecency, legalization. We also find archaic forms here: vagrancy, drinking, allowed, hypnotism, install, contagious disease, family the rights. In the Criminal Code of the RSFSR, from obsolete words, act , as most accurately naming a criminal act or omission, commit has a specific legal connotation. obsolete words such (art. 129), concealment (Article 185) emphasize the official language of the law.

In Art. 232 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR, which calls the remnants of local customs, instead of the term relatives reasonably used

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obsolete colloquial synonym relatives, denoting members of the genus.

In explanatory dictionaries, obsolete words are given with a mark obsolete

§ 2. New words

In addition to obsolete vocabulary, the passive vocabulary includes neologisms(from Greek neos - new + logos - word) - words that have recently appeared in the language. Neologisms arise along with a new phenomenon, object or thing, and their novelty is felt by the speakers. Great achievements in scientific, cultural and industrial development in the post-October period brought to life a large number of new words, for example: collective farm, subway, escalator, Komsomolets... Some new words report new achievements and discoveries. So, a few decades ago, the root was productive for the formation of new words. space-: following the word astronaut words appeared with cosmic speed space physicist, spaceship, cosmodrome, space navigation, space vision, geocosmos etc. Many new words appeared with the root body -: TV equipment, TV tower, teletype, teleconference and etc.

New words are constantly being born these days. In almost every newspaper, in every magazine, you can find a word that has just appeared. Most of the new words refer to the phenomena of political, economic, public life, and therefore they quickly enter the active vocabulary: perestroika, agro-industry, state acceptance, development, stock exchange, impact, privatization, involved, informals, denationalization, electorate etc. These can be the names of fashionable things and phenomena: mixed fabrics, sneakers, varenka, disco, impregnation, video salon, negative phenomena that appeared in life: warps, bum, scourge, morbidity... Colloquial words began to be actively used in print promise, liked, help: Today, the growth of delinquency among minors is pronounced, and this again promises a surge in 2-3 years total number crimes 2 .

New words can be formed as a result of changing the semantics of existing words in the language. Yes, it's a polysemantic word. official stands for 1) employee public institution... 2) a person formally related to his obligations -

150 Part P. The functioning of language units in the speech of a lawyer

tyam. IN Soviet period it was used in the 2nd meaning, in the 1st meaning it was historicism. Currently, it again designates an employee of a state institution. Word shuttle has three meanings: 1. Cheln. 2. Part of the loom in the form of an oblong oval box or block with wound yarn for laying the weft thread. 3. Part sewing machine with a double-thread seam, feeding the lower thread. The word now has a new meaning: it refers to people who travel abroad to buy and resell goods. The transfer of the meaning of the word occurred on the basis of the similarity of actions: to move "back and forth." Words have a new meaning lump, substitute; run over, thimble, get, doused, cool, wind up b and etc.

New words are acquired by the language in different ways. From a passive vocabulary, they pass into an active vocabulary, become commonly used if the concepts they denote are firmly established in life. Some of the words do not take root in the language, some remain individually authorial. Dissonant neologisms such as rsagozh (from react), blackmail(instead of blackmail), kindergartenism, denationalization etc. Incorrectly formed neologisms plentiful, oily, negotiable, although the "authors" used them as terms. Words like these make the speech comical: As a result of prolonged rains, large potholes formed on the roads. Or: Despite the fact that the warehouse was special, material values hiatus 3 . Separate neologisms become obsolete in the language along with the death of the phenomena or objects they designate. That's what happened with words. nesuny, informals, state acceptance. Perhaps the word becomes historicism perestroika. Interesting history of the word turtleneck . It entered our language in the 60s, calling the women's sweater fashionable in those years; fell into disuse a few years later as turtlenecks were no longer worn. And here again, along with the fashion for a thing, this word returned to the composition of the active vocabulary. Until this manual is published, the word may become outdated again.

In general, new words are an inexhaustible source of replenishment of the vocabulary of the Russian language.

Questions for self-examination

1. Why is the vocabulary of the Russian language divided into active and passive? 2. What vocabulary is included in the active vocabulary

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composition, which - in a passive vocabulary? 3. What is the difference between historicism and archaism? What are their functions in speech? 4. What are neologisms? When do they enter the active vocabulary?

Sample Plan practical session

Theoretical part

1. Uncommon vocabulary. Concept definition.

2. Spheres of use and functions of historicisms and archaisms.

3. Neologisms, new words.

4. Errors caused by the use of passive stock vocabulary.

Practical part

The task 1. In the examples taken from the Criminal Code of 1903 (see p. 148), mark historicisms and archaisms; justify the legitimacy of their use in the text of the law. Choose modern synonyms for archaisms.

Task 2. Read 15 articles each from the Criminal Code of the RSFSR, the Code of Criminal Procedure of the RSFSR, the Civil Code of the Russian Federation and the Code of Civil Procedure of the RSFSR, make a conclusion about the presence of passive stock words in them.

The task 3. Answer in what procedural acts and why outdated vocabulary and neologisms can be used. Give examples.

Task 4. Read a few defensive speeches by Ya.S. Kiselev, note obsolete words in them. Explain the reasons for their use.

Task 5. Tell us how you perceive the use in print and on the radio of such words as disassembly, soviet, hangout, collapse, lumps, wrapping, chernukha, bucks . What is their meaning , stylistic coloring, sphere of use?

The task 6. Correct errors caused by the inappropriate use of obsolete vocabulary and neologisms.

The police department, which received a statement from the victims, filed a lawsuit against the cloakroom attendants. The indicated actions of the suspect allow leaving the measure of restraint the same. The surplus of equipment, which is under management, shall be transferred to the interfactory fund. The confiscated vase, as having no value, was destroyed by breaking. The accused departed in an unknown direction, in which he remained until the moment of detention.

152 Part P. The functioning of language units in the speech of a lawyer

Task 7. Get acquainted with the works: 1) New words and meanings: Dictionary-reference book. materials of the press and literature of the 70s / E. A. Levashov, T. N. Popovtseva et al. M., 1984. 2) New words and dictionaries of new words: [Sb. Art.] / Ans. ed. 3. N. Kotelova. L., 1983. 3) Russian language. Encyclopedia / Ch. ed. F. P. Filin. M., 1979 (see dictionary entries: neologism, passive vocabulary, obsolete words). Express your opinion on the importance of such dictionaries for a lawyer.