Reconquista and the formation of a centralized state in Spain. Reconquista and the formation of centralized states in the Iberian Peninsula

Reconquista(Spanish: Reconquista, from reconquistar - to win) - the reconquest by the indigenous population of the Iberian Peninsula in the VIII - XV centuries of territories captured by the Arabs (more precisely, the Moors). Moors - in the Middle Ages in Western Europe, the name of the Muslim population of the Iberian Peninsula and western North Africa.

The Reconquista began in 718 with a battle in the Cavadonga Valley in Asturias. The battle in 1212 at Las Navas de Tolosa was decisive. By the middle of the 13th century, only the Emirate of Granada remained in the hands of the Arabs (it fell in 1492).

The reconquest was accompanied by the settlement and economic development of the lands devastated by the war. The Reconquista had a great influence on the economic and political development of the states of the Iberian Peninsula.

In the 11th century, Muslim Spain split into a number of independent states, which facilitated the liberation of Spain from the Moors undertaken by the Christians. The offensive against the Moors (Reconquista) that began in 1212 led to the formation of Aragon, Castile and other Spanish kingdoms. Christian kingdoms of León, Castile, Navarre, Aragon and the County of Barcelona. Alfonso VI conquers Toledo from the Moors, and Cid - Valencia.

The Castilians took control of most of Andalusia.

After a long struggle for the liberation of Spain from Mauritanian-Arab rule (Reconquista), the last Mauritanian state remained on the territory of Spain - the Emirate of Granada, formed in 1238.

By 1250 the Christians had pushed back the Moors. Mauritanian Spain was only limited to one emirate - Granada.

Castile and Aragon, having united in 1469 into one kingdom, completed the liberation of the country from the Moors in 1492 (the liberation of Granada).

The reconquista of Muslim Spain was finally completed with the surrender of Granada to the Catholic Monarchs in 1492.

Pelayo is the first king (died around 737), elected by the nobility and clergy, who took refuge in the mountains of Asturias from the invasion of the Arabs. In 718, he won the famous battle of Covadonga, which was the beginning of the reconquest of the peninsula.

King Mauregato (VIII century) - the illegitimate son of the Spanish king Alfonso I.

Bernardo del Carpio is a legendary epic hero depicted as defeating Roland at the Battle of Ronceval.

Cid Campeador Sid, Rodrigo Diaz, nicknamed the Warrior (1043 - 1099) - the semi-legendary liberator of Spain from the Moors; the epitome of chivalry.

The real name of Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar (Díaz de Bivar) (between 1026 and 1043-1099) is a Spanish knight who became famous for his exploits in the Reconquista. It was sung in the "Song of my Side" (XII century), in the tragedy of Pierre Corneille "Sid".

Rodrigo Ruiz de Bivar (1030 - 1099) - Spanish folk hero. The feats he accomplished in the fight against the Moors are sung in the poem "The Song of My Sid" and in numerous novels.

Sid (from the Arabic "master") is the nickname of Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar (1030 - 1099), a brave Spanish warrior who showed miracles of heroism in the fight against the Moors, the hero of countless chronicles and legends.

In 1072, in the village of Santa Gadea in the province of Burgos, Cid demanded an oath from King Alfonso VI that he had not participated in the murder of the previous king. Alphonse gave him this oath, and Sid agreed to serve him.

Guzman the Good - Alphonse Perez de Guzman, nicknamed the Good or the Brave (1258 - 1309) - the famous Spanish warrior who became famous in battles with the Moors and refused to surrender the fortress of Tarifa to them, despite the fact that they killed his seven-year-old son for this. Castilian captain, defender of the fortress of Tarifa besieged by the Arabs in 1293. Infante don Juan, who went over to the side of the enemy, captured the son of Guzman and demanded, threatening to kill the child, the surrender of the fortress. The answer to the perfidious infante was a dagger thrown at his feet by his unfortunate father.

Goncal Hernandez y Aguilar Gonzalo de Cordova (1443 - 1515) - Spanish commander who captured Granada in 1492, the last stronghold of the Moors on the Iberian Peninsula.

Alfonso I (Alfonso) Warrior (? - 1134) - King of Aragon and Navarre. From 1104, he conquered Saragossa from the Arabs (1118), defeated the Almoravid troops at the Kutanda fortress (1120), and was defeated by them at the Fraga fortress (1134).

Alphonse III the Great (838 - 910 or 912) - King of Asturias from 866. Conquered a number of areas north of the Tagus River from the Arabs. The aristocracy, headed by the sons of Alphonse I, forced him to abdicate (910).

Alphonse VI the Brave (1030 - 1109) - King of Leon from 1065 and Castile from 1072. He conquered Toledo, Valencia, Almeria from the Arabs. Having been defeated in 1086 at Salak, in 1108 at Ukles, he lost a number of previously conquered lands.

Alphonse VII (1104 - 1157) - King of Castile and León since 1126. overlord of Aragon, Navarre, Portugal and a number of French territories (Foy, Cominges, Montpellier). Successfully participated in the Reconquista.

Alphonse X the Wise (1221 - 1284) - King of Castile and Leon since 1252. He conquered Jerez, Cadiz and others from the Arabs. The centralization policy of Alphonse X ran into the resistance of the nobility. In 1282, he was actually deprived of power. His son Sancho became the ruler.

Alphonse XI the Wise (1311 - 1350) - King of Castile and Leon since 1312. Ruled independently from 1325. Led a centralization policy. In 1348 he issued a charter that fixed the personal freedom of the peasants. Successfully fought with the Arabs. Died during the siege of Gibraltar.

King Fernando III "Saint" (1199 - 1242) carried out a number of successful campaigns against the Moors and took possession of almost all Muslim territories in the south of the Prineian Peninsula. Seville was conquered by him in 1248.

Frankish victory over Arabs at Poitiers

Castilian conquest of Toledo

Formation of the Portuguese State

Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa

Castilian conquest of Córdoba

Aragon's conquest of the Kingdom of Naples

1462 - 1472

Peasant War in Catalonia

Unification of Aragon and Castile into the Kingdom of Spain

Establishment of the Inquisition in Spain

1482 - 1484

Peasant uprising in Catalonia

Spanish conquest of Granada

The Christian Reconquista (in translation - “reconquest”, “return”) is a continuous centuries-old war against the Moors, begun by part of the Visigothic nobility led by Pelayo. In 718, the advance of the expeditionary corps of the Moors at Covadonga was stopped.

The Muslims occupied a territory a thousand miles north of Gibraltar, capturing all of Spain and southern France as far as the banks of the Loire. In October 732, the army of the Moors led by Abd al-Rahman (Abd al-Rahman), of course, was not at the gates of Paris, but only two hundred miles from it, approaching from the south to one of the largest shrines of the Frankish state - the monastery St. Martin in Tours. However, on the way from Tours to Poitiers, they met with an army of the Franks, who, unlike all other armies of Christian states, as Isidore of Seville testifies in his Chronicle, "stood like a wall ... like an impenetrable block of ice." A week later, Rahman was no longer alive, the Moors rolled back south, and the leader of the Franks Charles from that day became known as "Karl Martell" - "hammer".

So the city of Poitiers became the top point of the Arab wave that swept across Europe. On the part of the Moors, of course, the fight with Martel was a completely reckless enterprise, but if they won, it would be very difficult for them to resist the temptation to go further - to Paris, to the Rhine and still further, and, as Edward Gibbon writes (Edward Gibbon ) in The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire, "perhaps now the colleges of Oxford would be engaged in the interpretation of the Qur'an, and from its pulpits to the completely circumcised population would prove the holiness and truth of the revelations of Mahomet."

There would be no Christian Europe at all. The Angles and Celts who eventually settled America would have been Muslims. Poitiers, writes Gibbon, was "an event that changed the fate of the whole world."

In the middle of the VIII century. Asturian Christians under the leadership of King Alfonso I, taking advantage of the Berber uprising, occupied neighboring Galicia. In Galicia, the tomb of St. James (Santiago) was allegedly discovered, and Santiago de Compostela becomes a center of pilgrimage, and the Reconquista is something of a new crusade in defense of Christianity and Christians.

At the end of the VIII - the middle of the IX centuries. during the reign of Charlemagne, the Franks stopped the advance of Muslims into Europe and created the Spanish March in the northeast of the peninsula (the border area between the possessions of the Franks and the Arabs), which existed until the collapse in the 9th - 11th centuries. to the counties of Navarre, Aragon and Barcelona (in 1137 Aragon and Barcelona united to form the Kingdom of Aragon).

By 914 the kingdom of Asturias included León and most of Galicia and northern Portugal. The Spanish Christians expanded their possessions into the mountainous regions between Asturias and Catalonia, building many frontier fortresses. The name of the province "Castile" comes from the Spanish word "castillo", meaning "castle", "fortress".

The reconquista led to the fact that the Spanish peasants and residents of the cities who fought along with the knights received significant benefits. Most of the peasants did not experience serfdom, free peasant communities arose on the liberated lands of Castile, and cities (especially in the 12th-13th centuries) received greater rights.

In the middle of the XI century. Under the reign of Ferdinand I, the county of León-Asturias received the status of a kingdom and became the main stronghold of the Reconquista. In the north, at the same time, the Basques founded Navarre, and Aragon merged with Catalonia as a result of a dynastic marriage. In 1085 the Christians captured Toledo.

The Almoravids (1090-1145) briefly stopped the spread of the Reconquista. The period of their reign includes the exploits of the legendary knight Cid, who conquered the lands in Valencia in 1095 and became a national hero of Spain.

The following successes of the Reconquista date back to the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th centuries. The most impressive victory over the Almohads was won in 1212 by the united kings of Leon, Castile, Aragon and Navarre. In 1236, the Castilian king Ferdinand III (Saint) led his army to Cordoba, and twelve years later - to Seville. The Portuguese kingdom expanded almost to its present size, and the king of Aragon conquered Valencia, Alicante, and the Balearic Islands. By the end of the XIII century. only the Caliphate of Cordoba remained on the peninsula, forced to pay tribute to the XIV century. the temporary alliances of the Christian kingdoms fell apart, and each began to pursue its own personal interests. Castile attempted to annex Portugal, but the two-year war ended with the defeat of the Castilian army at Aljubarotta in 1385. Aragon ceded control of Mediterranean trade to Genoa. Only Castile during this period is fully self-sufficient and profits from the wool trade with the Netherlands.

Beginning of the Reconquista

The Muslims were actually unable to establish dominance in the far north of the Iberian Peninsula. In 718, a detachment of Christian warriors under the command of the legendary Visigoth leader Pelayo defeated the Muslim army in the mountain valley of Covadonga.

Gradually moving towards the river Duero, Christians occupied free lands that were not claimed by Muslims. At that time, the border region of Castile was formed (territorium castelle - translated as “land of castles”); It is appropriate to note that as early as the end of the 8th c. Muslim chroniclers called it Al-Qila (castles). In the early stages of the Reconquista, two types of Christian political formations arose, differing in geographical location. The core of the Western type was the kingdom of Asturias, which, after the transfer of the court to Leon in the 10th century. became known as the Kingdom of León. The county of Castile became an independent kingdom in 1035. Two years later, Castile united with the kingdom of León and thereby acquired a leading political role, and with it priority rights to the lands conquered from the Muslims.

In the more eastern regions there were Christian states - the kingdom of Navarre, the county of Aragon, which became a kingdom in 1035, and various counties associated with the kingdom of the Franks. Initially, some of these counties were the embodiment of the Catalan ethno-linguistic community, the central place among them was occupied by the County of Barcelona. Then came the county of Catalonia, which had access to the Mediterranean Sea and conducted a brisk maritime trade, in particular slaves. In 1137 Catalonia joined the kingdom of Aragon. This state in the 13th century. significantly expanded its territory to the south (to Murcia), also adding the Balearic Islands.

In 1085, Alphonse VI, King of Leon and Castile, captured Toledo, and the border with the Muslim world moved from the Duero River to the Tajo River. In 1094 the Castilian national hero Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar, known as Cid, entered Valencia. However, these major achievements were not so much the result of the zeal of the crusaders, but rather the result of the weakness and disunity of the rulers of the taifs (emirates on the territory of the Caliphate of Cordoba). During the Reconquista, it happened that Christians united with Muslim rulers or, having received a large bribe (parias) from the latter, were hired to protect them from the crusaders.

In this sense, the fate of Sid is indicative. He was born ca. 1040 in Bivar (near Burgos). In 1079 King Alphonse VI sent him to Seville to collect tribute from the Muslim ruler. However, shortly after, he did not get along with Alphonse and was exiled. In eastern Spain, he embarked on the path of an adventurer, and it was then that he received the name Sid (derived from the Arabic "seid", i.e. "master"). Sid served such Muslim rulers as the emir of Zaragoza al-Moktadir, and the rulers of Christian states. From 1094 Sid began to rule Valencia. He died in 1099.

Castilian epic Song about my Sid, written ca. 1140, goes back to earlier oral traditions and reliably conveys many historical events. The Song is not a chronicle of the Crusades. Although Sid fights the Muslims, in this epic they are not depicted as villains at all, but the Christian princes of Carrion, courtiers of Alphonse VI, while Sid's Muslim friend and ally, Abengalvon, surpasses them in nobility.

Completion of the Reconquista

Muslim emirs were faced with a choice: either to constantly pay tribute to Christians, or to seek help from fellow believers in North Africa. In the end, the emir of Seville, al-Mutamid, turned for help to the Almoravids, who created a powerful state in North Africa. Alphonse VI managed to keep Toledo, but his army was defeated at Salak (1086); and in 1102, three years after the death of Cid, Valencia also fell.

The Almoravids removed the rulers of the taif from power and at first were able to unite Al-Andalus. But their power weakened in the 1140s, and by the end of the 12th century. they were driven out by the Almohads - the Moors from the Moroccan Atlas. After the Almohads suffered a heavy defeat by the Christians at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212), their power was shaken.

By this time, the mentality of the crusaders was formed, as evidenced by the life path of Alphonse I the Warrior, who ruled Aragon and Navarre from 1102 to 1134. During his reign, when memories of the first crusade were still fresh, most of the p. valley was conquered from the Moors. Ebro, and the French crusaders invaded Spain and took such important cities as Zaragoza (1118), Tarazona (1110) and Calatayud (1120). Although Alphonse was never able to fulfill his dream of marching to Jerusalem, he lived to see the moment when the spiritual and knightly order of the Templars was established in Aragon, and soon the orders of Alcantara, Calatrava and Santiago began their activities in other parts of Spain. These powerful orders were of great help in the fight against the Almohads, holding strategically important points and establishing an economy in a number of border regions.

Throughout the 13th century Christians achieved significant success and undermined the political power of Muslims in almost the entire Iberian Peninsula. King Jaime I of Aragon (r. 1213-1276) conquered the Balearic Islands, and in 1238 Valencia. In 1236, King Ferdinand III of Castile and León took Cordoba, Murcia surrendered to the Castilians in 1243, and in 1247 Ferdinand captured Seville. Only the Muslim Emirate of Granada, which existed until 1492, retained its independence. The reconquista owed its success not only to the military actions of the Christians. The willingness of Christians to negotiate with Muslims and grant them the right to reside in Christian states, while preserving their faith, language and customs, also played an important role. For example, in Valencia, the northern territories were almost completely cleared of Muslims, the central and southern regions, except for the city of Valencia itself, were inhabited mainly by Mudéjars (Muslims who were allowed to stay). But in Andalusia, after a major Muslim uprising in 1264, the policy of the Castilians completely changed, and almost all Muslims were evicted.

From the Spanish epic "Song of my Side" (XII century)

The Spanish heroic epic about Side is dedicated to real events and real people. Its main character is the Spanish knight Rodrigo (Ruy Diaz) (c. 1040-1099), nicknamed by the Arabs Cid (Lord). Ruy Diaz, at the head of a detachment of desperate warriors, successfully fought with the Moors either as a vassal of the Spanish king, or even at his own peril and risk. Sometimes he went to the service and to one of the noble and wealthy Moors. As a result of his campaigns and raids, a significant part of Spain was again under the rule of Christians.

To the sea it became known about Side. With vassals he is in great fun: The Almighty sent him victory. At night, a squad goes on raids with him, Into Guhera with Khativa, she entered with a fight, In the day she broke in, descending to the south. To the sea he plundered the Saracen region, Peña Cadella submitted to him. Peña Cadella submitted to Cid. Xativa groans, Guhera mourns, Valencia is also in immeasurable grief. So, plundering enemies, ruining the whole region, Sleeping during the day, raiding at night, Taking cities, he lived for three years. My Sid taught the Valencians a lesson: Do not leave them from the gates of the city. He cut down their gardens, he repairs them. It interferes with the delivery of bread to the city. Valencians in grief: what should they do? Do not bring bread from any side. Neither a father's son, nor a parent's son, nor a friend will teach how to be. It's a bad thing, gentlemen, if there is no food, If wives and children die of hunger. The Valencians do not know how to save themselves. They send a message to the King of Morocco, But he has no strength to help them - He must wage a war for the Atlas. Glad Campeador * this news was ... He ordered that in Casgilla they called a cry: He who wants to be rich, not beggar, Let him hasten to join Campeador - he decided to master Valencia. “Whoever wants to go to Valencia with us Of good will - I don’t need others, - I’m waiting for those in the Selfish Gorge for three days.” Said this Campeador, Returned to Murviedro, which is subdued by him. Everywhere his cry is spread by rumor. Hearing how generous and successful he is, Christians flock to him in droves. There are rumors all over the place about him. Who joined him, he will not leave. My Cid de Bivar * is getting richer in the treasury. He is glad that his army is growing, He does not hesitate, he leads it into the field. Valencia was taken by a Bivarian in the ring, Approaches were taken from all sides, Mavram cut off both the exit and the entrance, The Valencians gave him a rebuff Nine months exactly - a considerable period. The tenth came - their army surrendered. Great merriment reigned all around, When Sid entered Valencia. The one who has been on foot until now has become an equestrian. All got hold of gold and silver. Anyone became rich there. My Sid took a fifth of everything - Thirty thousand marks he had, And who knows the rest of the booty? My Sid rejoices, that in a good hour he was born: His banner soared over alysasar*... The exiles* are rich, happy with everyone, All are generously exacted by Campeador, Homes and lands are given to anyone. Pays my Sid, not skimping at all, Even those who came to Valencia later. But my Sid sees: everyone wants to leave And take their prey with them. On the advice of Minaya*, he gave the order: Kohl, without kissing his hands, go home without asking Someone will leave and be caught, Let them take away all the good from such, They will impale mercilessly and immediately. My Sid arranged all the affairs as it should, Called Minaya, so he said to him: “If you agree, I want to know, How much wealth was given to me. Let all people be rewritten according to the account, And if anyone wants to run away, Let them take away what he has acquired And give it to those who did not leave the city. "Here is a wise order" - Minaya approved. My Sid called the squad to the gathering, He ordered to count the fighters who came. There were thirty-six hundred in all. My Sid smiled - and he is glad and proud. “Glorified is our Lord forever and ever! Not so many of us left Biwar. We are rich, and we will become richer still. I'll send you, Minaya, if you don't mind, I'll send you to Castile: we have a house there, There is our lord, King Don Alphonse. From what we managed to get here, Take a hundred horses with you as a gift to him. Kiss his hands for me, Ask him to allow me to take my wife and children away from here. Tell me that I will send for the family, That Doni Ximena, Elvira and Sol With great honor and great honor Will be delivered to the land that is subdued by me. Minaya answered: "I will fulfill everything." And began to gather without further ado. The ambassador took a hundred soldiers with him, To know neither worries nor anxieties on the way ... While my Sid was having fun with the squad, A worthy cleric came to them from the east, Bishop Jerome, the Lord's servant, Reasonable and versed in the wisdom of the book, Brave and on foot and on horseback. He heard a lot about the exploits of Sid And longed to measure his strength with the Moors: Let him only grapple with them - Christians would never shed tears. My Sid Ruy Diaz was very happy with him. “For God's sake, Minaya, listen to me. In gratitude to the Creator for the great mercy of the Diocese here on the land of Valencia For Don Jerome, I decided to establish, And you deliver this message to Castile. Minaya liked Sid's speech. The bishop's table was occupied by Jérôme. He received land, lived in abundance. O God, how glad all Christians are that a bishop in Valencia has been appointed to them!

(Campeador ("warrior") - the nickname of Cid. )

(Bivar is the name of Cid's castle. )

(Alcazar - in Spain the name of the city's citadel, the Kremlin. )

(Cid and his vassals were expelled from Castile by King Alphonse VI, but later forgiven for victories over the Moors. )

1. Muslim Spain. In the middle of the 8th century, the Arab possessions in Spain separated from the caliphate and formed an emirate with a center in Cordoba. From the 10th century, the ruler of the Muslim possessions in Spain - Andalusia - bore the title of caliph. Christians called the Arabs and Berbers who lived in Spain Moors: after all, the conquerors came from a region in North Africa - Mauritania.

Muslim Spain was a prosperous part of Europe. A network of irrigation canals in the south of the peninsula made it possible to increase the yields of grain and grapes. Large flocks of sheep were bred on the plateau. Most of the Moors settled in cities, the number of which reached four hundred. Cordoba, one of the most beautiful cities in the world, had up to half a million inhabitants. Andalusia was famous for its silk and woolen fabrics, metal, leather and glassware. Possessing a large fleet, she actively traded with Africa, the Baghdad Caliphate, Italy, and Byzantium.

The Moors at first did not prevent the local population of Spain from practicing their religion. In Andalusia, the descendants of the Basques and other inhabitants of the former Roman province, the Visigoths, Arabs, Berbers, and Jews got along side by side. There were many Christians here who converted to Islam, but there were also those who, having retained the Christian faith, adopted the Arabic language, clothes, and some customs.

2. Reconquista. Immediately after the conquest of Spain by the Moors, the Reconquista began - the reverse reconquest of the occupied territory. The reconquista lasted for about eight centuries.

Gentlemen during the Reconquista received new lands and positions in the reclaimed territory. Peasants, participating in wars, acquired not only land, but also personal freedom. Cities newly founded or recaptured from the Moors sought self-government and various rights. All participants in the wars with the Moors dreamed of capturing rich booty. In addition to the indigenous inhabitants of the peninsula, French and Italian knights sometimes participated in the Reconquista. The popes have repeatedly called on Christians to crusade against Muslims in Spain.

During the Reconquista, in the north of the Iberian Peninsula, the kingdoms of Castile (in translation - "Land of castles"), Aragon, and Navarre were formed in the Pyrenees. In the west of the peninsula, the kingdom of Portugal emerged from Castile.

Around 1030, the Caliphate of Cordoba broke up into dozens of independent principalities. From the middle of the 11th to the middle of the 13th century, the greatest successes were achieved in the Reconquista. Weakened by internecine wars, Muslim principalities became easy prey for Christian rulers. At the end of the 11th century, Christians occupied the city of Toledo and soon transferred the capital of the Kingdom of Castile to it. Later, Aragon took possession of the large Muslim center of Zaragoza, and the Portuguese took Lisbon and made it their capital. The reconquista did not take place gradually, but rather in leaps and bounds. It was slowed down by hostility between Christian sovereigns, it was hampered by the invasion of fanatical adherents of Islam - the warlike Berber tribes from North Africa. The Berbers inflicted heavy defeats on the Christians, but they also failed to unite the warring Muslim emirs. The pressure of Christians to the south was growing.

In 1212, the combined forces of Castile and other Christian states of the peninsula crushed the Moorish troops in the battle near the village of Las Navas de Tolosa. The forces of the Moors in Spain were finally undermined. In the following decades, Castile occupied the largest Muslim principalities with centers in Cordoba, Seville and others. Aragon asserted its power in the Balearic Islands, the islands of Sicily and Sardinia, and later in southern Italy. The Moors had only a rich region in the south - the Emirate of Granada.

3. The life of the Jews in Spain. Many Jews have lived in the Pyrenees since Roman times. In Muslim Spain, one of the centers of Jewish culture of the Middle Ages arose. The Jews were farmers, artisans, merchants, and the most educated participated in the government of the country: they carried out trade and diplomatic missions, served as doctors, ambassadors, and were in charge of collecting taxes. But from the 12th century, after the invasions of the fanatical Berbers, Jews began to be forced to convert to Islam. Many Jews, not wanting to give up the faith of their ancestors, fled north to the Christians.

The attitude towards Jews in Christian Spain for a long time was much better than in other countries. But from the end of the XIV century, when the Reconquista was nearing completion, the persecution and persecution of the Jews began. They were given a choice: baptism or death. Many were martyred for the sake of their faith, others chose to convert to Christianity, hoping to ride out the storm and return to their faith in the future. The baptized Jews were not recognized, however, as equal in rights with Christians.

4. Formation of the Spanish kingdom. The states that emerged on the Iberian Peninsula were estate monarchies. At first, in Castile, the kings convened the highest secular and ecclesiastical nobility for advice. Later, representatives of the townspeople and even free peasants were invited to meetings. Thus arose a meeting of representatives of the estates - the Cortes (from the word "court" - the royal court). The Cortes in Castile, like the Estates General in France, were divided into three chambers. The Cortes approved new taxes and participated in the issuance of laws. Class institutions also arose in other kingdoms in the Iberian Peninsula. But the Castilian Cortes were the first parliament in Europe with the participation of peasants.

After the decisive successes of the Reconquista, protracted internecine wars began between the Christian states. Only at the end of the 15th century did the last stage in the unification of the country begin. In 1479, under the rule of the married couple Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon, the two states united into a single Spanish kingdom. Navarre was divided between Aragon and France. Now the time has come for the complete expulsion of the Moors from Spain.

In 1492, after a 10-year war, the troops of Ferdinand and Isabella took Granada. Two Christian kingdoms remained on the territory of the Iberian Peninsula - Spain and Portugal.

5. The introduction of the Inquisition in Spain. The reconquista was carried out under the slogan of the struggle of Christians against Islam. The Moors surrendered Granada on the condition that they and the Jews retain their property and faith. But these promises were not kept. Many Muslims and Jews had to move to North Africa. A significant part of the merchants and artisans left Spain, which turned out to be a heavy loss for the country.

It was not for nothing that Ferdinand and Isabella called themselves "Catholic Kings": they wished to make Spain a purely Christian country. The Moors and Jews who remained in Spain, who were forced to accept baptism, were constantly monitored: the church sought to convict them of apostasy from the true faith, to accuse them of heresy and witchcraft.

To eradicate heretics in Spain, the Inquisition was established. It was led by the fierce and merciless Thomas Torquemada, invested with the title of "Grand Inquisitor". For 10 years, while Torquemada was at the head of the Inquisition, thousands of people were burned at the stake, even more were tortured and kept in prisons. The execution of heretics in Spain was called auto-da-fé ("a matter of faith"). It was held as a church holiday: a fire burned in the city square, with a large gathering of people, nobility and warriors. Sometimes dozens of innocent people were burned at the same time. Manuals appeared on the exposure of witches, sorcerers and heretics, at the University of Toledo they specially studied "demonology".

Immediately after the capture of Granada, the king and queen issued a decree for the expulsion of all Jews from the Spanish kingdom. 120 thousand people had to leave the country within three months. Leaving their homes and property, the exiles went to Muslim countries, to the Spanish colonies in America or to the Netherlands.

Reconquista and the formation of centralized states in the Iberian Peninsula

1. Muslim Spain. In the middle of the 8th century, the Arab possessions in Spain separated from the caliphate and formed an emirate with its center in Cordoba. From the 10th century, the ruler of the Muslim possessions in Spain - Andalusia - bore the title of caliph. Christians called the Arabs and Berbers who lived in Spain Moors: after all, the conquerors came from a region in North Africa - Mauritania.

At first, the Moors did not interfere with the local population of Spain from practicing their religion. In Andalusia, the descendants of the Basques and other inhabitants of the former Roman province, the Visigoths, Arabs, Berbers, and Jews got along side by side. There were many Christians here who converted to Islam, but there were also those who, having retained the Christian faith, adopted the Arabic language, clothes, and some customs.

2. Reconquista. Immediately after the conquest of Spain by the Moors, the Reconquista began - the reverse reconquest of the occupied territory. The reconquista lasted for about eight centuries.

During the Reconquista, in the north of the Iberian Peninsula, the kingdoms of Castile (in translation - ʼʼLand of castlesʼʼ), Aragon, and Navarre were formed in the Iberian mountains. In the west of the peninsula, the kingdom of Portugal emerged from Castile.

4. Formation of the Spanish kingdom. The states that emerged on the Iberian Peninsula were estate monarchies. At first, in Castile, the kings convened the highest secular and ecclesiastical nobility for advice. Later, representatives of the townspeople and even free peasants began to be invited to meetings. Thus arose a meeting of representatives of the estates - the Cortes (from the word ʼʼ courtʼʼ - the royal court). The Cortes in Castile, like the Estates General in France, were divided into three chambers. The Cortes approved new taxes and participated in the issuance of laws. Class institutions also arose in other kingdoms in the Iberian Peninsula. But the Castilian Cortes were the first parliament in Europe with the participation of peasants.

In 1492, after a 10-year war, the troops of Ferdinand and Isabella took Granada. Two Christian kingdoms remained on the territory of the Iberian Peninsula - Spain and Portugal.

To eradicate heretics in Spain, the Inquisition was established. It was led by the ferocious and merciless Thomas Torquemada, invested with the title of ʼʼGrand Inquisitorʼʼ. For 10 years, while Torquemada was at the head of the Inquisition, thousands of people were burned at the stake, even more were tortured and kept in prisons. The execution of heretics in Spain was called auto-da-fe (ʼʼa matter of faithʼʼ). It was held as a church holiday: a fire burned in the city square, with a large gathering of people, nobility and warriors. Sometimes dozens of innocent people were burned at the same time. Manuals appeared on exposing witches, sorcerers and heretics, at the University of Toledo they specially studied ʼʼdemonologyʼʼ.

Immediately after the capture of Granada, the king and queen issued a decree on the expulsion of all Jews from the Spanish kingdom. 120 thousand people had to leave the country within three months. Leaving their homes and property, the exiles went to Muslim countries, to the Spanish colonies in America or to the Netherlands.

Reconquista and the formation of centralized states in the Iberian Peninsula - the concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Reconquista and the formation of centralized states in the Iberian Peninsula" 2017, 2018.

What is a reconquista? This term is called the long reconquest by Christians of their territories captured by Muslim Moors. The meaning of the word "Reconquista" is very simple, the term itself is translated from Spanish as reconquest.

Reconquista: reasons

The reconquista began immediately after the conquest of the Pyrenees by the Arab tribes (first half of the 8th century) and went on with varying degrees of success. Feudal strife provoked Christian monarchs into wars with each other and their vassals, as well as into temporary alliances with Islamic conquerors.

During the crusades, the war against the Muslim Moors was akin to a struggle for all of Christianity as a whole. (Templars, etc.) were originally created to fight the Moors, and the Popes of Rome called on the knights of Europe to fight for the liberation of the Iberian Peninsula.

Beginning of the Reconquista

After the Moors conquered most of the Pyrenees, most of the Visigothic aristocrats chose to remain in the conquered lands. An example is the sons of the ruler of Vititsa. They received from the Arab authorities the fertile lands of the Visigothic crown as personal property. However, the faithful parts of the Visigoth army, a significant part of the aristocrats and clergy who did not agree to remain in the occupied territory, retreated to Asturias. There they subsequently created the kingdom of the same name. In the summer of 718, the influential Visigoth Pelayo (probably a former guard of King Roderic), who was held hostage in the city of Cordoba, returned to Asturias and was elected the first king of the newly-made kingdom. The election took place at the Fura Field. After receiving news of the meetings at the Fura Field, the Viceroy of Munus sent word of this to the Emir of Andalusia.

However, only in 722 a detachment led by Alcamo arrived in Asturias. The Seville Bishop Oppa was also with the punishers. He was supposed to provoke Peylo to show himself to Alcamo by moving into the Lucus Asturum. From this place, the Arabs broke into the valley of Covadonga, looking for Christians. But in the gorge, Alcamo's detachment was ambushed and defeated. The leader himself was killed.

When the news of the death of the Alcamo detachment reached the Berber governor Munusa, he left the city of Gijón and advanced towards Pelayo with his detachment. The battle took place near the village of Olalya. Munusa's troops were completely destroyed, and he himself was killed. Answering the question about what the Reconquista is, what are its causes, it is impossible not to mention this event, because it was it that served as its beginning.

Formation of the Pyrenean states

After the successful start of the Reconquista of Asturias at the beginning of the 10th century. expanded its borders and became the kingdom of León. In the same century, another state emerged from it - the kingdom of Castile. A little later they teamed up. At the turn of the 8th-9th centuries, the successful campaigns of the Franks made it possible to create a Spanish brand in the northeast of the Pyrenees with its capital in Barcelona. In the ninth century Navarre stood out from it, and a little later - the countries of Aragon and Catalonia. In 1137, they united in the west of the Pyrenees, the County of Portugal was created, which later also became a kingdom.

The political situation at the turn of the XII-XIII centuries

During this period, the Christian powers were able to win back a significant part of the Pyrenees from the Arabs. Their victory over the Caliphate, which was more developed from an economic point of view, can be partly explained by the fact that the Arab state at the beginning of the 11th century turned into almost two dozen warring provinces (emirates). But this was not the main reason for the success. The Christian countries in the Pyrenees also fought among themselves, and attracted the Moors to their side. However, the Christians proved to be more united and also militarily strong.

The position of Christians under Arab rule

For the Arabs, the Christian population became the object of merciless exploitation. The vanquished remained in the position of semi-slaves. Even Christians who converted to Islam or adopted Arabic customs were considered inferior people. The original religious tolerance of the Moors disappeared without a trace. Gradually, it was replaced by an ardent one and became the cause of many Christian uprisings that undermined the forces of the Caliphate.

Reasons for the success of the Reconquista

What is the Reconquista? This question can now be answered more fully. A common enemy and oppressor rallied the Christians. Therefore, the Reconquista took on the character of a liberation movement, despite the military colonization plans of the Christian kings and the enmity between Aragon and Castile, as well as the feudal lords with each other. At the decisive moment, the Christians rallied. The peasantry had its own incentive to win this war. In the conquered territories, they could receive not only land, but also freedom from feudal lords, recorded in letters and charters (fueros). Therefore, the Christians opposed the Moors as a unit. In addition to the Spaniards, European knights (mainly Italian and French) took part in the liberation of the Pyrenees from the Moors. Therefore, the question "what is the Reconquista" can be answered as follows: it is an international Christian liberation movement. many times declared these liberation campaigns "crusades".

Continuation of the Reconquista

In 1085, the Spaniards took Toledo by storm. This victory was very important. At the same time, exhausted by the internecine war, the Arabs asked for help from the African Berbers. The united Mauritanian army was able to defeat the Spaniards, which slowed down the Reconquista for a while. Soon (mid-12th century) the North African Berbers were replaced by other conquerors - the Moroccan Almohads. However, they could not unite the emirates of the Pyrenees. Ask any Spaniard what is the Reconquista? The definition of this term is known to both old and young. This is the struggle of the oppressed against the oppressors, one faith against another - the war of rulers and cultures.

Reconquista victory

In 1212, the combined forces of Navarre, Aragon, Portugal and Castile defeated the Moors at Las Navas de Tolosa. After this defeat, the Arabs could not recover. In 1236, the Castilians took Cordoba, in 1248 - Seville. Aragon captured the Balearic Islands. Castile retook Cadiz in 1262 and went to the Atlantic Ocean. Valencia fell in 1238. By the turn of the XIV century. the Moors owned only - a rich province in the south of the Pyrenees. The Arabs held out in this territory until 1492.

Conclusion

Above it was told what the Reconquista is. According to history, the conquest of lands was accompanied by their assignment to the winner and settlement. Citizens and petty knights played a big role in the Reconquista. However, the main benefits from the war were large feudal lords. They created large holdings on the annexed lands.

2. Reconquista. Immediately after the conquest of Spain by the Moors, the Reconquista began - the reverse reconquest of the occupied territory. The reconquista lasted for about eight centuries.

In 1492, after a 10-year war, the troops of Ferdinand and Isabella took Granada. Two Christian kingdoms remained on the territory of the Iberian Peninsula - Spain and Portugal.