Rules for the Russian language of spelling. Moscow State University of Printing Arts

58. Principles of Russian spelling, spelling

SPELLING - a system of spelling rules. The main sections of spelling:

writing morphemes in various parts speech,
merged, separate and hyphenation words,
the use of uppercase and lowercase letters,
hyphenation.

Principles of Russian spelling. The leading principle of Russian orthography is the morphological principle, the essence of which is that morphemes common to related words retain a single style in writing, and in speech they can change depending on phonetic conditions. This principle applies to all morphemes: roots, prefixes, suffixes and endings.

Also based on morphological principle issued uniformly different spelling words belonging to a particular grammatical form. For example, b ( soft sign) is a formal sign of the infinitive.

The second principle of Russian spelling is phonetic spelling, i.e. words are spelled the way they are heard. An example is the spelling of prefixes on z-s (incompetent - restless) or a change in the root of the initial and on s after prefixes ending in a consonant (play).

There is also a differentiating spelling (cf.: burn (n.) - burn (vb)) and traditional spelling (the letter and after the letters zh, sh, ts - live, sew).

A spelling is a case of choice where 1, 2, or more different spellings are possible. It is also a spelling following the spelling rules.

The spelling rule is the spelling rule of the Russian language, which spelling should be chosen depending on the language conditions.

59. Use uppercase and lower case .

uppercase letter	lowercase letter
- It is written at the beginning of a sentence, paragraph, text (I want to go for a walk. When I do my homework, I will go outside.) - It is written at the beginning of a direct speech (She said: "Come in, please.")	- It is written in the middle and at the end of the word (mother, Russia). - It is written in the middle of a sentence if the word is not a proper name or some kind of name (He arrived late at night).
Written with a capital letter	Written with a lowercase letter
Names of institutions and organizations, incl. international ( The State Duma, United Nations), - names of countries and administrative-territorial units (Great Britain, United States of America, Moscow region), - names, patronymics and surnames (Ivanov Ivan Ivanovich) - names historical events and, holidays are proper names): March 8, the Great Patriotic War.	- names of ranks, ranks (lieutenant Popov), - the words comrade, citizen, mister, mister, etc. (Mr. Brown, Citizen Petrov)

60. Word hyphenation rules

Words are carried by syllables (ma-ma, ba-ra-ban),
It is impossible to separate the consonant from the subsequent vowel (he-ro "th),
You can’t put aside on a line or transfer part of a syllable (nothing, nothing - right; empty-yak (wrong),
You can’t leave one vowel on a line or transfer it, even if it represents a whole syllable (ana-to-miya is right; a-to-mi-ya is wrong),
It is impossible to tear off b (soft sign) and b (hard sign) from the previous consonant (detour, less),
The letter and does not come off the previous vowel (rayon),
When combining several consonants, transfer options are possible (se-stra, ses-tra, sister-ra); in such cases, such a transfer is preferable, in which the morphemes are not parsed (squeeze).

61. Spelling of vowels in the root.

If at the root the vowel is in a weak (unstressed) position, then in writing there is a problem of choosing which letter to write.

If you can pick up a related word or change the word so that this vowel is stressed, then such a vowel is called tested. For example, pillars - one hundred "lb; reconcile (friends) - mi" r.
If an unstressed vowel cannot be checked by stress, then such vowels are called unverifiable, and the spelling of words with such vowels must be memorized or checked using a spelling dictionary (potato "fel, elixi" r).
Russian has a number of roots with alternating vowels. As a rule, the vowel that is heard is written under stress; the choice of a letter in an unstressed position depends on certain conditions:

from the accent:

Gargor: under stress it is written a (zaga "r, razga" r), without stress - o (tanned "lyy, burnt out), exceptions: you" garki, and "burn, with" burn;

Zar-zor: without stress it is written a (zarni "tsa, illumine" t), under stress - what is heard (zorka, for the "roar"), exception: dawn "t;

Clan-clone: without stress it is written about (bow down, bow down), under stress - what is heard (bow down, bow down);

Creature: without stress, it is written about (create "be, create", under stress - what is heard (your "rchestvo, tva" r), exception: y "creature;

from subsequent letters or combinations of letters:

Cascos: if the root is followed by a consonant n, then it is written o (to touch, touch), in other cases it is written a (tangential, touch);

Lag lie: before r it is written a (attach, adjective), before w it is written o (application, suggest), exceptions: by "log;

Rast- (-rasch-) - grew up: before st and u it is written a (grow", nara" shchivag), before c it is written o (for "growth, you" grew up), exceptions: o "branch, growth" k, you "rostok, usurers" to. Rosto "in;

Skak-skoch: before k it is written a (jump "be"), before h it is written o (you "jump"), exceptions: jump "to, jump";

From the presence or absence of the suffix -a- after the root:

Ver-vir-, -der-dir, -mer-mir, -per-feast, -ter-tir, -blest-blist, -zheg-zhig, -stel- became, -chet-chit: before the suffix -a- it is written and (to collect, to light, to lay, to lay), in other cases it is written e (bleat, to light, to), exceptions; to combine, to combine;

Roots with alternation a (i) - im (in): before the suffix -a- it is written im (in) (hush "th, clamp" th), in other cases it is written a (th) (hush "b, clamp" t) ;

from value:

Mak-mok: -mak- is used in the meaning of "immerse in liquid, make wet" (poppy "to put bread into milk), -mok - in the meaning of" pass liquid "(boots get wet");

Equal-equal: -ravt- is used in the meaning of “equal, identical, on a par” (equal, equal), -equal - in the meaning of “smooth, straight, smooth” (y “level, level”);

-float-float-float: o is written only in the words pilaf "ts and swimmers" ha, s - only in the word quicksand", in all other cases it is written I (llavu "honor, float" k).

62. Spelling of vowels after hissing and C.

After the hissing consonants zh, h, sh, u, the vowels a, y, and are written, and the vowels i, u, s (thicket, bold) are never written. This rule does not apply to words foreign origin(parachute) and complex abbreviated words in which any combination of letters is possible (Interbureau).
Under stress after hissing, it is written in, if you can pick up related words or another form of this word, where e is written (yellow - yellowness); if this condition is not met, then it is written about (to clink glasses, rustle).
It is necessary to distinguish the noun burn and its related words from the past tense verb burn and its related words.
A fluent vowel sound under stress after hissing is indicated by the letter o (sheath - knife "n").

Spelling of vowels after c.

At the root after c is written and (civilization, mat); exceptions: gypsies, tiptoe, tsyts, chicks are their cognates.
The letters i, u are written after ts only in proper names of non-Russian origin (Zurich).
Under stress after c, it is written o (tso "cat").

Choice of vowels; and or e.

In foreign words, e (adequate) is usually written; exceptions: mayor, peer, sir and their derivatives.
If the root begins with the letter e, then it is preserved even after the prefixes or cut by the first part of the compound word (save, three-story).
After the vowel, e (requiem) is written, after the remaining vowels - e (maestro).

The letter and is written at the beginning of foreign words (iodine, yoga).

63. Spelling of consonants in the root.

In order to check dubious voiced and deaf consonants, you need to choose such a form or a related word so that these consonants stand in a strong position (before a vowel or sonorant (l, m, and, p)) sound: a fairy tale - to say.
If a dubious consonant cannot be checked, then its spelling must be remembered or found in a spelling dictionary. ;
Double consonants are written:
- at the junction of morphemes: prefixes and root (tell), root and suffix (long),
- at the junction of two parts of compound words (maternity hospital),
- in words that you need to remember or determine from a spelling dictionary (reins, yeast, burning, buzz, juniper and words of the same root; words of foreign origin (for example, group, class) and derivatives from them (group, class).
In order to check the spelling of words with unpronounceable consonants that have a combination of letters vet, zdn, ndsk, ntsk, stl, stn, etc. it is necessary to choose such a single-root word or change the form of the word in such a way that after the first or second consonant there is a vowel (sad - to be sad, whistle - whistle); exceptions: flash (although "glisten"), stairs (although "ladder"), splash (although "splash"), bottle (although "glass").

64. Spelling prefixes.

The spelling of some prefixes must be remembered, they do not change under any conditions (to convey, carry, bring, etc.). The prefix s- also belongs to these prefixes, which is voiced in speech before voiced consonants, but does not change in writing (run away, do).
In prefixes on e-s (without- - demon-, woz (vz) - - sun- (sun-), from- - is-, bottom- - nis-, times- (rose-) - races (ros- ), through- (through-) - worm- (through-)) is written z before eaon-, which consonants or vowels (anhydrous, flare up), and before deaf consonants it is written with (limitless, rise up).
Of particular difficulty is the writing of prefixes pre- - pre-. Basically, their difference is based on their lexical meaning.

The prefix pre- is used in the meaning:

a high degree of quality (it can be replaced by the words "very", "very"): exaggerated (= "very enlarged"), preinteresting (= "very interesting");
“through”, “in a different way” (this meaning is close to the meaning of the prefix re-): transgress (= “cross over”).

The prefix pri- is used in the meaning:

spatial proximity (suburban, border);
approaching, joining (approach, sail);
incompleteness of action (cover up, stop);
bringing the action to the end (nail, knock);
committing an act in someone's interests (hide).

In some words, the pre- and pre-prefixes stand out and the spelling of such words must be remembered: stay (meaning "to be in some place or state"), despise (meaning "hate"), neglect, president (the word foreign origin); device, order, charity (meaning "care"), etc.

4. If the prefix ends with a consonant, and the root begins with a vowel and, then instead of and it is written s (pre-June, to play); exceptions:

compound words (pedagogical institute), -charge,
prefixes inter- and super- (inter-institutional, super interesting),
the word "two-pulse", etc.
foreign prefixes dez-, counter-, post-, super-, trans-, pan- (counterplay, subindex).

65. Spelling of dividing b and b Spelling of dividing b (solid sign).

1. Separating b (solid sign) is written before the vowels e, e, u, i:

after a prefix ending in a consonant: entrance, detour;
in words of foreign origin after prefixes ending in a consonant (ab-, ad-, diz-, in-, inter-, con-, counter-, ob-, sub-, per-, trans-) or after a compound particle pan- : adjutant, trans-European;
in compound words, the first part of which is the numerals two-, three-, four-: two-tier, three-story;

2. This rule does not apply to compound words: children.

Spelling dividing b (soft sign).

Separating b (soft sign) is written:

inside the word before the vowels e, e, u, i: peasant, blizzard;
in some words of foreign origin before the letter o: medallion, champignon.

Spelling of vowels after hissing and q in suffixes and endings.

1. In the endings and suffixes of nouns, adjectives and suffixes of adverbs under stress after hissing and q, it is written o, without stress - e (knife "m, big" go, book "nka, end" m, ring "vy-vat; NO ekila "we press, p" look for, red "zhego, merchants" vtsev, ring "th).

2. After hissing under stress, yo is written:

in the endings of verbs (neighing, lying),
in the suffix of the verb -yovyva- (uproot),
in the noun suffix -ёr- (trainee),
in the suffix of verbal nouns -yovk- (uprooting),
with suffix passive participles-yon (n) - (slain, harnessed),
in suffix verbal adjectives(burnt) and in words derived from these adjectives (burnt),
in the pronoun about what,
words and, by no means.

66. Spelling of nouns.

Spelling of endings in nouns:

in masculine and neuter nouns that have before case ending a vowel is written and, in an unstressed position in P.p. the ending -i is written; nouns female this rule applies to D.l. and P.p.; I.p. militia, genius, blade R.p. militia, genius, blade D.P. militia, genius, blade V.p. militia, genius, blade etc. militia, genius, P.P. blade about the police, about the genius, about the blade
in neuter nouns ending in -e in P.p. e is written without stress, and under stress - and: about happiness, in oblivion;
in nouns ending in -ni with a preceding consonant or and in Gen.p. plural ь (soft sign) is not written at the end: bedroom - bedrooms; exceptions: young ladies, villages, hawks, kitchens.
in nouns with -ov, -ev, -ev, yn, in, denoting Russian surnames, in Tv.p. singular the ending is written -im, and in nouns on-ov, -in, denoting foreign surnames. -end-om: Ivanov, but Darwin.
nouns in -ov, -ev, -ii, yn, -ovo, -ino, ыно, denoting the names of residential POINTS, have in T.p. ending -om: near Lvov, behind Khotkovo;
if the noun with the suffix -isch- is masculine or neuter, then the ending -e is written, if it is feminine - -a: a swamp is a swamp, but a hand is a hand;
animate nouns with suffixes - ushk-, -yushk-, -im-, -ishk- male and feminine nouns with the same suffixes in I.l. have an ending-a: dolyushka, grandfather; inanimate masculine nouns and all neuter nouns with these suffixes end in -o: bread, house;
in neuter nouns, after the suffix -a-, the letter o is written: chisel, and in animate masculine and neuter nouns - a: chisel.

Spelling of noun suffixes:

1. If the suffix -ik- (-chik-) is written in a noun, then it is also preserved in indirect cases, and if the suffix -ek- (-check-) is written, then in indirect cases e alternates with zero sound (cf .: piece - piece, finger - finger);
2. In masculine nouns, the suffix -ets- is written, in feminine nouns - the suffix -its-, and in neuter nouns -ets- is written if the stress falls on the ending and -its- if the stress falls on the syllable before the suffix ( cf .: handsome man (m.r.) - beauty (zh.r.) - letter "(cf.r.) - dress" tie;
3. The diminutive suffix -ink- is written in nouns formed from feminine nouns ending in -ina (scratch - scratch, straw - straw); BUT in words denoting females (for example, a refugee, a Frenchwoman), the combination -eik- is written (there is no diminutive meaning);
4. The combination -enk- is also written in words formed from nouns ending in -na or -nya, and not having ь (soft sign) at the end of the word in the genitive plural (cherry - cherries - cherry);

note: if nouns in -na, -nya have the plural at the end of ь (soft sign) in the genitive case, then the combination -enk- (kitchen - kitchen - kitchenette) is written;

5. In affectionate suffixes -one- (written after hard consonants) and -enk- (written after soft consonants, less often after hard ones) after n is written b (soft sign) (for example, kitty, Nadenka),

note: in modern Russian there are no suffixes -ynye-, -other-, -ank-, words with such suffixes are found only in works of art up to the 19th century, inclusive, and in folklore (for example, lolosynka, Nadinka; compare modern stripes, Nadenka), Exceptions: good-natured, hare, good-natured (suffix -other-);

6. The suffix -yshk is written in neuter nouns (sun-sun, feather-feather); the suffix -ushk- is written in masculine and feminine nouns (neighbor - neighbor, head - little head); the suffix-yushk-is written in nouns of all genders, formed from nouns pine into a soft consonant (field - field, uncle - uncle); some masculine nouns are formed with the help of suffixes -yshek-, eshek-, ears- (wedges, peg, spools, pimples, sparrows; pebble, edge; the words sparrow, pebble are used in folk, colloquial speech);
7. With nouns denoting people by the nature of their activity, the suffix -chik- is written before the consonants d, t, a, s, f (translator, lbtchik, defector, etc.), and in all other cases the suffix -chik- is written (compositor, typesetter);

note 1: in some words of foreign origin, after t, the suffix -shchik- (flute player, asphalt worker) is written,

note 2: ь (soft sign) is written before the suffix -shchik- only after the consonant l (roofer),

note 3: if the stem ends with the consonants k, c, h, then before the suffix -chik- they are replaced by the consonant t (distribution - distributor);

8. In many female patronymics, [ishna] is heard, but it is written -ichna (Ilyinichna, Fominichna).

67. Spelling of adjectives. Spelling of the endings of adjectives.

declension of qualitative and relative adjectives; declination possessive adjectives with a basis on j (for example, fox, bear); declension of possessive adjectives with suffixes -in-, (-th-), -ov- (-ev-): Lisitsyn, mother.

In plural the endings of all births coincide.

1 type
		masculine	feminine gender	neuter gender
units number	I.p. R.p. D.p. V.p. etc. P.p.	cheerful, early cheerful, early cheerful, early cheerful (merry), early (early) cheerful, early about cheerful, about early	cheerful, early cheerful, early cheerful, early cheerful, early cheerful, early about cheerful, about early	fun, early cheerful, early cheerful, early fun, early cheerful, early about cheerful, about early
pl. number			funny, early funny, early cheerful, early funny, early cheerful, early about cheerful, about early

type 2
		masculine	feminine gender	neuter gender
units number	I.p. R.p. D.p. V.p. etc. P.p.	fox fox fox fox fox about fox	fox fox fox fox fox about fox	fox fox fox fox fox about fox
pl. number	I.p. R.p. D.p. V.p. etc. P.p.		fox fox fox fox fox about foxes
3 type
		masculine	feminine gender	neuter gender
units number	I.p. R.p. D.p. V.p. etc. P.p.	fathers, sisters paternal, sister (or sister) fathers, sisters paternal, sisterly about father, sister	father, sister paternal, sister paternal, sister father, sister paternal (oh), sister (noah) about my father, about my sister	paternal, sisterly father, sister father, sister (or sister) paternal, paternal, sisterly about father, sister

pl. number	I.p. R.p. D.p. V.p. etc. P.p.		fathers, sisters paternal, sister paternal, sisterly fathers, sisters paternal, sisterly about fathers, about sisters

Note: the accusative case of adjectives in the masculine singular is the same as the genitive case if the adjective refers to animate noun or pronoun, and with the nominative case, - if the adjective depends on inanimate noun or pronouns.

Russians male surnames on -ov (-ev), -in (-yn) in instrumental singular have the ending -y (as well as short adjectives): Pushkin - Pushkin.
Geographical names ending in -ov, -ev, -yno, -ino, -yn, -in, -ovo, -evo, in the instrumental case of the singular have an ending -om: under the city of Pushkin.
Adjectives out-of-town, internationally-native, sub-native, suburban have in the nominative case of the singular the endings -y (-th, -ov), and the adjective out-of-town-endings - “and (-th, -ov).
Adjectives in -yny in short form have the ending -"n (slender - well-built), an exception: worthy - worthy;
It is possible to have a double spelling and pronunciation of the adjective boundless (-ya, -ee) - boundless (-th, -ov).

Spelling of suffixes imvn adjectives:

1. Under stress, the suffix -iv- is written, without stress - the suffix -ev- (cf.
2. With suffixes -chiv-, -liv- is always written and (ugly, arrogant);
3. Suffixes -ovat-, -ov-, -ovit- are written after hard consonants, and after soft consonants, after hissing and c, suffixes -evat-, -ev-, -vvit- are written (cf., greenish, business - glossy , bluish);
4. In adjectives ending in -chi, formed from nouns ending in -shka before h, under stress is written a, without stress - e (cf.
5. Before the suffix -or-, the letter u is written if the sound that it denotes belongs to one morpheme (for example, board - plank); if in the generating base before the suffix -k- there are letters hell, s, st, sh, then they are preserved in the new word, and k alternates with h (freckle - freckled);
6. If the base ends with ts, and the suffix begins with h, then ts alternates with t (tile - tiled);
7. Spelling of the suffix -sk-:

if the stem ends in d or t, then before the suffix -sk- they are preserved (flesh - carnal, cattle - bestial);
if the base ends in k, h, c, then after them the suffix -sk- is simplified and becomes simply -k-, and k and h change to c (fisherman - fisherman, weaver),

note: in some adjectives, the alternation of k, h with c does not occur (tajik - Tajik, Uglich - Uglich):

if the stem of a word of foreign origin ends in sk, then before the suffix -sk-k it is omitted and the combination sec is obtained (San Francisco - San Francisco),

Exceptions: Basque, Oscan;

if the stem ends in s, then it is omitted and only the combination of letters ck (Welsh-Welsh) is written,
if the stem ends in se, then one s is omitted, since in Russian there cannot be a combination of trbx identical consonants (Odessa-Odessa);
if the stem ends in -н or -р, then before the suffix -sk-b (the soft sign is omitted),

Exceptions: ь (soft sign) is written

- in adjectives formed from the names of the months (July - July),
- in adjectives formed from some foreign languages geographical names(Taiwanese),
- combined day-to-day,
8. Before the suffix -and- final consonants k, c turn into h, and x - into u (boredom - boring, bustle - bustling);

Spelling н and нн in adjective suffixes:


1. In adjectives formed with the suffix -in: swan; 2. In adjectives Formed with the help of suffixes -an- (-yan-): leather, silver), Exceptions: wooden, glass, pewter. 3. 8 short adjectives, if the full adjectives from which they are formed have -n- (slender - slender).	1. In adjectives formed with the suffix -enn: straw, 2. In adjectives formed with the suffix -onn: organizational, 3. In adjectives formed with the suffix -n- from the base to n: sleepy, long. 4. In short adjectives, if the full adjectives from which they are formed have -in- (long - long).

Note 1: They are written n in adjectives: spicy, crimson, rye, drunken, ruddy, young, green, windy, porky.

Note 2: Written windy, but windless.

Note 3. It is necessary to distinguish between adjectives oily (for oil, in oil) and oily (soiled, soaked in oil); compare: oil stain - oily hands.

Note 4. It is necessary to distinguish between adjectives windy (day, person), windy (pump) and windy (chicken pox).

68. Spelling compound words.

1. Compound words can be formed using two simple basics, connected by a connecting vowel o (written after the stem to a hard consonant) or e (written after the stem to a soft consonant, hissing or c): whirlpool, birder.

2. Spelling of compound words without a connecting vowel:

it is necessary to distinguish Difficult words, formed with the help of a connecting vowel (locomotive) and without it (psychasthenia;
numerals in the genitive case are part of compound words without a connecting vowel (three-story, two-year);
Prefixes of foreign origin are written together with the root: anti-, arch-, hyper-, inter-, infra-, counter-, post-, sub-, super-, trans-, ultra-, extra-anti-national, ultra-important, counterattack);
words ending in -fication are not complex; before this combination of letters, and (gasification) is written.

3. Spelling compound nouns:

a) are written together:

compound nouns with the first part: auto-, agro-, aero-, bicycle-, helio-, geo-, hydro-, zoo-, io-, cinema-, stereo-, radio-, macro-, etc. (cinema, stereo system, radio station);
compound nouns with the first part of the verb ending in and (dashmorda, daredevil),

Exception: tumbleweed;

all compound words(Sberbank, Balt-fleet).

b) written with a hyphen

compound nouns without a connecting vowel denoting scientific, technical and socio-political terms and names (stop crane, prime minister);
names of intermediate directions of the world (southeast, northwest);
complex owl, denoting the names of plants, having in their composition a verb in a personal form or a union (coltsfoot, love-dislike);
words with foreign elements: ober-, untr-, life-, staff-, vice-, ex- (vice-president, non-commissioned officer).

4. Spelling compound adjectives: a) are written together:

adjectives formed from compound nouns written together (stereosystem - stereosystemic);
compound adjectives formed from phrases where one word is subordinate to another ( Railway- railway);
compound adjectives representing scientific and technical terms or belonging to book styles of speech (highly paid, thick-skinned, above);
compound adjectives, the first part of which cannot be used in speech as an independent word;

b) are written with a hyphen:

adjectives formed from compound nouns written with a hyphen (southeast-southeast);
compound adjectives formed from a combination of proper names (Jack-Londonovsky, Petr-Petrovichev);
compound adjectives formed from combinations of words with equal members connected writing connection(convex-concave);
complex adjectives denoting shades of colors (pale pink, blue-brown);
compound adjectives denoting geographical or administrative names and having the first part of the word west-, south-, -th-, north-, north-, east- (East European Plain).

69. Spelling of numerals.

Compound numerals are written together (thirty);
Compound and fractional numbers are written separately (forty-five, three sevenths);
Ordinal numbers that end in -thousandth, -millionth, -billionth are written together (thirty-thousandth);
Numerals five-nineteen and twenty, thirty are written with ь (soft sign) at the end, and numerals fifty - eighty, five hundred - nine hundred b (soft sign) are written in the middle of the word between two bases;
There are two forms: zero and zero. The second is used in a terminological sense in indirect cases, in set expressions both forms are found.
The numeral gender is written as part of a compound word

through a hyphen, if the second part of the word begins with a vowel or with l (half a liter, half a watermelon), or if it is a proper name (half Russia);
together, if the second part of the compound word begins with a consonant letter (except l): half a kilogram;
separately, if it has an independent meaning and is torn off from the noun by the definition: half a teaspoon.

Note: the numeral semi- in the composition of complex words is always written together: half-breed, half-dressed.

Spelling of the endings of numerals.

1. Declension of cardinal numbers:

The numeral one is declined in the same way as the adjective in the singular:

Numerals two, three, four have special case endings:

The numerals five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten and the numerals 10 and 2 are declined in the same way as third declension nouns:

I. p.
R. p.
D. p.
V. p.
etc.
P. p

six
six
six
six
six
about six

thirty
thirty
thirty
thirty
thirty
about thirty

The numerals forty, ninety, one hundred have a special declension (the accusative case coincides with the nominative, in other cases the ending is a):

For quantitative compound numbers, each word is declined:

A special declension for numerals one and a half, one and a half, one and a half hundred:

3. Collective numbers are declined in the same way as plural adjectives:

4. Declension of ordinal numbers:

Ordinal numbers are declined in the same way as adjectives of the first type:

For compound ordinal numbers, only the last word changes during declension:

70. Spelling of pronouns.

1. Spelling of negative pronouns:

under stress it is written not, but without stress - neither, (cf., kikto "-not" who, not "only" - not "how much");
if there are no 48 prepositions in negative pronouns, then they are written together, and if there is, then in three words (cf .: someone - no one, nothing - no reason),
combinations are none other than, nothing more than oppositions and are written separately, and combinations none other, nothing else have this opposition meaning and therefore are written together (cf .. This can be allowed by none other than the headmaster. - no one else could do it better.).

2. Spelling of indefinite pronouns:

indefinite pronouns that have in their composition particles some-, some-, -something, -or-, -something are written with a hyphen (someone, something, someone),
if a preposition follows the particle, then the pronoun is written in three words (with someone, because of someone).

71. Spelling of verbs.

Spelling of verb endings.

1. Depending on personal endings, verbs are divided into two large groups: into verbs of I and II conjugations.

II conjugation includes:

verbs on -it (except for the verbs to shave, lay, build, which belong to the I conjugation),
7 verbs in -et (twirl, see, depend, hate, offend, watch, endure),
4 verbs in -at (thief, breathe, hold, hear).

All other verbs belong to the I conjugation.

Personal endings of verbs in the present or future past tense:

2. There are several different conjugated verbs that do not belong to any of the two conjugations: want, run, eat, create, give.

unit
1 face read, take
2 person read, take
Z face reads, takes

plural
1 person read, take
2 person read, take
3rd person read, take

want
want want

We want
want to
want

running
run run
run
run
run

eat
eat
is eating

eat eat eat

create
create
create

Let's create create create create

give
give
will give

Let's give give give give

3. If the verb with the prefix obez- (obes-) is transitive, then it is conjugated according to the II conjugation, and if it is intransitive, then according to the I conjugation (for example, compare the conjugation of the verbs to weaken (someone) and to weaken (himself).

4. In the verbs of I conjugation in the form of the future tense, the ending is written - “those, but in the form imperative mood- ending -ite (cf .: You will send this letter tomorrow. - Send this document urgently.)

b (soft sign) in verb forms.

1. b (soft sign) is written:

in the infinitive (write, wish, want, wash),
in the endings of the 2nd person singular of the present or simple future tense (choose, wash, do, wash),
in the imperative mood (correct, hide), BUT lie down, lie down,
in the return particle, which is after the vowel (bent, turned, I will return);

2. b (soft sign) is not written:

in the form of the 3rd person singular of the present or simple future tense (washes, is done).

Spelling of verb suffixes

1. If in the 1st person of the present or simple future tense the verb ends in -th (-th), then in the infinitive and in the form of the past tense, suffixes -ova-, -eva- are written (I manage - manage, managed, fight - fight, fought );

if in the 1st person of the present or simple future tense the verb ends in -yva, -ivay, then the suffixes -yva-, -iva- (I impose - impose, impose) are written in the infinitive and in the past tense.

2. Verbs in -five, -vayu have the same vowel before the suffix -va- as in the infinitive without this suffix (extend - extend).

if they are formed by combining a preposition with an adverb (forever) or with a short adjective (tightly, to the left),

if they are formed by adding the prepositions in and on to the collective numeral (three times, in two),

if they are formed by adding a preposition to a full adjective or pronoun (manually, recklessly, with might and main)

Exception: if the adjective begins with a vowel, then the preposition в is written separately (open),

if the nouns from which adverbs are formed are not used independently in modern Russian (locked up, shattered),
adverbs with a spatial meaning, formed from nouns such as distance, height, beginning, etc. (far away, first)

note: if the sentence contains an explanation for the noun, then such words are no longer adverbs, but combinations of a noun with a preposition and are written separately (from the beginning of the book),

if it is impossible to put a definition between the prefix-preposition and the noun from which the adverb is formed, but if this can be done, then these words are a combination of a noun with a preposition and are written separately (cf .: exhaust completely - come to the horses of the corridor):

4. Adverbs are written with a hyphen:

if they are formed with the prefix full adjectives or adverbs ending in -oma, -him, -ni, ii (in my opinion, no-old, in Russian, in cat-like),
if they are formed using the prefix v- (in-) from ordinal numbers (firstly, secondly, thirdly),
if they are formed by repeating the same adverb or by adding synonymous words (barely, quietly, quietly);

5. Adverbial combinations are written separately:

if they consist of nouns with a preposition between them (from gas to eye, shoulder to captivity),
if they are combinations with prepositions without, before, on, with, etc. (without restraint, on the run, immediately),
if the noun in this combination has retained some meaning case form(abroad, conscientiously),
if the adjective from which the adverb is formed begins with a vowel, then the preposition в is written separately (in the open).

74. Spelling of prepositions.

The spelling of prepositions must be remembered or checked in a spelling dictionary. Sometimes for the correct spelling of a word it is very important to determine whether it is a preposition or not.

Complex prepositions iechza, from under, because of, etc. are written through a hyphen. (due to illness, from under steel);
Such prepositions are written together, as in view of, instead of, like, over, due to (due to absence, like a hole), BUT include in the consequence;
Such prepositions are written separately, such as in the form, in connection, etc.
Prepositions continue, during, due to have at the end e (during the lesson), BUT during the river.

75. Spelling unions.

1. They are written together:

union so that (He asked me to come early.); it is necessary to distinguish between the union so that and the combination of the pronoun and the particle what (Whatever you say, I don’t believe you);

note: remember! no matter what,

unions are also written together (Will you also / also go to the concert?); it is necessary to distinguish between conjunctions also, also with combinations of a pronoun with a particle (the same) and an adverb with a particle (also): if the particle can be omitted or put in another place in the sentence, then these combinations are written separately (you brought the same (same), and me too.);

particles something, some, something, either-, -something, -ka, -de, -s, -tka, -tko, -the same (yes, somebody, give it, he-de, enough),

Particle spelling NOT with different parts of speech

Part of speech		apart
noun	1. if it is not used without (ignorant, adversity), 2. if you can choose a synonym without not (untruth is a lie, an enemy is a friend),	1. if there is or is implied opposition; not a friend, but an enemy), 2. in an interrogative predzhenin with a logical underlining of negation (Your father arranged for you here, didn't he?
adj.	1. if the bases are not used (sloppy, nondescript). 2. if you can choose a synonym without not (rather big - big, gvmslodoy - old), 3. if there is a contrast with the union but (the river is not ugly, but cold), 4. with short adjectives, if the full adjectives from which they are formed are written in a non-continuously low - low)	1. if there is or is implied opposition with the union a (not big, small), 2. with relative adjectives(the sky is southern here), 3. with short adjectives, if the full adjectives from which they are formed are not written separately (the book is not interesting, but boring)
num.	with indefinite and negative pronouns without prepositions (several, no one, something)	always written separately (not three, not the seventh)
pronoun		with other categories of pronouns (not in my class, not on our floor)
verb	if without not not used (to hate, to be perplexed) note: verbs such as oversight are written together, since they include a single prefix under-,	with all other verbs (not to know, to cry
ger.	if without not not used (hating, perplexed) note: gerunds formed from verbs with a prefix are underwritten together, just like verbs (overlooked)	with all the other participles (not knowing, on crying)
participle

communion	if full participles do not have dependent words with them (non-come student)	one . if full participles have dependent words (a student who did not come on time), 2. with short participles (test papers not verified) if there is or is supposed to be a contrast (not finished, but only started work)
adverb	one . if without is not used (absurdly, carelessly), 2. adverbs in -o, -e, if you can choose a synonym for bel not (not stupid - smart)	1. adverbs in -o, -e, if there is or is meant to be an opposition (not funny, but sad), 2, adverbs in -o, -e, if they have explanatory words not at all, not at all, far from not at all (not at all funny). 3. if the adverb is written with a hyphen (not in Russian)

Particle spelling NOT and NI

58. Principles of Russian spelling, spelling

SPELLING - a system of spelling rules. The main sections of spelling:

writing morphemes in various parts of speech,
continuous, separate and hyphenated spelling of words,
the use of uppercase and lowercase letters,
hyphenation.

Also, on the basis of the morphological principle, a uniform spelling of words related to a certain grammatical form is drawn up. For example, ь (soft sign) is a formal sign of the infinitive.

There is also a differentiating spelling (cf.: burn (n.) - burn (vb)) and traditional spelling (the letter and after the letters zh, sh, ts - live, sew).

A spelling is a case of choice where 1, 2, or more different spellings are possible. It is also a spelling following the spelling rules.

The spelling rule is the spelling rule of the Russian language, which spelling should be chosen depending on the language conditions.

59. Use uppercase and lowercase letters.

uppercase letter	lowercase letter
- It is written at the beginning of a sentence, paragraph, text (I want to go for a walk. When I do my homework, I will go outside.) - It is written at the beginning of a direct speech (She said: "Come in, please.")	- It is written in the middle and at the end of the word (mother, Russia). - It is written in the middle of a sentence if the word is not a proper name or some kind of name (He arrived late at night).
Written with a capital letter	Written with a lowercase letter
Names of institutions and organizations, incl. international (State Duma, United Nations), - names of countries and administrative-territorial units (Great Britain, United States of America, Moscow region), - names, patronymics and surnames (Ivanov Ivan Ivanovich) - the names of historical events and holidays are proper names): March 8, the Great Patriotic War.	- names of ranks, ranks (lieutenant Popov), - the words comrade, citizen, mister, mister, etc. (Mr. Brown, Citizen Petrov)

60. Word hyphenation rules

Words are carried by syllables (ma-ma, ba-ra-ban),
It is impossible to separate the consonant from the subsequent vowel (he-ro "th),
You can’t put aside on a line or transfer part of a syllable (nothing, nothing - right; empty-yak (wrong),
You can’t leave one vowel on a line or transfer it, even if it represents a whole syllable (ana-to-miya is right; a-to-mi-ya is wrong),
It is impossible to tear off b (soft sign) and b (hard sign) from the previous consonant (detour, less),
The letter and does not come off the previous vowel (rayon),
When combining several consonants, transfer options are possible (se-stra, ses-tra, sister-ra); in such cases, such a transfer is preferable, in which the morphemes are not parsed (squeeze).

61. Spelling of vowels in the root.

If at the root the vowel is in a weak (unstressed) position, then in writing there is a problem of choosing which letter to write.

If you can pick up a related word or change the word so that this vowel is stressed, then such a vowel is called tested. For example, pillars - one hundred "lb; reconcile (friends) - mi" r.
If an unstressed vowel cannot be checked by stress, then such vowels are called unverifiable, and the spelling of words with such vowels must be memorized or checked using a spelling dictionary (potato "fel, elixi" r).
Russian has a number of roots with alternating vowels. As a rule, the vowel that is heard is written under stress; the choice of a letter in an unstressed position depends on certain conditions:

from the accent:

Gargor: under stress it is written a (zaga "r, razga" r), without stress - o (tanned "lyy, burnt out), exceptions: you" garki, and "burn, with" burn;

Zar-zor: without stress it is written a (zarni "tsa, illumine" t), under stress - what is heard (zorka, for the "roar"), exception: dawn "t;

Clan-clone: without stress it is written about (bow down, bow down), under stress - what is heard (bow down, bow down);

Creature: without stress, it is written about (create "be, create", under stress - what is heard (your "rchestvo, tva" r), exception: y "creature;

from subsequent letters or combinations of letters:

Cascos: if the root is followed by a consonant n, then it is written o (to touch, touch), in other cases it is written a (tangential, touch);

Lag lie: before r it is written a (attach, adjective), before w it is written o (application, suggest), exceptions: by "log;

Skak-skoch: before k it is written a (jump "be"), before h it is written o (you "jump"), exceptions: jump "to, jump";

From the presence or absence of the suffix -a- after the root:

Roots with alternation a (i) - im (in): before the suffix -a- it is written im (in) (hush "th, clamp" th), in other cases it is written a (th) (hush "b, clamp" t) ;

from value:

Mak-mok: -mak- is used in the meaning of "immerse in liquid, make wet" (poppy "to put bread into milk), -mok - in the meaning of" pass liquid "(boots get wet");

Equal-equal: -ravt- is used in the meaning of “equal, identical, on a par” (equal, equal), -equal - in the meaning of “smooth, straight, smooth” (y “level, level”);

-float-float-float: o is written only in the words pilaf "ts and swimmers" ha, s - only in the word quicksand", in all other cases it is written I (llavu "honor, float" k).

62. Spelling of vowels after hissing and C.

After the hissing consonants zh, h, sh, u, the vowels a, y, and are written, and the vowels i, u, s (thicket, bold) are never written. This rule does not apply to words of foreign origin (parachute) and compound words in which any combination of letters is possible (Interbureau).
Under stress after hissing, it is written in, if you can pick up related words or another form of this word, where e is written (yellow - yellowness); if this condition is not met, then it is written about (to clink glasses, rustle).
It is necessary to distinguish the noun burn and its related words from the past tense verb burn and its related words.
A fluent vowel sound under stress after hissing is indicated by the letter o (sheath - knife "n").

Spelling of vowels after c.

At the root after c is written and (civilization, mat); exceptions: gypsies, tiptoe, tsyts, chicks are their cognates.
The letters i, u are written after ts only in proper names of non-Russian origin (Zurich).
Under stress after c, it is written o (tso "cat").

Choice of vowels; and or e.

In foreign words, e (adequate) is usually written; exceptions: mayor, peer, sir and their derivatives.
If the root begins with the letter e, then it is preserved even after the prefixes or cut by the first part of the compound word (save, three-story).
After the vowel, e (requiem) is written, after the remaining vowels - e (maestro).

The letter and is written at the beginning of foreign words (iodine, yoga).

63. Spelling of consonants in the root.

In order to check dubious voiced and deaf consonants, you need to choose such a form or a related word so that these consonants stand in a strong position (before a vowel or sonorant (l, m, and, p)) sound: a fairy tale - to say.
If a dubious consonant cannot be checked, then its spelling must be remembered or found in a spelling dictionary. ;
Double consonants are written:
- at the junction of morphemes: prefixes and root (tell), root and suffix (long),
- at the junction of two parts of compound words (maternity hospital),
- in words that you need to remember or determine from a spelling dictionary (reins, yeast, burning, buzz, juniper and words of the same root; words of foreign origin (for example, group, class) and derivatives from them (group, class).
In order to check the spelling of words with unpronounceable consonants that have a combination of letters vet, zdn, ndsk, ntsk, stl, stn, etc. it is necessary to choose such a single-root word or change the form of the word in such a way that after the first or second consonant there is a vowel (sad - to be sad, whistle - whistle); exceptions: flash (although "glisten"), stairs (although "ladder"), splash (although "splash"), bottle (although "glass").

64. Spelling prefixes.

The spelling of some prefixes must be remembered, they do not change under any conditions (to convey, carry, bring, etc.). The prefix s- also belongs to these prefixes, which is voiced in speech before voiced consonants, but does not change in writing (run away, do).
In prefixes on e-s (without- - demon-, woz (vz) - - sun- (sun-), from- - is-, bottom- - nis-, times- (rose-) - races (ros- ), through- (through-) - worm- (through-)) is written z before eaon-, which consonants or vowels (anhydrous, flare up), and before deaf consonants it is written with (limitless, rise up).
Of particular difficulty is the writing of prefixes pre- - pre-. Basically, their difference is based on their lexical meaning.

The prefix pre- is used in the meaning:

a high degree of quality (it can be replaced by the words "very", "very"): exaggerated (= "very enlarged"), preinteresting (= "very interesting");
“through”, “in a different way” (this meaning is close to the meaning of the prefix re-): transgress (= “cross over”).

The prefix pri- is used in the meaning:

spatial proximity (suburban, border);
approaching, joining (approach, sail);
incompleteness of action (cover up, stop);
bringing the action to the end (nail, knock);
committing an act in someone's interests (hide).

4. If the prefix ends with a consonant, and the root begins with a vowel and, then instead of and it is written s (pre-June, to play); exceptions:

compound words (pedagogical institute), -charge,
prefixes inter- and super- (inter-institutional, super interesting),
the word "two-pulse", etc.
foreign prefixes dez-, counter-, post-, super-, trans-, pan- (counterplay, subindex).

65. Spelling of dividing b and b Spelling of dividing b (solid sign).

1. Separating b (solid sign) is written before the vowels e, e, u, i:

after a prefix ending in a consonant: entrance, detour;
in words of foreign origin after prefixes ending in a consonant (ab-, ad-, diz-, in-, inter-, con-, counter-, ob-, sub-, per-, trans-) or after a compound particle pan- : adjutant, trans-European;
in compound words, the first part of which is the numerals two-, three-, four-: two-tier, three-story;

2. This rule does not apply to compound words: children.

Spelling dividing b (soft sign).

Separating b (soft sign) is written:

inside the word before the vowels e, e, u, i: peasant, blizzard;
in some words of foreign origin before the letter o: medallion, champignon.

Spelling of vowels after hissing and q in suffixes and endings.

2. After hissing under stress, yo is written:

in the endings of verbs (neighing, lying),
in the suffix of the verb -yovyva- (uproot),
in the noun suffix -ёr- (trainee),
in the suffix of verbal nouns -yovk- (uprooting),
with the suffix of passive participles -yon (n) - (slain, harnessed),
in the suffix of verbal adjectives (zhzhёny) and in words derived from these adjectives (zhzhenka),
in the pronoun about what,
words and, by no means.

66. Spelling of nouns.

Spelling of endings in nouns:

in masculine and neuter nouns, in which a vowel is written before the case ending and, in an unstressed position in P.p. the ending -i is written; for feminine nouns, this rule applies to D.l. and P.p.; I.p. militia, genius, blade R.p. militia, genius, blade D.P. militia, genius, blade V.p. militia, genius, blade etc. militia, genius, P.P. blade about the police, about the genius, about the blade
in neuter nouns ending in -e in P.p. e is written without stress, and under stress - and: about happiness, in oblivion;
in nouns ending in -ni with a preceding consonant or and in Gen.p. plural ь (soft sign) is not written at the end: bedroom - bedrooms; exceptions: young ladies, villages, hawks, kitchens.
in nouns with -ov, -ev, -ev, yn, in, denoting Russian surnames, in Tv.p. in the singular, the ending -im is written, and in nouns na-ov, -in, denoting foreign surnames. -end-om: Ivanov, but Darwin.
nouns in -ov, -ev, -ii, yn, -ovo, -ino, ыно, denoting the names of residential POINTS, have in T.p. ending -om: near Lvov, behind Khotkovo;
if the noun with the suffix -isch- is masculine or neuter, then the ending -e is written, if it is feminine - -a: a swamp is a swamp, but a hand is a hand;
animate nouns with suffixes - ushk-, -yushk-, -im-, -ishk- masculine and feminine nouns with the same suffixes in I.l. have an ending-a: dolyushka, grandfather; inanimate masculine nouns and all neuter nouns with these suffixes end in -o: bread, house;
in neuter nouns, after the suffix -a-, the letter o is written: chisel, and in animate masculine and neuter nouns - a: chisel.

Spelling of noun suffixes:

1. If the suffix -ik- (-chik-) is written in a noun, then it is also preserved in indirect cases, and if the suffix -ek- (-check-) is written, then in indirect cases e alternates with zero sound (cf .: piece - piece, finger - finger);
2. In masculine nouns, the suffix -ets- is written, in feminine nouns - the suffix -its-, and in neuter nouns -ets- is written if the stress falls on the ending and -its- if the stress falls on the syllable before the suffix ( cf .: handsome man (m.r.) - beauty (zh.r.) - letter "(cf.r.) - dress" tie;
3. The diminutive suffix -ink- is written in nouns formed from feminine nouns ending in -ina (scratch - scratch, straw - straw); BUT in words denoting females (for example, a refugee, a Frenchwoman), the combination -eik- is written (there is no diminutive meaning);
4. The combination -enk- is also written in words formed from nouns ending in -na or -nya, and not having ь (soft sign) at the end of the word in the genitive plural (cherry - cherries - cherry);

note: if nouns in -na, -nya have the plural at the end of ь (soft sign) in the genitive case, then the combination -enk- (kitchen - kitchen - kitchenette) is written;

5. In affectionate suffixes -one- (written after hard consonants) and -enk- (written after soft consonants, less often after hard ones) after n is written b (soft sign) (for example, kitty, Nadenka),

note: in modern Russian there are no suffixes -ynye-, -other-, -ank-, words with such suffixes are found only in works of art up to the 19th century inclusive and in folklore (for example, lolosynka, Nadinka; cf. modern striped, Nadenka ), Exceptions: good-bye, hare, good-bye (suffix -other-);

6. The suffix -yshk is written in neuter nouns (sun-sun, feather-feather); the suffix -ushk- is written in masculine and feminine nouns (neighbor - neighbor, head - little head); the suffix-yushk-is written in nouns of all genders, formed from nouns pine into a soft consonant (field - field, uncle - uncle); some masculine nouns are formed with the help of suffixes -yshek-, eshek-, ears- (wedges, peg, spools, pimples, sparrows; pebble, edge; the words sparrow, pebble are used in folk, colloquial speech);
7. With nouns denoting people by the nature of their activity, the suffix -chik- is written before the consonants d, t, a, s, f (translator, lbtchik, defector, etc.), and in all other cases the suffix -chik- is written (compositor, typesetter);

note 1: in some words of foreign origin, after t, the suffix -shchik- (flute player, asphalt worker) is written,

note 2: ь (soft sign) is written before the suffix -shchik- only after the consonant l (roofer),

note 3: if the stem ends with the consonants k, c, h, then before the suffix -chik- they are replaced by the consonant t (distribution - distributor);

8. In many female patronymics, [ishna] is heard, but it is written -ichna (Ilyinichna, Fominichna).

67. Spelling of adjectives. Spelling of the endings of adjectives.

declension of qualitative and relative adjectives; declension of possessive adjectives with a base on j (for example, fox, bearish); declension of possessive adjectives with suffixes -in-, (-th-), -ov- (-ev-): Lisitsyn, mother.

In the plural, the endings of all genera are the same.

1 type
		masculine	feminine gender	neuter gender
units number	I.p. R.p. D.p. V.p. etc. P.p.	cheerful, early cheerful, early cheerful, early cheerful (merry), early (early) cheerful, early about cheerful, about early	cheerful, early cheerful, early cheerful, early cheerful, early cheerful, early about cheerful, about early	fun, early cheerful, early cheerful, early fun, early cheerful, early about cheerful, about early
pl. number			funny, early funny, early cheerful, early funny, early cheerful, early about cheerful, about early

type 2
		masculine	feminine gender	neuter gender
units number	I.p. R.p. D.p. V.p. etc. P.p.	fox fox fox fox fox about fox	fox fox fox fox fox about fox	fox fox fox fox fox about fox
pl. number	I.p. R.p. D.p. V.p. etc. P.p.		fox fox fox fox fox about foxes
3 type
		masculine	feminine gender	neuter gender
units number	I.p. R.p. D.p. V.p. etc. P.p.	fathers, sisters paternal, sister (or sister) fathers, sisters paternal, sisterly about father, sister	father, sister paternal, sister paternal, sister father, sister paternal (oh), sister (noah) about my father, about my sister	paternal, sisterly father, sister father, sister (or sister) paternal, paternal, sisterly about father, sister

pl. number	I.p. R.p. D.p. V.p. etc. P.p.		fathers, sisters paternal, sister paternal, sisterly fathers, sisters paternal, sisterly about fathers, about sisters

Note: the accusative case of adjectives in the masculine singular coincides with the genitive case if the adjective refers to an animate noun or pronoun, and with the nominative case if the adjective depends on an inanimate noun or pronoun.

Russian male surnames ending in -ov (-ev), -in (-yn) in the instrumental singular have the ending -y (as do short adjectives): Pushkin - Pushkin.
Geographical names ending in -ov, -ev, -yno, -ino, -yn, -in, -ovo, -evo, in the instrumental case of the singular have an ending -om: under the city of Pushkin.
Adjectives out-of-town, internationally-native, sub-native, suburban have in the nominative case of the singular the endings -y (-th, -ov), and the adjective out-of-town-endings - “and (-th, -ov).
Adjectives in -yny in short form have the ending -"n (slender - well-built), an exception: worthy - worthy;
It is possible to have a double spelling and pronunciation of the adjective boundless (-ya, -ee) - boundless (-th, -ov).

Spelling of suffixes imvn adjectives:

1. Under stress, the suffix -iv- is written, without stress - the suffix -ev- (cf.
2. With suffixes -chiv-, -liv- is always written and (ugly, arrogant);
3. Suffixes -ovat-, -ov-, -ovit- are written after hard consonants, and after soft consonants, after hissing and c, suffixes -evat-, -ev-, -vvit- are written (cf., greenish, business - glossy , bluish);
4. In adjectives ending in -chi, formed from nouns ending in -shka before h, under stress is written a, without stress - e (cf.
5. Before the suffix -or-, the letter u is written if the sound that it denotes belongs to one morpheme (for example, board - plank); if in the generating base before the suffix -k- there are letters hell, s, st, sh, then they are preserved in the new word, and k alternates with h (freckle - freckled);
6. If the base ends with ts, and the suffix begins with h, then ts alternates with t (tile - tiled);
7. Spelling of the suffix -sk-:

if the stem ends in d or t, then before the suffix -sk- they are preserved (flesh - carnal, cattle - bestial);
if the base ends in k, h, c, then after them the suffix -sk- is simplified and becomes simply -k-, and k and h change to c (fisherman - fisherman, weaver),

note: in some adjectives, the alternation of k, h with c does not occur (tajik - Tajik, Uglich - Uglich):

if the stem of a word of foreign origin ends in sk, then before the suffix -sk-k it is omitted and the combination sec is obtained (San Francisco - San Francisco),

Exceptions: Basque, Oscan;

if the stem ends in s, then it is omitted and only the combination of letters ck (Welsh-Welsh) is written,
if the stem ends in se, then one s is omitted, since in Russian there cannot be a combination of trbx identical consonants (Odessa-Odessa);
if the stem ends in -н or -р, then before the suffix -sk-b (the soft sign is omitted),

Exceptions: ь (soft sign) is written

- in adjectives formed from the names of the months (July - July),
- in adjectives formed from some foreign geographical names (Taiwanese),
- combined day-to-day,
8. Before the suffix -i-, the final consonants k, c turn into h, and x - into u (boredom - boring, bustle - hectic);

Spelling н and нн in adjective suffixes:


1. In adjectives formed with the suffix -in: swan; 2. In adjectives Formed with the help of suffixes -an- (-yan-): leather, silver), Exceptions: wooden, glass, pewter. 3. 8 short adjectives, if the full adjectives from which they are formed have -n- (slender - slender).	1. In adjectives formed with the suffix -enn: straw, 2. In adjectives formed with the suffix -onn: organizational, 3. In adjectives formed with the suffix -n- from the base to n: sleepy, long. 4. In short adjectives, if the full adjectives from which they are formed have -in- (long - long).

Note 1: They are written n in adjectives: spicy, crimson, rye, drunken, ruddy, young, green, windy, porky.

Note 2: Written windy, but windless.

Note 3. It is necessary to distinguish between adjectives oily (for oil, in oil) and oily (soiled, soaked in oil); compare: oil stain - oily hands.

Note 4. It is necessary to distinguish between adjectives windy (day, person), windy (pump) and windy (chicken pox).

68. Spelling compound words.

1. Compound words can be formed using two simple stems connected by a connecting vowel o (written after the stem with a hard consonant) or e (written after the stem with a soft consonant, hissing or c): whirlpool, bird catcher.

2. Spelling of compound words without a connecting vowel:

it is necessary to distinguish between compound words formed with the help of a connecting vowel (locomotive) and without it (psychasthenia;
numerals in the genitive case are part of compound words without a connecting vowel (three-story, two-year);
Prefixes of foreign origin are written together with the root: anti-, arch-, hyper-, inter-, infra-, counter-, post-, sub-, super-, trans-, ultra-, extra-anti-national, ultra-important, counterattack);
words ending in -fication are not complex; before this combination of letters, and (gasification) is written.

3. Spelling of compound nouns:

a) are written together:

compound nouns with the first part: auto-, agro-, aero-, bicycle-, helio-, geo-, hydro-, zoo-, io-, cinema-, stereo-, radio-, macro-, etc. (cinema, stereo system, radio station);
compound nouns with the first part of the verb ending in and (dashmorda, daredevil),

Exception: tumbleweed;

all compound words (Sberbank, Balt-fleet).

b) written with a hyphen

compound nouns without a connecting vowel denoting scientific, technical and socio-political terms and names (stop crane, prime minister);
names of intermediate directions of the world (southeast, northwest);
complex owl, denoting the names of plants, having in their composition a verb in a personal form or a union (coltsfoot, love-dislike);
words with foreign elements: ober-, untr-, life-, staff-, vice-, ex- (vice-president, non-commissioned officer).

4. Spelling of complex adjectives: a) are written together:

adjectives formed from compound nouns written together (stereosystem - stereosystemic);
compound adjectives formed from phrases where one word is subordinate to another (railway - railway);
compound adjectives representing scientific and technical terms or belonging to book styles of speech (highly paid, thick-skinned, above);
compound adjectives, the first part of which cannot be used in speech as an independent word;

b) are written with a hyphen:

adjectives formed from compound nouns written with a hyphen (southeast-southeast);
compound adjectives formed from a combination of proper names (Jack-Londonovsky, Petr-Petrovichev);
compound adjectives formed from combinations of words with equal members connected by a coordinating link (convex-concave);
complex adjectives denoting shades of colors (pale pink, blue-brown);
compound adjectives denoting geographical or administrative names and having the first part of the word west-, south-, -th-, north-, north-, east- (East European Plain).

69. Spelling of numerals.

Compound numerals are written together (thirty);
Compound and fractional numbers are written separately (forty-five, three sevenths);
Ordinal numbers that end in -thousandth, -millionth, -billionth are written together (thirty-thousandth);
Numerals five-nineteen and twenty, thirty are written with ь (soft sign) at the end, and numerals fifty - eighty, five hundred - nine hundred b (soft sign) are written in the middle of the word between two bases;
There are two forms: zero and zero. The second is used in a terminological sense in indirect cases, both forms are found in set expressions.
The numeral gender is written as part of a compound word

through a hyphen, if the second part of the word begins with a vowel or with l (half a liter, half a watermelon), or if it is a proper name (half Russia);
together, if the second part of the compound word begins with a consonant letter (except l): half a kilogram;
separately, if it has an independent meaning and is torn off from the noun by the definition: half a teaspoon.

Note: the numeral semi- in the composition of complex words is always written together: half-breed, half-dressed.

Spelling of the endings of numerals.

1. Declension of cardinal numbers:

The numeral one is declined in the same way as the adjective in the singular:

Numerals two, three, four have special case endings:

The numerals five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten and the numerals 10 and 2 are declined in the same way as third declension nouns:

I. p.
R. p.
D. p.
V. p.
etc.
P. p

six
six
six
six
six
about six

thirty
thirty
thirty
thirty
thirty
about thirty

The numerals forty, ninety, one hundred have a special declension (the accusative case coincides with the nominative, in other cases the ending is a):

For quantitative compound numbers, each word is declined:

A special declension for numerals one and a half, one and a half, one and a half hundred:

3. Collective numbers are declined in the same way as plural adjectives:

4. Declension of ordinal numbers:

Ordinal numbers are declined in the same way as adjectives of the first type:

For compound ordinal numbers, only the last word changes during declension:

70. Spelling of pronouns.

1. Spelling of negative pronouns:

under stress it is written not, but without stress - neither, (cf., kikto "-not" who, not "only" - not "how much");
if there are no 48 prepositions in negative pronouns, then they are written together, and if there is, then in three words (cf .: someone - no one, nothing - no reason),
combinations are none other than, nothing more than oppositions and are written separately, and combinations none other, nothing else have this opposition meaning and therefore are written together (cf .. This can be allowed by none other than the headmaster. - no one else could do it better.).

2. Spelling of indefinite pronouns:

indefinite pronouns that have in their composition particles some-, some-, -something, -or-, -something are written with a hyphen (someone, something, someone),
if a preposition follows the particle, then the pronoun is written in three words (with someone, because of someone).

71. Spelling of verbs.

Spelling of verb endings.

1. Depending on personal endings, verbs are divided into two large groups: into verbs of I and II conjugations.

II conjugation includes:

verbs on -it (except for the verbs to shave, lay, build, which belong to the I conjugation),
7 verbs in -et (twirl, see, depend, hate, offend, watch, endure),
4 verbs in -at (thief, breathe, hold, hear).

All other verbs belong to the I conjugation.

Personal endings of verbs in the present or future past tense:

2. There are several different conjugated verbs that do not belong to any of the two conjugations: want, run, eat, create, give.

unit
1 face read, take
2 person read, take
Z face reads, takes

plural
1 person read, take
2 person read, take
3rd person read, take

want
want want

We want
want to
want

running
run run
run
run
run

eat
eat
is eating

eat eat eat

create
create
create

Let's create create create create

give
give
will give

Let's give give give give

4. In the verbs of conjugation I, in the form of the future tense, the ending is written - “those”, and in the form of the imperative mood - the ending -ite (cf .: You will send this letter tomorrow. - Send this document urgently.)

b (soft sign) in verb forms.

1. b (soft sign) is written:

in the infinitive (write, wish, want, wash),
in the endings of the 2nd person singular of the present or simple future tense (choose, wash, do, wash),
in the imperative mood (correct, hide), BUT lie down, lie down,
in the return particle, which is after the vowel (bent, turned, I will return);

2. b (soft sign) is not written:

in the form of the 3rd person singular of the present or simple future tense (washes, is done).

Spelling of verb suffixes

2. Verbs in -five, -vayu have the same vowel before the suffix -va- as in the infinitive without this suffix (extend - extend).

if they are formed by combining a preposition with an adverb (forever) or with a short adjective (tightly, to the left),

if they are formed by adding the prepositions in and on to the collective numeral (three times, in two),

if they are formed by adding a preposition to a full adjective or pronoun (manually, recklessly, with might and main)

Exception: if the adjective begins with a vowel, then the preposition в is written separately (open),

if the nouns from which adverbs are formed are not used independently in modern Russian (locked up, shattered),
adverbs with a spatial meaning, formed from nouns such as distance, height, beginning, etc. (far away, first)

if it is impossible to put a definition between the prefix-preposition and the noun from which the adverb is formed, but if this can be done, then these words are a combination of a noun with a preposition and are written separately (cf .: exhaust completely - come to the horses of the corridor):

4. Adverbs are written with a hyphen:

if they are formed with the prefix po- from full adjectives or adverbs ending in -oma, -him, -ni, ii (in my opinion, no-old, in Russian, in cat-like),
if they are formed using the prefix v- (in-) from ordinal numbers (firstly, secondly, thirdly),
if they are formed by repeating the same adverb or by adding synonymous words (barely, quietly, quietly);

5. Adverbial combinations are written separately:

if they consist of nouns with a preposition between them (from gas to eye, shoulder to captivity),
if they are combinations with prepositions without, before, on, with, etc. (without restraint, on the run, immediately),
if the noun in this combination has retained some meaning of the case form (abroad, conscientiously),
if the adjective from which the adverb is formed begins with a vowel, then the preposition в is written separately (in the open).

74. Spelling of prepositions.

The spelling of prepositions must be remembered or checked in a spelling dictionary. Sometimes for the correct spelling of a word it is very important to determine whether it is a preposition or not.

Complex prepositions iechza, from under, because of, etc. are written through a hyphen. (due to illness, from under steel);
Such prepositions are written together, as in view of, instead of, like, over, due to (due to absence, like a hole), BUT include in the consequence;
Such prepositions are written separately, such as in the form, in connection, etc.
Prepositions continue, during, due to have at the end e (during the lesson), BUT during the river.

75. Spelling unions.

1. They are written together:

union so that (He asked me to come early.); it is necessary to distinguish between the union so that and the combination of the pronoun and the particle what (Whatever you say, I don’t believe you);

note: remember! no matter what,

unions are also written together (Will you also / also go to the concert?); it is necessary to distinguish between conjunctions also, also with combinations of a pronoun with a particle (the same) and an adverb with a particle (also): if the particle can be omitted or put in another place in the sentence, then these combinations are written separately (you brought the same (same), and me too.);

particles something, some, something, either-, -something, -ka, -de, -s, -tka, -tko, -the same (yes, somebody, give it, he-de, enough),

Particle spelling NOT with different parts of speech

Part of speech		apart
noun	1. if it is not used without (ignorant, adversity), 2. if you can choose a synonym without not (untruth is a lie, an enemy is a friend),	1. if there is or is implied opposition; not a friend, but an enemy), 2. in an interrogative predzhenin with a logical underlining of negation (Your father arranged for you here, didn't he?
adj.	1. if the bases are not used (sloppy, nondescript). 2. if you can choose a synonym without not (rather big - big, gvmslodoy - old), 3. if there is a contrast with the union but (the river is not ugly, but cold), 4. with short adjectives, if the full adjectives from which they are formed are written in a non-continuously low - low)	1. if there is or is implied opposition with the union a (not big, small), 2. with relative adjectives (the sky here is southern), 3. with short adjectives, if the full adjectives from which they are formed are not written separately (the book is not interesting, but boring)
num.	with indefinite and negative pronouns without prepositions (several, no one, something)	always written separately (not three, not the seventh)
pronoun		with other categories of pronouns (not in my class, not on our floor)
verb	if without not not used (to hate, to be perplexed) note: verbs such as oversight are written together, since they include a single prefix under-,	with all other verbs (not to know, to cry
ger.	if without not not used (hating, perplexed) note: gerunds formed from verbs with a prefix are underwritten together, just like verbs (overlooked)	with all the other participles (not knowing, on crying)
participle

communion	if full participles do not have dependent words with them (non-coming student)	one . if full participles have dependent words (a student who did not come on time), 2. with short participles (tests not checked), if there is or is supposed to be a contrast (not finished, but only started work)
adverb	one . if without is not used (absurdly, carelessly), 2. adverbs in -o, -e, if you can choose a synonym for bel not (not stupid - smart)	1. adverbs in -o, -e, if there is or is meant to be an opposition (not funny, but sad), 2, adverbs in -o, -e, if they have explanatory words not at all, not at all, far from not at all (not at all funny). 3. if the adverb is written with a hyphen (not in Russian)

Particle spelling NOT and NI

Russian spelling

Russian spelling- a set of rules governing the spelling of words Russian language.

Modern Russian spelling.

The main principle of modern orthography of the Russian language is the morphological principle (the same morpheme in phonetically different forms words are spelled the same). Phonetic and other principles in the Russian language are of much lesser importance and are not the main ones. Simultaneous violations of both principles occur in words like shearless, bad taste.

The alphabet is used Russian alphabet, based on Cyrillic.

History

Initially, individual spellings dominated the language. One of the earliest works on the theory of orthography is the work V. K. Trediakovsky, published in 1748, where the principles of constructing the alphabet and spelling are formulated, which even the modern Russian alphabet well corresponds to. M. V. Lomonosov in the "Russian Grammar", published in 1755, received wide use And long years used to teach the Russian language, published spelling rules and fundamental principles such as ease of reading for everyone, proximity to the three main Russian dialects, proximity to morphology and pronunciation: 12-15. The first academic dictionary of the Russian language was published in 1784-1794.

Enough full review spelling rules in their historical perspective was implemented Ya. K. Grotom in 1873. He considered the main principle to be morphological in combination, to some extent, with phonetic written forms. Subsequently, the primacy of the morphological principle (as opposed to phonetic) in Russian spelling was indicated A. N. Gvozdev , A. I. Thomson , M. N. Peterson , D. N. Ushakov :17-30 .

In 1904, a special commission on spelling was created at the Academy of Sciences. Its subcommittee, which included such well-known scientists as A. A. Shakhmatov , F. F. Fortunatov , J. A. Baudouin de Courtenay , A. I. Sobolevsky, took up the preparation of spelling reform. The final draft of the reform was ready by 1912, the proposed changes were implemented six years later, with Reform of Russian spelling in 1918:262-263 . Until 1918, the Russian alphabet consisted of more letters than now. As a result of the reform of 1918, the letters were removed yat , fita , izhitsa , and decimal, at the end of words.

In 1956, the Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation of 1956 were adopted, which changed the spelling of some words and regulated the use of the letter.

Subsequently, under the guidance V. V. Lopatina some changes to the rules were put forward, partially reflected in the spelling dictionary under his editorship.

The most important rules

Spelling of vowels at the root of words

Unstressed vowels that can be stressed

st about ly - st about l
m about l about doi - m about lodost, they say about daytime

Unstressed vowels that are not tested ( dictionary words)

to about ditch, to about role, region but ko, b about lotto

And - s after c

In the roots And - And

C And pk, c And rkul, c And tata, c And nga, c And fra … and other borrowed words

Exception words: c s gan on c s kidneys approached s film and c s yelled: "ts s c".

In suffixes and endings - c s - s
Lisitsyn, Kuritsyn; streets

Vowels after sibilants

1) w And, sh And - And
h but, SCH but - but
h at, SCH at - at

F And know, h but shcha, h at before …

2) After hissing - yo:

H yo rny, w yo light, sh yo lx, h yo mouth ...

Exception words: about w about h, w about roch, capyush about n, krush about n, kryzh about penetrated, sh about ce, sh about colade, w about kay, obj about ra, live about rliv, w about ngler, h about porn, crack about weaving, weaving about ba, sh about mouths, sh about rnik, sh about mpol, sh about vinism, sh about k, w about ra, thicket about ba, h about whipped, h about roll, h about x, h about hom, w about m, f about r, f about x, vech about p, maj about p, maj about rny.

Alternating e - and, o - a at the root of the word

1) b e r - b And ra-
T e r - t And ra-
d e r - d And ra-
P e r - p And ra-
m e r - m And ra-
st e l - st And la-
bl e st - bl And become
well e mrs. And ha-

d e ret - sd And breaks
st e pour - zast And layet
mind e p - mind And army
bl e stit - bl And becomes
Exception words: Op. e tânie, op e lingering, word e tânie

2) K about from - to but câ-
l about w - l but ha-
to about sleep - to but sit down
izl about zhenie - izl but goat
Exception word: floor about G

3) R about from - about
R but st - r but SCH - but

exp about s, ex but sti, vyr but whelping
Exception words: Raboutstock, Raboutstislav, Raboutstov, raboutseamstress, otrbutsl

4) M about to - m but to
you m about kick in the rain
m but pour into liquid

5) P about vn - r but ext
R about out - r but clear
(smooth - same)
exp about heed - ur but opinion
Exception word: R but vnina

6) g about r - g but R
zag but r, g about rit

7) h about r - h but R
h but rya, s about ri, s but revo.

Spelling of consonants at the root of words

Deaf and unpronounceable consonants that can be checked by changing the word or choosing a single-root, in which after the checked consonant there is a vowel or c, l, m, n, p, d

1. Table b- table b s
jelly d b - zhelu d And.
2. Gla h ki-gla h threads
ska h ka - ska h points.
3. Zdra in stuy - hello in ie
months T ness - month T about.

Unchecked consonants (dictionary words)

Yo and O after sizzling

Always ё: (n.) bees, bangs, rosaries, acorns, brushes; (adj.) yellow, black, crisp, silky; (vb) walked.
Exception words: (n.) seam, rustle, hood, gooseberry, shock, shorts, chauvinism, slum, saddler, chokh, pulp, zhor, glutton, burn, ramrod, hood, ratchet, thicket, major; (adj.) gluttonous, prudish, crazy, major; (vb) clink glasses; (adv.) chohom, evening.

In suffix:

Usually it is written o under stress, without stress - e: (n.) galch onok, hare onok, mouse onok, bear onok, circle OK, wolch OK and bell ek; (adj.) hedgehog ov oh, brocade ov th, canvas ov th and beige ev th; (adv.) hot about, fresh about, good about and smelly e.
However: (verb) demarcation yov vyvat; (adj.) burn yonn oh, bewitch yonn th.
Exception word: yet yo.

At the end:

Usually under stress is written o, without stress - e: (n.) knife ohm, candle Oh, doctor ohm and watchman eat, cottages to her; (adj.) big Wow and good his.
However: (vb) guard et, live et, oven et.

Difficulties

Among the difficulties of mastering Russian spelling:

The continuous or separate spelling of nouns with a prefix that turns into adverbs is not regulated by strict rules, but is determined by the dictionary ( satiety, but to death; in half, but thirds; in addition, but Finally, on dry land, but by sea).
Writing about or yo after hissing and c inconsistently: arson(noun) at set fire to(verb), pot at potter.
The rule of writing "not" with verbs has many exceptions: to hate, to hate, to dislike, to dislike, to miss and etc.
Writing forms of the word "go" (root - And-) is only defined by the dictionary: go, but come And I will come. The same with the forms of the root - them-/-eat-/-I-: understand, but I will accept, I'll take And take out.
Unpronounceable, but verifiable consonants are sometimes written, sometimes not, without a special system: “sun”, “hello”, but “pull”, “led”, “potter”.
The double consonant at the junction of the prefix and the root is sometimes reflected in the letter, sometimes not, without a special system: “pull”, “ring”, “anticipation”, but “open”, “open”.
A number of exceptions in the spelling "ci" / "qi" ( number, but Chick), conjugation of verbs with alternation but/about fundamentally ( grow, but increased; gallop, but burn down; bow, but to worship), writing double n in full adjectives and participles, etc.

Features of spelling compound words

Some compound words violate the rules of Russian graphics:

words like "Hitler Youth" and "Inyaz" (read "Hitler Youth" and "Inyaz");
words like "telavivets", "costutil" and "mezzanine" (it reads "telyavivets", "costutil" and "beletage").

Criticism

The spelling of the Russian language has been repeatedly criticized by various writers and scholars. Gathered a number of opinions J. K. Grot in the book " controversial issues Russian spelling from Peter the Great to the present” (1873). Y. K. Grot himself defended the letter yat, considering it important for distinguishing words, despite the fact that such words were not distinguished in the capital dialects of the oral Russian language. The changes in the standard of writing that have been proposed in this book have been very modest, without affecting commonly used cases with already established spellings. However, for relatively rare words (for example, “ham”, “wedding”, “cuttlefish”), a violation of the morphological nature of their spelling was noted (instead of “vyadchina”, “marriage”, “cuttlefish”).

V. V. Lopatin suggested writing in words like laden, dyed, fried, sheared, wounded always the same n regardless of whether they have syntactically subordinate words or not.

Notes

Literature

Panov M.V. And yet she's good! : A story about Russian spelling, its advantages and disadvantages / USSR Academy of Sciences.. - M .: The science, 1964. - 168 p. - (Popular science series). - 35,000 copies.(reg.)
Grigoryeva T. M. Three centuries of Russian orthography (XVIII - XX centuries). - M .: Elpis, 2004. - 456 p. - 1,000 copies. - ISBN 5-902872-03-0 (in trans.)

Russian language

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morphological principle, the essence of which is as follows: morpheme ( significant part words: root, prefix, suffix, ending) retains a single literal spelling, although the sounds included in this morpheme may change during pronunciation. So, the root bread in all related words is written the same way, but is pronounced differently depending on what place the vowel or consonant sounds occupy in the word, cf.: [khl "and e ba], [khl" lbavo s]; the prefix under- in the words file and knock out is the same, despite the different pronunciation, cf.: [ptp"il"and t"] [padb"and t"]; adjectives derisive and boastful have the same suffix -liv - ; unstressed ending and percussion are denoted the same way: in the table e - in the book, big - lead someone, blue - mine etc.

Guided precisely by this principle, we check the truth of a particular morpheme by selecting related words or changing the form of the word so that the Morpheme is in a strong position (under stress, before p, l, m, n, j, etc.), those. would be clearly marked.

The role of the morphological principle in spelling is great, if we keep in mind that the Russian language has a widely developed system of intramorphemic alternations due to various reasons.

Along with morphological, there is also phonetic principle, according to which words or their parts are written as they are pronounced. For example, prefixes on z change depending on the quality of the consonant following the prefix: before the voiced consonant, the letter z is heard and written in prefixes ( without-, air-, from-, bottom-, times-, roses-, through-, through-), and before a deaf consonant in the same prefixes, the letter c is heard and written, cf .: to object - to exclaim, to beat - to drink, to throw down - to send down etc.

The operation of the phonetic principle also explains the spelling of vowels o - e after hissing in suffixes and endings different parts speech, where the choice of the corresponding vowel depends on the stress, cf .: kloch OK- but Zhichek, brocade about in th - koche in th, candle Oh- the one whose etc.

The root vowel, even after Russian prefixes to a consonant, passes into ы and is also indicated by this letter in accordance with the phonetic principle, i.e. it is written as it is heard and pronounced: backstory, pre-July, hoax, prank etc.

There is also a historical, or traditional, principle in our orthography, according to which words are written the way they were written before, in the old days. So, the spelling of vowels and, a, u after hissing is an echo of the ancient state of the phonetic system of the Russian language. Dictionary words, as well as borrowed ones, are written according to the same principle. Such spellings can be explained only with the involvement of the historical laws of the development of the language as a whole.

Exists in modern orthography and differential spelling principle(semantic principle), according to which words are written depending on their lexical meaning, compare: burn (verb) and burn (noun), company (group of people) and campaign (any event), ball (dance party) and score (unit of assessment).

In addition to those named in spelling, it is necessary to note the principle of continuous, hyphenated and separate writing: we write compound words together or with a hyphen, and word combinations - separately.

Summing up, we can say that the variety of Russian spelling rules is explained, on the one hand, by the peculiarities of phonetic and grammatical structure Russian language, the specifics of its development, and on the other hand, interaction with other languages, both Slavic and non-Slavic. The result of the latter is a large number of words of non-Russian origin, the spelling of which has to be memorized.

Spelling of vowels in the root

Checked unstressed vowels

In an unstressed position, the same vowel is written in the root as in the corresponding stressed syllable one-root word: reconcile (peace) - try on (fitting), weed (weeding) - blurt out (fuse), sing (sing) - drink down (drink), rinse (rinse) - caress (weasel), shine (light) - devote ( holiness), tremble (tremble) - annoy (teasing), dry out (dry out) - cut (cut), winter (winter) - land (on the ground), cast (bring) - ghost (see), flutter (breathe) - develop (development), reluctantly (clip) - gritting his teeth (creaking), etc.

In some cases, such a verification technique cannot be used, since the different spelling of words with the same root is explained by their relation to different languages. So, unstressed non-vowel combinations ra, la ( gate, cut, reins, head, cloud, drag etc.) are always written with the letter a - these are Old Slavonic words in origin; in Russian roots, such combinations correspond to full-vowel oro, olo ( gate, short, furrow, head, drag).

You cannot check the unstressed vowel o in the roots of perfective verbs with forms imperfect form. In the words of o drink, be late, swallow and other vowel o is checked by cognate words n o zdno, sip, two, then pchet although there are verbs to flood, to be late, to swallow, to double.

This rule does not apply to foreign words, since in them the tested and test vowels can refer to morphemes of different origin. So, in the word accompaniment e ment suffix -ment of French origin, and in the verb accompaniment and rove the suffix -irova- is German. Wed: subscriber e ment - subscribe, engagement e ment - engagement; words intel and genie and int e lect in Latin formed from different bases of the same root.

Exercise 1. Place the stress in the words and explain the spelling of unstressed vowels by choosing related words with stressed vowels.

Scourge, goodwill, far away, get well, stay up late, decrepit, single, stab, harden, sing, wear out, break, reign, lecturer, stucco, miner, weld , anvil, fence, flood, whale, softening, take off, old-timer, cautious, be surprised, encouraged, dressed venerable, retire, seal, pay, bounty.

Exercise 2

1. The sea after the storm still breathed cold ... house and did not let the sun heat ... pour air. When a thick cloud floated on the sun, the grater intensified. The tr...pinka at first smoldered among the low h...lms, then straight and strongly pulled upwards, through a dense, f...ing walnut forest (Nag.). 2. In nature, animals, birds, insects are divided into day ... out and night .... Is it possible that people, in whom all nature is gathered, have smoothed out this fundamental difference in themselves in a relatively short time of their existence on earth? (Prishv.). 3. Mikhail pulled out his lips and tried to imitate the nightingale (Alex.). 4. The music that I heard as a child, twisted ... froze in me, froze ... did not, and those of her ups to the sky, to the stars ... here, from which I once cried, dissolved ... rushed into the heart (Ast.). 5. At midnight, over the city ... the house ... rolled a heavy ... yellow rumble. The wind owned ... the bodies through the window, blew the curtains ... the weights and rushed off again (Paust.). 6. The pike flickered ... rushed, the fisherman ... sank into the ice water, but did not let go of the spear, disappeared under the water ..., emerged near the ice, crawled out ... and pulled out the catch ... pike (Prishv.).

Unchecked unstressed vowels

There are many words in Russian whose root vowels cannot be checked by stress. The spelling of such words is determined by the spelling dictionary. This includes both native Russian and borrowed words. Here are some of them: aboriginal, antagonism, badminton, beefsteak, briolin, vestibule, vinaigrette, bagpipes, range, delicacy, airship, demagogue, dependency, initiative, bondage, cannonade, burner, criminology, holster, koschey, macaque, waste paper, obsession, charm, occasion, optimism, panorama, panegyric, privilege, front garden, plasticine, confusion, tunnel, utilitarian, Esperanto.

Exercise 3. Rewrite with missing letters. Check the spelling of words with missing vowels in a dictionary.

I. 1. The k... nareika twirled her pretty hairy head, tilting it down and to one side (Kupr.). 2. Sometimes these loud voices of birds were joined by a quiet song to ... noplyanki (M. G.). 3. Green garlands of oak leaves, mixed with bouquets of asters, g... orgins, l... vkoev and gv... zdiki, twined around the steel body of the machine (Kupr.). 4. Gypsies occupied everything, who brought a whole t ... bun of horses covered with p ... pony (Bui). 5. The cruiser is gone. Only a cloud of steam and smoke thickly swirled over the place, to ... t ... stanzas (N.-Prib.). 6. The time will come (and it is not far off), the Russian language will be studied in all m...r...dians the globe(A.T.) 7. The sea surrounded the shore with continuously rotating shafts (Bun.). 8. The forest is generous with entertainment. Either a squirrel will jump from branch to branch, then, deafeningly flapping its wings, a grater will break out of a walnut bush (Sol.). 9. We went down to the length ... and, as soon as we found water, we immediately stopped among the oak woodlands (Are.). 10. The moon has already disappeared behind the close city ... region ... an umbrella of black mountains that were visible to the right, and threw their weak and trembling half-light on the tops, sharply opposite to the impenetrable darkness that covered their soles (L. T.).

II. Av...kado, alg...rhythm, b...calaur, ch...diator, d...ndrariy, k...n...paty, m...rinist, curse... macia, v...n...gret, g...relief, zab...tint, k...l...ncha, k...rogaz, k...mp...new, lum...n...scene, f...salt, b...kl...zhan, g...rpun, gr...m...zdit, closed...chanel, l. ..sq...dir, m...sol, burnt, p...rl...mutr, forward...rd, aqua...rel, b...athlon, c. ..trushka, in ... rn ... soot.

III. Zaind...vely, k...rburator, k...rosin, k...gorta, l...wanda, m...l...nholik, m...zaika, n... cturne, p...mflet, p...t...cantrop, v...deville, d...letant, id...alzation, k...nguru, n... in ... dzhenie, ... heat, per ... scope, r ... zeda, f ... rvater, g ... g ... moniya.

Alternating vowels in roots

Writing alternating vowels in roots e/i; o/a; a/i/im; a/i/in depends on the accent the nature of the consonant before which there is a vowel in the root; from the suffix following the root; from the lexical meaning of roots.

1. Emphasis, i.e. according to the phonetic principle, the spelling of vowels is determined in the following roots:

Gar - / - mountains - - it is written under stress a: zag a r, uga r, naga r; without accent - o: zag o rely, burn, burn, burn, burnout.

Exceptions: in s(specialist.), and sg r(dial.), pr and g r(colloquial);

Zar-/-zor- - a vowel is written under stress in accordance with the pronunciation: z a revo, dawn, dawn; without accent - a : s and rya, zarnitsa, illumine, illumination, behind the roar, zaryanka.

Exception: h oh roar;

Clan-/-clone- - the vowel is written under stress in accordance with the pronunciation: cl but to get down, bow n; without accent - o: pok bow down, bow down, bow down and etc.;

Tvar-/-tvor- - a vowel is written under stress in accordance with the pronunciation: tv o rchestvo, creature; without accent - o:tv to turn, to turn, to shut up and etc.

Exception: approved a p(non-derivative);

Plav-/-plov- - in an unstressed position, the letter o is written in only two words: pl oh vec, swimmer. In other cases, it is written a: pl a vuchiy, float wok, swimmer, swimmer( swimming beetle). In the word pl s wun(special) is written ы in accordance with the pronunciation.

2. The quality of the consonant before which the root vowel is located determines the spelling of the roots:

Cas-/-kos(n)-- before the consonant n is written about: k o dream, touch; in other cases - a : k but to sit, tangent;

Lag-/-false-- before the consonant g is written a: speculate, suppose, speculate; before the consonant w it is written about: izl o live, offer to live, put to live.

Exception: log (non-derivative);

Rast-/- rasch-/-ros-- in an unstressed position is written only before the following st and u: you grow, grown, overgrowth, sprouted, age, plant; in other cases - o: ex o sla, water sli, poro sl.

Exception: neg a sl(although there is no combination of st); R o stock, usurer, Rostov, Rostislav(although there is a combination of st) and derivatives from them;

Skak-/-skoch- - without stress but is written only before k: presk how to jump, jump on, jump on; before h it is written about: zask ochit, upstart.

Note. It is necessary to distinguish in writing the form of the 1st person of the future tense, as well as the imperative mood of the verbs zask and kat(start jumping) and zask about chit(go in for a while); respectively: zask a chu and zask a chi- zask oh choo and zask oh chi.

3. The spelling of the roots depends on the suffix following the root: -bar-/-ber-, -dir-/-der-, -mir-/-mer-, -fir-/-per-, -tir-/-ter-, -blist-/-glitter-, -zhig -/-burned-, -steel-/-steel-, -chit-/-even-- a vowel and is written if the suffix -a- follows the root; in other cases, it is written e: prib and ra t - take ru; zadi ra t - zade ru; freeze - freeze - die - die - die; lock up - lock up; erase - erase - wipe; to shine - to shine, to shine, to shine, to shine; survive ga t - higher than g; zast la t - zastit pour; subtract - subtract t, subtract(but: vych and tat - calculation- from h and thief).

Exceptions : combine, combination, match(from the root -even-);

In alternating roots im / a (P.), in / a (P.), combinations are written im, in, if the root is followed by the suffix -a-: szh ima - compress, charge - take, hug - hug, occupy - take, pay attention - take in, take in - take in.

4. The spelling of the roots differs in meaning:

Mok-(-moch-)/-poppy- - in words with the meaning “to pass liquid; lose their qualities long time in the water "the root is written -mok-(-moch-): prom rolling paper, waterproof raincoat, soaked fish; in words with the meaning "immerse in liquid" the root is written -mak-: m and roll bread in sour cream, dip the brush in paint;

Equal- / -even- - in words with the meaning "equal, on a par, the same" the root is written -equal-: then but to join the truck, height alignment; in words with the meaning "straight, smooth, even" the root is written -even-: vyr o listen to the flower beds, leveled area, trim the bangs.

Exceptions: p and vnina, peer, poro vnu, level.

Note. If the verb is followed by an addition with the preposition c, then the root is always written -equal-: Do not compare but get along with him; however, in obsolete circulation cf. oh heed with the earth(destroy to the ground) is written about.

Exercise 4. Write by inserting the missing letters. Underline the roots in the underlined words.

Pl ... sounding bridge, freeze ... freeze; out of fear, look at the tops of the trees, get ready ... to go on the road, lock the door, a brilliant answer, a green river ... a drain, a dress on the cut ... st, stop. .. make a bed, bow ... to talent, evening starry ... drop in ... for an hour, skip ... chi around the room, edema ... chi to the side, find fault with everything , jumping gait, unacceptable altercation, complex exercise, equivalent values, reconcile opponents, state ... facts, imported light ... jackdaw, constant breaking ... knowledge, abundant use ... vengeance, admirers of talent, terrible disgust, vy... to whip in the rain, unthinkable o... building, kindle... enmity, disposition of the army, ur... heed in rights, sit back ... rshis.

Exercise 5. Insert the missing spellings. Explain your choice.

1. The kitten is only a few hours old, it still cannot swim, it sticks upright in the water, like a float ... wok, but this newborn is seven meters long and weighs five tons. And the miracle baby will begin to p ... sti not by the day, but by the hour (Nad.). 2. Koshevoi and the foremen took off their hats and bowed ... bowed in all directions (G.). 3. Quickly and deftly, she spread ... shed hay, cut ... heeded him, turned the wounded man over (Closed). 4. About ten years ago, several thousand acres ... were won in Polissya and still have not been paid ... (T.). 5. 3 ... rya blazed with fire and engulfed half the sky (T.). 6. In the hand, a glossy high cylinder shines (Bl.). 7. All the officers were counted by seventeen people (L.T.). 8. Two minutes later, we ... got together with a man (P.). 9. The doctor put an end to it, blew ... a blue prom ... with a porridge written and raised his eyes (Ast.). 10. At first, Mumu was very weak, frail and ugly, but little by little she managed and straightened out ... (T.). 11. The birch trees were all white, without shine, white, like freshly fallen snow, to which the coldly playing ray of the winter sun had not yet touched (T.).

Exercise 6. Rewrite with missing letters. Explain the spelling of words with missing letters.

1. Quietly died ... fogs over the river (Ast.). 2. From dawn to dawn, the fire did not go out behind Igritsia (Alex.). 3. With the first sounds, with the awakening of people, the fogs ... were removed into the logs, gorges ... (Ast). 4. In its swaying reflections, every now and then ... the bent figure of a worker became (Alex.). 5. In some places we crouched ... to crawl under ... a leaning pine, saxifrages intertwined in the bushes ... (Ast.). 6. He stood, listened and looked down ... at the sea ... of the fiery tops of the forest that spread out before him under the mountain ... (L.T.). 7. The birds were louder and busier ... running in the thicket (L.T.). 8. I shuddered, cringed, licked the bitter drops from my lips, and my grandmother wiped ... my cropped head with her palm ... assuring that from r ... sy and from the rain people r ... get big, big (Ast .). 9. The fog pressed closer and closer to the ground... (Ast.). 10. In two rows on both sides ... anises lined up ... (Alex.). 11. A long time ago, created ... the world lived its own unique complex and eternal life (Alex.). 12. In front of the windows, the Small Meadows immediately began ... stretching ... to the Saltykovskaya Mountain turning blue in the distance (Alex.). 13. Wild ducks rose from the coastal dawns (Alex.). 14. The forest answered him with the submissive rustle of yellowing leaves, growing with the noise of falling trees (Alex.). 15. Mikhail stretched out his lips and tried to imitate the nightingale (Alex.). 16. ... And in the end, frozen ... the roar for a moment, crumbled into a large hail ... (Alex.). 17. The music that I heard in childhood broke in me, froze ... froze, and those of its ups to the sky, to the star, from which I once cried, ... dissolved in my heart (Ast). 18. In the intervals of perfect silence, a flurry of last year's leaves was heard (L.T.). 9 .... Weasel, shuddering, carefully stepped over a few steps and, folding her head to one side, began to listen (L.T.). 20. Before Ulka had time to think through to the end, as a guy since ... he took up with her and blocked the road (Alex.). 21. His cheeks turned red, his eyes lit up ... and angrily, almost angrily, stared at her (Bob.). 22. Tenacious, always cold hop leaves fell asleep on my face (Ast.). 23. I freeze ... paradise in delight (Lesk.). 24. There the fire of the car goes out and another one is lit ... the fire of the hearth or fireplace (Hound.). 25. All victories begin with victories over oneself (Leon.).

Rules for the Russian language of spelling. Moscow State University of Printing Arts

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