The most famous thinker of ancient China. Confucius - a genius, a great thinker and philosopher of Ancient China

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Philosophy of Ancient China - the most important briefly. Confucianism briefly and Taoism. This is another topic from a series of articles on philosophy. In a previous post, we reviewed together. Now let's turn to ancient Chinese philosophy.

Philosophy of Ancient China

Philosophy in China began to develop in the fifth century BC, when society began to stratify along economic lines and a class of wealthy city dwellers and an extremely poor class of village dwellers arose. As well as a class of officials who own not only money, but also land.

The philosophy of Ancient China is based on the principle of the trinity of the Universe represented by Earth, Sky and Man. The Universe is an energy ("Ci"), divided into the feminine and the masculine - yin and yang.

The philosophy of ancient China has a mythological-religious origin in the same way as the philosophy of ancient India. Its main characters were spirits and gods. The world was understood as the interaction of 2 principles - male and female.

It was believed that at the moment of creation the Universe was a chaos and there was no division into Earth and Sky. Chaos was ordered and divided into Earth and Sky by two born spirits - yin (the patron of the Earth) and yang (the patron of Heaven).

4 Concepts of Chinese Philosophical Thinking

• Holism- is expressed in the harmony of man with the world.
• Intuitiveness- the earthly essence can be known only through intuitive insight.
• Symbolism- the use of images as tools for thinking.
• Tiyan- the fullness of the macrocosm can be comprehended only by emotional experience, moral awareness, volitional impulses.

Confucianism

Confucianism - the main ideas briefly. This philosophical school was created by Confucius, who lived in the 6th-5th centuries BC. During this period, China was torn apart by turmoil and the struggle for power between senior officials and the emperor. The country was plunged into chaos and civil strife.

This philosophical direction reflected the idea of ​​changing chaos and ensuring order and prosperity in society. Confucius believed that the main occupation of a person in life should be the pursuit of harmony and observance of moral rules.

The main part of the philosophy of Confucianism is considered human life. It is necessary to educate a person and only then do everything else. It is necessary to devote a lot of time to the soul of people, and as a result of such education, the whole society and political life will be in harmonious interaction with each other and there will be neither chaos nor wars.

Taoism

Taoism is considered one of the most important philosophies in China. Its founder is Lao Tzu. According to the philosophy of Taoism, Tao is the law of nature that governs everything and everyone, from one person to all things. A person, if he wants to be happy, must follow this path and be in harmony with the entire Universe. If everyone observes the principle of the Tao, it will lead to freedom and prosperity.

The basic idea of ​​Taoism (basic category) is non-action. If a person observes the Tao, then he can completely follow non-action. Lao denied the effort of one person and society in relation to nature, since this only leads to chaos and an increase in tension in the world.

If someone wants to rule the world, then he will inevitably lose and doom himself to defeat and oblivion. That is why non-action should serve as the most important principle of life, as soon as it is able to give freedom and happiness to a person.

Legalism

Xun Tzu is considered its founder. According to his ideas, ethics is needed in order to keep everything bad that is in human essence under control. His follower Han-Fei went further and argued that the basis of everything should be a totalitarian political philosophy, which is based on the main principle - a person is an evil being and seeks to benefit everywhere and avoid punishment before the law. In legalism, the most important idea was the idea of ​​order, which should determine the social order. There is nothing above it.

Moism

Its founder Mozi (470-390 BC). He believed that the most basic should be the idea of ​​love and equality of all living things. According to his beliefs, people need to be told which traditions are the best. It is necessary to strive for the good of everyone, and power is a tool for this, and should encourage behavior that benefits as many people as possible.

Philosophy of Ancient China - the most important briefly. VIDEO

Ideas of Confucianism briefly. VIDEO

Taoism. Key ideas and principles in 1 minute. VIDEO.

Summary

I think the article “Philosophy of Ancient China is the most important thing. Confucianism and Taoism in brief” has become useful for you. Did you know:

• about the main schools of ancient Chinese philosophy;
• about the 4 main concepts of the philosophy of Ancient China;
• about the main ideas and principles of Confucianism and Taoism.

I wish you all always a positive attitude for all your projects and plans!

Introduction

1. Thinkers of Ancient China

Three Great Thinkers of Ancient China

2.1 Lao Tzu

2 Confucius

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

China is a country of ancient history, culture and philosophy.

Ancient China arose on the basis of Neolithic cultures that developed in the 5th-3rd millennium BC. in the middle reaches of the Yellow River. The Yellow River basin became the main territory for the formation of the ancient civilization of China, which for a long time developed in conditions of relative isolation. Only from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. the process of expanding the territory begins, in a southerly direction, first to the Yangtze basin area, and then further south.

On the verge of our era, the state of Ancient China goes far beyond the Huang He basin, although the northern border, the ethnic territory of the ancient Chinese, remains almost unchanged.

The ancient Chinese class society and statehood formed somewhat later than the ancient civilizations of Ancient Western Asia, but nevertheless, after their emergence, they begin to develop at a fairly rapid pace and in Ancient China high forms of economic, political and cultural life are created, which lead to the folding of the original socio-political and cultural system.

Chinese philosophy is part of Eastern philosophy. Its influence on the cultures of China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam and Taiwan is equivalent to the influence of ancient Greek philosophy on Europe. Thus, the relevance of the topic lies in the fact that the thinkers of Ancient China left their mark on history, whose experience is currently being used.

The purpose of this work: to study the greatest thinkers of Ancient China and characterize the main provisions of their teachings.

. Thinkers of Ancient China

The religions of China have never existed in the form of a rigidly centralized "church". The traditional religion of ancient China was a mixture of local beliefs and ceremonies, united into a single whole by the universal theoretical constructions of pundits.

However, among both the educated classes and the peasantry, the three great philosophical schools, often referred to as the three religions of China, gained the greatest popularity: Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. All these teachings are more philosophical than religious, in contrast to ancient Indian philosophy, which has always been closely associated with religious tradition.

Ancient Chinese philosophy arose around the middle of the 1st millennium BC. The ideas that formed the basis of philosophy were formed in the monuments of the ancient Chinese literary tradition, such as the Shu Jing (Book of Documentary Writings), Shi Jing (Book of Poems), and I Ching (Book of Changes).

Ancient Chinese philosophy is characterized by features that are not characteristic of other Eastern philosophical traditions. It must be said that the ancient Chinese had no idea about the transcendental God, about the creation of the world by God from nothing, they had no idea about the dualism of the ideal and material principles of the world. In ancient China, there were no traditional ideas for the West, India, and the Middle East about the soul as some kind of non-material substance that separates from the body after death. Although ideas about the spirits of ancestors existed.

At the heart of the Chinese worldview are ideas about qi. Qi is understood as a kind of vital energy that permeates absolutely everything in the world. Everything in the world is transformations of Qi.

Qi is a kind of quasi-material substance that cannot be defined only as material or spiritual.

Matter and spirit are inseparable, they are consubstantial and mutually reducible, that is, spirit and matter are in a state of constant mutual transition.

At the heart of existence is the Primordial Qi (Boundless, Chaos, One), which is polarized into two parts - yang (positive) and yin (negative). Yang and Yin are interchangeable. Their transition constitutes the great Tao-path.

The negative potentially contains the positive and vice versa. Thus, the power of Yang reaches its limit and passes into Yin and vice versa. This position is called the Great Limit and is depicted graphically as a "Monad".

Considering everything that exists as a unity of opposite principles, Chinese thinkers explained the endless process of movement by their dialectical interaction. Filling the Universe, generating and preserving life, these primary substances or forces determine the essence of the Five Elements: Metal, Wood, Water, Fire and Earth.

Actually, these ideas underlie ancient Chinese philosophy and are supported by all Chinese thinkers, with some differences in interpretation.

Differences between Chinese and Western philosophy: integral (holic) perception instead of analytical and cyclical processes instead of their static, linearity. Three of the greatest thinkers of ancient China, to whom we will pay the most attention in the next chapter:

Lao Tzu- covered with a halo of mystery;

Confucius- revered by all;

Mo Tzu- now little known, who, however, more than four centuries before the birth of Christ formulated the concept of universal love.

Acquaintance with the views of these thinkers is facilitated by the fact that there are three texts directly related to their names.

2. The Three Greatest Thinkers of Ancient China

.1 Lao Tzu

Lao Tzu - a nickname meaning "old teacher" - the great sage of Ancient China, who laid the foundations of Taoism - the direction of Chinese thought that has come down to our days. Approximately, the life of Lao Tzu is attributed to the 7th-6th centuries BC. He is considered the author of the main treatise of Taoism, the Tao Te Ching, which has become the most popular test of ancient Chinese philosophy in the West.

Little is known about the life of this sage, and the authenticity of the available information is often criticized by scientists. But it is known that he was the keeper of the imperial archive of the Zhou court - the greatest book depository of Ancient China. Therefore, Lao Tzu had free access to various ancient and contemporary texts, which allowed him to develop his own teaching.

The fame of this sage went throughout the Celestial Empire, so when he decided to leave the kingdom of Zhou, he was stopped at the outpost and asked to leave his teaching in writing for his kingdom. Lao Tzu compiled the treatise "Tao Te Ching", which translates as "The Canon of the Way and Grace." The entire treatise speaks of the category of Tao.

Tao means "The Way" in Chinese. According to Lao Tzu, Tao underlies the world and the world realizes Tao. Everything in the world is Tao. Tao is inexpressible, it can be comprehensible, but not verbally. Lao Tzu wrote: "The Tao that can be expressed in words is not a permanent Tao." The doctrine of Tao is closely connected with the doctrine of the mutual transition of opposites.

Lao Tzu, who lived earlier than two other great Chinese thinkers (VI-V centuries BC), is not easy to understand, not only because his basic concept of “tao” is very ambiguous: it is both “the main thing over many things” and “mother earth and sky”, “the fundamental principle of the world”, and “root”, and “path”; but also because in comprehending this concept we do not have the opportunity (as, for example, in ancient Indian and other cultures) to rely on any mythological images that would facilitate assimilation. Tao is as vague in Lao Tzu as the concept of Heaven in all Chinese culture.

Tao is the source of all things and the basis of the functioning of being. One of the definitions of Tao is "root". The root is underground, it is not visible, but it exists before the plant that emerges from it. Just as primary is the invisible Tao, from which the whole world is produced.

Tao is also understood as a natural law of the development of nature. The main meaning of the hieroglyph "tao" is "the road along which people walk." Tao is the path that people follow in this life, and not just something outside of it. A person who does not know the way is doomed to delusion, he is lost.

Tao can also be interpreted as unity with nature through subordination to the same laws. "The path of a noble man begins among men and women, but its deep principles exist in nature." As soon as this universal law exists, there is no need for any moral law - either in the natural law of karma or in the artificial law of human society.

The proximity of Taoism to the emerging new understanding of nature is pointed out by ecologists. Laozi advises adapting to natural cycles, points to self-movement in nature and the importance of balance, and perhaps the concept of "tao" is a prototype of modern ideas about cosmic information belts.

Tao is sought in oneself. “He who knows himself, he will be able to find out [the essence of things], and whoever knows people, he is able to do things.” To know the Tao, one must free oneself from one's own passions. The one who knows the Tao achieves "natural balance", because all opposites harmonize and achieve self-satisfaction.

The Tao desires nothing and strives for nothing. People should do the same. Everything natural happens as if by itself, without much effort of the individual. The natural course is opposed to the artificial activity of a person pursuing his selfish, selfish goals. Such activity is reprehensible, therefore the main principle of Lao Tzu is not an act (wuwei) - "non-intervention", "non-resistance". Wuwei is not passivity, but rather non-resistance

The Chinese tradition, unlike the Indian one, is least of all connected with religion. The efforts of the Chinese, their abilities and work were focused on earthly life, on the desire to realize themselves in this world. Such features of Chinese culture as sobriety, rationalism, stability, high appreciation of life, love for a clear organization and order determined the specific features of ancient Chinese philosophy.

Ancient Chinese philosophy is, first of all, practical philosophy. It is addressed to the practice of today, to the earthly, and not to the other world life. Unlike the Indians, the Chinese were keenly interested in socio-political problems. At the center of the reflections of the philosophers of ancient China were the issues of government and ethics.

Ancient Chinese philosophy is naturalistic philosophy. Naturalism manifested itself, first of all, in the fact that traditional Chinese thought had an orientation towards the natural course of things. It lacked ideas of purely spiritual entities. This circumstance was also associated with the lack of development of formal logic in Ancient China.

The beginning of ancient Chinese philosophy was laid by comments on one of the earliest literary monuments of Ancient China - The Book of Changes (I Ching).

The ancient Chinese believed in an unbiased higher regulatory force - tian which establishes a sacred social order in accordance with the cosmic order of Heaven. To find out the desire of Heaven, what awaits a person in the future, the Chinese turned to soothsayers. The same in their predictions were guided trigrams which were built using two lines (solid and broken), symbolizing the duality of cosmic forces. The trigrams formed the basis of the Book of Changes. However, this book was used not only as a practical guide to predictions. It laid the foundations of the doctrine, which was accepted by the ancient Chinese philosophers.

The dual cosmic forces "The Book of Changes" calls yang and yin: yang is indicated by a solid line (-), and yin is indicated by a broken line (- -). These concepts replaced such more ancient designations of the forces of the cosmos as heaven and earth, sun and moon, etc.

Jan - positive, masculine, active, bright, solid beginning. yin - negative, feminine, passive, dark, soft beginning. The Book of Changes describes yang and yin as forces that perpetuate the universe through an endless chain of transformations. The interaction of yang and yin is determined by the Tao. Dao (Higher Path) represents the natural order, the highest degree of organization of nature and at the same time the path that a person must go through in his life.

Those who have aligned their lives with the rhythms of the yin-yang Tao live happily ever after. Those who shied away from this doomed themselves to misfortune and premature death. Those who lived in harmony with nature accumulated a large amount qi - the life force that periodically fills the universe. The accumulation of this force leads to an increase de - virtues. Not only a person could possess De, birds and animals, plants and stones could have it. For example, it was believed that the tortoise has a large amount of de and lives for a long time, and the pine tree is a repository of de and does not fade.

It has also been argued that de forms a link between the dead and the living. Members of the ruling class have a large supply of de, which they have inherited from their ancestors and which they will pass on to their descendants. After the death of a person, one of his soul - on- remains in the body until its decomposition, and the other - hun- rises to heaven and feeds on the sacrifices that are made by descendants so that the de of the ancestors does not decrease. At the same time, the descendants are guided whether (rituals, ceremonies), that is, established rules of conduct.

Ordinary people did not have an ancestor cult, so they had a small amount of de. Their behavior is guided by su (customs). The most important thing for them is not to violate the customs of the natural order, to maintain constant contact with the forces of nature. Su received expression in seasonal holidays, on which the spirits of the earth, mountains, rivers were appeased.

Many concepts from the Book of Changes have become common to all areas of traditional Chinese philosophy.

Ancient Chinese philosophy during its heyday, in the VI-III centuries. BC, was represented by many schools competing with each other ( Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism, Mohism, natural philosophy school, school of names and etc.). In a later period, only two of these schools survived as independent schools - Taoism and Confucianism. At the beginning of a new era, Buddhism, which came from India, was added to them. As a result, the so-called "triad of teachings" was gradually formed, which has existed in China up to the present time.

The concept of Tao gave its name to the school Taoism. Moreover, the ancient Taoists themselves did not call their teaching that way. This name appeared later in

Lao Tzu (604-531 BC) is an ancient Chinese philosopher. His real name is Li Er. He was nicknamed the Elderly Baby (Lao Tzu), because, according to legend, his mother carried him in her womb for 81 years, and he was already born a wise old man. There is no reliable information about his life. It is believed that he served as an archivist at the Zhou court and met with Confucius. Leaving China forever, he left with the head of the frontier outpost an exposition of his teaching called " Tao Te Ching"("The Higher Path and its Good Power"). Lao Tzu is considered the founder of Taoism, which has become both a philosophical school and a religion.

historical writings to denote the philosophy of the Tao Way, the founder of which was Lao Tzu.

Lao Tzu understood Tao as the highest first principle and first cause of the world and called it "the mother of all things." He spoke of Tao as generating things and as "nourishing" them, denoting the latter with the concept of "de" (good power). At the same time, Tao does not interfere with the natural course of things, giving them the opportunity to develop in a predetermined order. Lao Tzu expressed this idea as follows: "The Tao does nothing, but nothing is left undone."

Departure from Tao violates the original simplicity of the naturalness of being. Lao Tzu contrasted naturalness with an artificial human society. In his opinion, the labor activity of a person led him to a contradiction with the world, alienated him from nature. Inaction, the Taoist thinker put above action and preached the principle of "doing nothing" ("wu-wei") , following which always brings peace. People's commitment to knowledge and the creation of social institutions (families, states) interfere with the Tao and give rise to all sorts of misfortunes. Lao Tzu advocated a return to a golden age, when there was no arbitrary division into good and bad, since people lived in perfect harmony, did not interfere in the natural course of things, and did not know such concepts as good and evil.

The principle of "non-action" does not express passive inaction, but following the natural order of things, agreement with one's own inner nature and implies non-interference in the nature of everything that exists, refusal to remake, rebuild the world. This principle acts like water flowing over stones in its path. According to a prominent representative of Taoism Chuang Tzu(c. 369 - 286 BC), the wu-wei mind flows like water, reflects like a mirror, and repeats like an echo. The true way of human life is to fit into the world, and not to break the established order in it.

Thus, “non-action” aims at a sensitive, careful attitude to nature, which is especially important today, when violations of ecological cycles and balance in nature are obvious. Nature, according to Taoism, does not exist to be studied and remade, but to be experienced, to derive pleasure from communicating with it, to live in harmony with it.

Lao Tzu extended the wu-wei principle to the field of social phenomena, noting that when the government is active, people become unhappy. He considered such a ruler to be wise, who does not interfere in anything and allows everything to take its course, in a natural way. So "The best ruler is the one about whom the people know only that he exists."

In the natural unity of man with nature, the Taoists saw the guarantee of a serene and happy life. Solving the problem of how to live better, they developed the doctrine of zhi. Zhi (literally: "breath") is a special kind of energy that flows through each person. A person must free himself from everything that pollutes and weakens zhi, first of all, from vanity. The way in which one can experience zhi in oneself is through meditation, during which any thought of personal aspirations and emotions should be banished.

Some of the Taoists tried, completely immersed in contemplation, to achieve unity with the primitive forces of nature. Others preferred witchcraft and magic to meditation, as well as such elements of the yogi system as food restriction, physical and breathing exercises. Their goal was to achieve longevity and physical immortality. They conducted alchemical experiments on the invention of the elixir of life, were engaged in astrology and geomancy. As a result, the Taoists made a significant contribution to the development of science. Alchemy led to the invention of gunpowder, and geomancy led to the compass.

In the second half of the 11th century BC. troubled times came in China: the ruling Zhou dynasty (11th-3rd centuries BC) gradually degenerated, political changes followed one after another. During this period, the power of the military became important, and special attention was paid to the art of government. Many middle-class military men aspired to become government decision-makers in the courts of ancient Chinese princes. For 13 years, the "traveling officer" ("yu shi") was Confucius, who hoped to convince the rulers of the need to observe moral principles. But the ideas of Confucius were too moral to be accepted by the rulers of his time. Only a few centuries later they gained support from the rulers of the Han Dynasty. In the II century. BC. Confucianism became the official state ideology in China and played an exceptionally important role in Chinese culture and socio-political history.

Confucius (from Kung Fu Tzu, meaning "wise teacher Kung") is an ancient Chinese philosopher. Born in 551 BC. e. in an aristocratic but impoverished family. For a long time he worked in the royal book depository in Zhou, where, according to legend, he met and talked with Lao Tzu. Upon returning to his homeland, Lu opened his own school in the kingdom and became the first professional teacher in the history of China. So P v. BC. he was revered as the Great Sage. The main source of information about the teachings of Confucius are "Lun Yu" ("Judgments and Conversations"), which are records of his statements and conversations made by his students and followers. In 1957, in the hometown of the philosopher Qufu, where his distant relatives still live, annual celebrations resumed in his temple.

Confucius shared the traditional idea of ​​Heaven as the highest power that rules the world, and accepted the belief in the spirits of ancestors. He considered the society of his day to be inconsistent with what was destined by Heaven for all things. He idealized the past and advocated the restoration of communal-patriarchal relations in which people understood morality. It is through moral norms, and not by natural forces, as the Taoists argued, that, in his opinion, society should be governed. Following morality, the principles of duty were decisive for Confucius. Therefore, Confucian philosophy is primarily a doctrine of morality.

All issues, including those related to public administration, daily engaged in agricultural, commercial and financial affairs, were considered by Confucius from an ethical standpoint. The basis of his teaching was the idea of ​​an ideal society that would correspond to ancient patterns. He saw his task in the revival of the principles of society that existed in ancient times, because at that time perfectly wise rulers who owned Tao reigned on earth. By Tao, the philosopher understood the path of moral perfection and rule based on ethical standards.

Confucius urged to revere the ancestors, observe ancient customs and ceremonies, during which the emperor - the Son of Heaven - played the role of an intermediary between the infinity of the cosmos and the finiteness of earthly existence. In steady adherence to the customs of antiquity, Confucius saw a panacea for all troubles, and he considered himself the bearer of forgotten ancient wisdom.

In Confucianism, a whole system of complex rituals was developed for all occasions. How strictly the Confucians observed the established order is evidenced by the saying that has come down to us about Confucius: "If the mat is uneven, the Master will not sit on it."

In an ideal society, the principle of moral perfection should be harmoniously combined with activities aimed at streamlining the state. “If there is virtue in the heart,” said Confucius, “then there will be beauty in the character. If there is beauty in the character, then there will be harmony in the house. If there is harmony in the house, then there will be order in the country. If there is order in the country, then there will be peace on earth.”

Confucius developed the concept noble husband (jun-tzu). A noble husband, or ideal man, is one who knows how to combine disinterestedness and sensitivity in private life with courtesy in public life. In his desires, he is not greedy and, unlike "little man" thinks not about profit, but about duty. A person is not born noble, but becomes noble through the cultivation of the highest moral qualities.

A noble husband should have jen and follow li in his behavior. The concepts of jen and li are the most important in the philosophy of Confucianism. Ren (literally: "philanthropy") - this is a law that determines the ethical relationships of people, gives a setting for love for people. It is formulated as follows: "What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others." Subsequently, this rule in the history of philosophy was expressed in various ways and was called "golden rule of morality". The manifestations of jen are justice, fidelity, sincerity, mercy, etc.

Lee(ceremonial, ceremonies) means ethical and ritual decency and is a wide range of rules that regulate people's behavior in various life situations. Without "whether" social order and, consequently, the prosperity of the state is impossible. It is because of "li" that there are differences between the sovereign and subjects. A properly organized state, according to Confucius, consists of tops and bottoms: those who think and govern, and those who work and obey.

Confucius saw the main means of streamlining relations between members of society in the straightening (correction) of names, which was aimed at ensuring that everything in society remained unchanged. Names- these are the designations of the social, political and legal statuses of various persons in the hierarchical system of society and the state. Everyone must have a name corresponding to him, so that the sovereign is the sovereign, the dignitary is the dignitary, the father is the father, the son is the son, the subject is the subject. With all deviations from the norm, you should return to it. Thus, the meaning of Confucius's teachings about straightening names was that each person must correspond to his purpose, social status in the state hierarchy.

So, for each member of society, Confucius determined one or another place in the social hierarchy, in accordance with which it was necessary to act and conduct business. The criterion for dividing society into tops and bottoms should have been not noble origin and wealth, but abilities, virtues, knowledge and work. The philosopher was convinced that the economic prosperity and stability of both society and the individual depend to a large extent on hard daily work and on the strain of the abilities and efforts of every citizen.

Confucius considered the close-knit and well-organized family to be the basis of the state, and the state itself was understood by him as a big family. Therefore, a special place in his philosophy is occupied by the concept of xiao - filial respect, which determines the relationship between father and child, husband and wife, older brother and younger brother, older friend and younger friend, ruler and subjects. essence xiao consists in the assertion that blind obedience to the will, word, desire of the elder is an elementary norm for the younger ones within the family and subjects within the state.

According to Confucian teaching, any person in ancient China could count on social assistance and a minimum of social benefits, subject to strict observance of the ethical norms recognized in the state, maintaining order, honoring and obeying the authority of elders and subordination to rulers.

Confucianism shaped the way of life and social structure of the Chinese, and to this day it remains a living intellectual and spiritual tradition in China.

Test questions:

1. What are the features of ancient Indian philosophy?

2. What are the Vedas?

3. How do orthodox schools of ancient Indian philosophy differ from non-orthodox ones?

4. What are the main ideas of Vedanta?

5. What is the difference between Mimamsa and Vedanta?

6. What is the specificity of the Samkhya philosophical school?

7. How are the theory and practice of yoga related?

8. How does the philosophy of the Charvakas differ from the philosophy of all other ancient Indian philosophical schools?

9. What is "samsara", "karma", "nirvana" in the philosophy of Buddhism?

10. What is the content of the Four Noble Truths?

11. What are the characteristic features of ancient Chinese philosophy?

12. What is "Tao" in ancient Chinese philosophy?

13. What is the meaning of the Taoist principle of "non-doing"?

14. What is the essence of the philosophical teachings of Confucius?

15. What is the meaning of the Confucian straightening of names?

16. What is the xiao principle in Confucianism?

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Vasiliev L.S. History of the Religions of the East. M., 1983.

Ancient Chinese Philosophy: Collection of Texts: In 2 vols. M., 1972.

Laws of Manu. M., 1960.

Lukyanov A.E. Lao Tzu (philosophy of early Taoism). M., 1991.

Lukyanov A.E. Formation of philosophy in the East. M., 1989.

Lysenko V.G. An Introduction to Buddhism: Early Buddhist Philosophy. M., 1994.

Nemirovskaya L.Z. Philosophy. M., 1996.

Oliver M. History of Philosophy. Minsk, 1999.

Perelomov L.S. Confucius: life, teachings, destiny. M., 1993.

Torchinov E.A. Taoism. M., 1993.

Chatterjee S., Datta D. Indian Philosophy. M., 1994.

Kuznetsov V.G. Dictionary of philosophical terms. M., 2009.

New Philosophical Encyclopedia: In 4 vols. M., 2000-2001.

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Databases, information and reference and search systems:

Portal "Humanities Education" http://www.humanities.edu.ru/

Federal portal "Russian education" http://www.edu.ru/

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At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. in China, one of the oldest civilizations in the world, the natural-philosophical doctrine of the "will of Heaven" is taking shape. It was argued that everything in the world depends on the predestination of heaven. Sovereign (van) He spoke to his subjects as "Son of Heaven", and the country itself was called "Celestial". The mythological worldview of Ancient China assumed that in ancient times the world was a formless chaos. Then two spirits appeared in him - yin(feminine) and Jan(masculine) that formed the earth and sky. Yang, the bright beginning, expressed the properties of the sky, south, sun, day, life, strength. Yin represented the north, darkness, death, earth, moon, weakness, even numbers. Yin and Yang oppose each other, but at the same time they depend on each other, interpenetrate each other, being the beginning of being, which is expressed in a well-known emblem.

In the VI century. BC. philosophy flourishes in China, thinkers, who are called "perfectly wise," begin to play a large role in society. The main topics in the philosophy of China were the issues of governance of the country, relations between different groups in society, philosophy was used in developing recommendations for organizing public life. The struggle of various philosophical, political and ethical trends, which are called one hundred schools although in reality there were significantly fewer major currents.

Let us consider some of the philosophical schools that have had the greatest influence on the culture and political life of China.

Taoism- non-doing management. Founder of Taoism Lao Tzu("old thinker" or "old child"). According to legend, the mother carried him in the womb for 81 years, and he was born from her thigh in 604 BC. The newborn had gray hair, which made him look like an old man. For most of his life he served as keeper of the imperial archives and librarian. At an advanced age, he left the country for the west. When he reached the border outpost, its chief asked Lao Tzu to tell him about his teachings. The sage fulfilled the request by writing the text "Dao Te Zip"(“The Book of the Way of Life”), after which he left China forever.

The central concept of this doctrine is "dao"- the universal regularity of the world, the fundamental principle of everything that exists, the universal Law and the Absolute, in accordance with which the development of the Universe takes place. In Taoism, the difficulty of comprehending the Tao is repeatedly emphasized. Tao is incorporeal and formless, inexhaustible in action. Inexpressible in words, Tao is understood as non-existence, which gives rise to being.

Besides Tao, there is "de". This is a kind of universal force, a principle by which the Tao as the way of things can take place. It is also the method by which one can conform to the Tao. Te is a principle, a way of being. If Tao is the root cause, then it is concretized and materialized through de.

The reason for all the hardships and calamities lies in the fact that the operation of Tao is violated in society; instead of the natural Tao, people have created a human Tao that serves the interests of the rich and harms the poor. We must return to the natural Tao, to the patriarchal community, where there were no rich and poor, exploitation and oppression.

The main idea of ​​Lao Tzu is the creation of such a system of state administration, which is built on inaction (principle "wu-wei”), the best way to realize the Tao. The “perfectly wise” ruler lets everything take its natural course. He does not interfere in anything, does not interfere with the Tao. Therefore, "the best ruler is the one about whom they know only that he exists." The most reasonable behavior is the desire for calm, moderation.

Taoism gradually degenerated into a religious system that assumed the presence of superstition and magic, which had little in common with philosophical Taoism. And Lao Tzu himself was deified.

Confucianism - ritual control. Confucius, or Kung Tzu, i.e. “a teacher from the Kun clan” (551-479 BC) was born into the family of the third wife of a noble but impoverished military leader in the kingdom of Lu. When the future philosopher was only one and a half years old, his father died, and his mother, oppressed by older wives, was forced to return to her homeland in the city of Qufu, where the family lived in poverty. Thanks to hard work and diligent study, Confucius was appointed manager of the granaries, and only at the age of 50 was able to get involved in government activities, holding the position of head of the court order. After leaving the service due to intrigues, he traveled around other Chinese states for 13 years, trying to convey his ideas to the rulers, who were engaged in internecine strife and plunged the people into the abyss of disaster and suffering. After returning home, he continued teaching, collecting and editing the literary heritage of the past, including the first weather chronicle in Chinese history, as well as the Book of Changes. Confucius' disciples wrote down his thoughts and teachings - composition "Lun Yu"("Conversations and Judgments").

Unlike Lao Tzu, Confucius was not interested in the irrational: "I'm not talking about the supernatural, about violence, about confusion and about spirits."

The main idea of ​​Confucius is fixing names"- under the influence of time, people and their relationships change, but at the same time old words are used, although the content of these names has already changed. Thus, a person is called a ruler, although he is no longer the same ruler as he was in the past; they call a person a son, although he no longer fully fulfills filial duties. The discrepancy between the old and new content of the names should be eliminated, the names should be "correct", which actually meant a call for a return to the past. The ideal of Confucianism is the creation of a harmonious society according to the ancient model, in which every person has his own function.

Confucius draws an image noble husband"(jun-tzu), contrasting him with a commoner. A noble man is afraid of three things: he is afraid of the command of heaven, of great men, and of the words of the wise.

Confucius named five virtues of a “noble husband”, cultivating which a person achieves harmony with the external and internal world. They are reflected in the form of five sacred hieroglyphs.

• Hieroglyph " Ren"(tree) - humanity, following it means leading with love, mercy, humanity and compassion for people.
• Hieroglyph "AND"(metal) - justice, following it means the principle of reciprocity, which balances humanity. So, you need to respect your parents in gratitude for the fact that they raised you.
• Hieroglyph " Zhi"(water) - common sense, following it means balancing justice, preventing stubbornness and stupidity.
• Hieroglyph "Lee"(fire) - a ritual, following it means observing the necessary ceremonies, rituals, dignity and self-respect - this allows people to better feel life itself, its spirit.
• Hieroglyph "Xin"(earth or heart) - sincerity, following it means balancing the ritual, preventing hypocrisy - the main Confucian virtue, without which everyone else will have no power.

« Short person"(xiao-zhen) does not know the command of heaven and is not afraid of it, he despises tall people occupying a high position and ignores the words of a wise person.

Management based on the rules of conduct is the central point of the ethical and political ideas of Confucius. The basis of order in the country is "whether"

(ritual, ceremonial, reverence). Lee includes rules of conduct, moral imperatives, respect and strict adherence to the division of social roles. The ritual is all-encompassing. Plays an important role devotion(zhong) - the idea of ​​obedience and reverence for the ruler, parents, older brothers younger. The importance of honoring parents is emphasized.

In Confucianism, much attention is paid to issues of political life and government. The relationship between the ruler and the people is likened to the relationship between a rider and a horse. The “horseman” is a ruler endowed with great wisdom, and the “horse” is a people incapable of independent actions. The ruler ruled the people with the help of "bridles" and "reins" - officials and laws. For the existence of a normal state and to maintain order in the state, a certain prosperity is first of all necessary. Confucius said that the people must first "make rich" and then "educate them."

Confucius pointed out the need to eliminate the four evils: cruelty, rudeness, robbery and greed. Actions opposite to these four types of evil are to enlighten the people, to warn them, to faithfully observe reasonable orders, to be generous.

Confucius spoke of the power and significance of the moral example of the superiors for the inferiors. "If the personal behavior of those (who are at the top) is right, things go on, although they do not give orders."

The views of Confucius had a strong influence on the subsequent spiritual culture and political practice of China.

Moism - good governance. The founder of the school - Mo-tzu, or Mo Di (c. 475-395 BC), who came from a family of small proprietors, was a countryman of Confucius. Having studied Confucianism, Mo-tzu became his opponent in a number of positions. In his opinion, people may not follow the wishes of heaven, there is no fateful predestination in people's lives, there is no fate.

Mo Tzu speaks of seven troubles in the state:

• 1) the squandering of the ruler, sometimes it comes to the point that there are no funds for the fortress wall, and at the same time palaces are being built;
• 2) lack of mutual assistance between individual possessions;
• 3) the impoverishment of commoners due to the extravagance of dignitaries;
• 4) the unrighteousness of the ruler's servants;
• 5) self-confidence of the ruler, lack of interest in the opinion of those close to him;
• 6) lack of devotion and trust between the ruler and servants;
• 7) lack of diligence on the part of servants and dignitaries, fear of punishment.

At the heart of all disasters is "mutual separation", in which different interests give rise to "mutual hatred". Mo-tzu proposed a program of relationships between people, contributing to the improvement of society. The central idea of ​​his teaching is the call to achieve the establishment of relations between all people on the principles of "universal love and mutual benefit." This thesis of the Moists, in contrast to the Confucian principles of dividing society into “common people” and “noble men”, “ruling” and “ruled”, was an attempt to provide a kind of ethical justification for the idea of ​​equality of people and reflected the desire to involve wide sections of the population in the political life of the state. .

Mo-tzu believed that in order to govern the state, it is necessary to "promote the wise" regardless of their social status. “Officers do not have permanent nobility; the people should not always remain in a low position. He believed that unrest in society arises from the absence of "universal love."

Fajia (legist school)- rule of law, was created Han Fei(c. 280-233 BC). The Legists rejected in principle a government based on ritual and tradition. Speaking against the Confucians, they ridiculed their reasoning about philanthropy, duty, justice, brotherly love, calling them a "game of words" and comparing them with the children's game of "preparing elegant dishes from the sand." In contrast to the rule based on ritual, the legists promoted the rule of law based on the virtues.

In the book Shang Yana"Shang jun shu" ("The Book of the Governor of the Shang Region" - a treatise of the 4th-3rd centuries), the need to rule on the basis of the law is justified by the fact that a person is naturally evil. The animal nature inherent in a person cannot be changed by education, but its manifestations can be prevented by strict laws, a system of punishments and rewards. Man must be treated as a vicious being. “Where (people are treated) as virtuous, misdeeds are hidden; in the same place where (people are treated) as vicious, crimes are severely punished ... If you control people as virtuous, then unrest is inevitable and the country will perish; if people are ruled as vicious, then an exemplary order is always established and the country reaches power.

Peace and order in the country can only be based on laws. Laws must be tough. Severe punishments are necessary to make people fear the law. Laws must be uniform, obligatory for all.

When selecting people for service, it is necessary to evaluate not their appearance, clothes or speech, but check them in the performance of duties. Legislation, a well-thought-out system of rewards and punishments, a system of mutual responsibility and universal surveillance were supposed to ensure the unity of the state and the strength of the power of the ruler. This concept played a big role in the creation of a single centralized state.

The philosophy of ancient China did not have any serious impact on the development of philosophy in Europe. However, it had a great impact on China's neighboring countries. Thus, Confucianism became one of the main ideological teachings in Japan, along with Shinto and Buddhism.

• The "Book of Changes" ("I-ching") is intended for divination, the purpose of which is to clarify whether human activity is contrary to the course of the world's accomplishment, or whether it is harmoniously included in the world, i.e. whether it brings him misfortune or happiness. The book contains 64 symbols (hexagrams), each of which expresses one or another life situation in time from the point of view of its gradual development. Each hexagram is accompanied by a set of phorisms, which should give advice to the fortuneteller.
• Confucius. Lun Yu. VII. 21/22.

Your attention is invited to the philosophy of ancient China, a summary. Chinese philosophy has a history spanning several thousand years. Its origins are often associated with the Book of Changes, an ancient divination book dating back to 2800 BC, where some of the fundamental tenets of Chinese philosophy were pointed out. The age of Chinese philosophy can only be tentatively estimated (its first flowering is usually attributed to the 6th century BC), since it goes back to the oral tradition of the Neolithic. In this article, you can find out what the philosophy of Ancient China is, briefly get acquainted with the main schools and directions of thought.

For centuries, the philosophy of the Ancient East (China) has focused on practical concern for man and society, questions about how to properly organize life in society, how to live an ideal life. Ethics and political philosophy often took precedence over metaphysics and epistemology. Another characteristic feature of Chinese philosophy was reflections on nature and personality, which led to the development of the theme of the unity of man and Heaven, the theme of man's place in space.

Four philosophical schools

Four particularly influential schools of thought arose during the classical period of Chinese history, which began around 500 B.C. These were Confucianism, Taoism (often pronounced "Taoism"), Monism and Legalism. When China was unified in 222 BC, legalism was adopted as the official philosophy. Later emperors (206 BC - 222 AD) adopted Taoism, and later, around 100 BC, Confucianism. These schools remained central to the development of Chinese thought well into the 20th century. Buddhist philosophy, which appeared in the 1st century CE, spread widely in the 6th century (mainly during the reign of

In the era of industrialization and in our time, the philosophy of the Ancient East (China) began to include concepts taken from Western philosophy, which was a step towards modernization. Under the rule of Mao Tse-tung, Marxism, Stalinism, and other communist ideologies proliferated in mainland China. Hong Kong and Taiwan revived interest in Confucian ideas. The current government of the People's Republic of China supports the ideology of market socialism. The philosophy of ancient China is summarized below.

Early beliefs

At the beginning of the Shang Dynasty, thought was based on the idea of ​​cyclicality, arising from direct observation of nature: the change of day and night, the change of seasons, the waxing and waning of the moon. This idea has remained relevant throughout Chinese history. During the reign of Shang, fate could be controlled by the great deity Shang-di, translated into Russian - "The Most High God". The cult of ancestors was also present, there were also animal and human sacrifices.

When it was overthrown, a new political, religious and "Mandate of Heaven" appeared. In accordance with it, if the ruler does not correspond to his position, he can be overthrown and replaced by another, more suitable one. Archaeological excavations from this period indicate an increase in the level of literacy and a partial departure from the belief in Shang-di. Ancestor worship became commonplace and society became more secular.

One hundred schools

Around 500 BC, after the Zhou state weakened, the classical period of Chinese philosophy began (almost at this time, the first Greek philosophers also appeared). This period is known as the Hundred Schools. Of the many schools founded at this time, and also during the following Warring States period, the four most influential were Confucianism, Taoism, Mohism, and Legalism. During this time, Cofucius is believed to have written the Ten Wings and a number of commentaries on the Ching.

Imperial era

The founder of the short-lived Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC) unified China under an emperor and established Legalism as the official philosophy. Li Xi, the founder of legalism and the chancellor of the first emperor of the Qin dynasty, Qin Shi Huang, suggested that he suppress the freedom of speech of the intelligentsia in order to unify thought and political beliefs, and burn all the classical works of philosophy, history, and poetry. Only the books of the Li Xi school were to be allowed. After he was deceived by two alchemists who promised him long life, Qin Shi Huang buried 460 scholars alive. Legism retained its influence until the emperors of the late Han Dynasty (206 BC - 222 AD) adopted Taoism, and later, around 100 BC, Confucianism as official doctrine. However, Taoism and Confucianism were not the defining forces of Chinese thought until well into the 20th century. In the 6th century (mostly during the Tang Dynasty), Buddhist philosophy gained general acceptance, mainly due to similarities with Taoism. Such was the philosophy of Ancient China at that time, summarized above.

Confucianism

Confucianism is the collective teaching of the sage Confucius, who lived in 551-479. BC.

The philosophy of Ancient China can be presented in the following form. It is a complex system of moral, social, political and religious thought that has greatly influenced the history of Chinese civilization. Some scholars believe that Confucianism was the state religion of imperial China. Confucian ideas are reflected in the culture of China. Mencius (4th century BC) believed that a person has dignity, which should be cultivated in order to become "good". considered human nature as inherently evil, but which, through self-discipline and self-improvement, can be transformed into virtue.

Confucius did not intend to found a new religion, he only wanted to interpret and revive the nameless religion of the Zhou dynasty. The ancient system of religious rules has exhausted itself: why do the gods allow social problems and injustice? But if not the spirits of the race and nature, what is the basis of a stable, unified and lasting social order? Confucius believed that this basis is a reasonable policy, implemented, however, in the Zhou religion and its rituals. He did not interpret these rituals as sacrifices to the gods, but as ceremonies embodying civilized and cultural patterns of behavior. They embodied for him the ethical core of Chinese society. The term "ritual" included social rituals - courtesies and accepted norms of behavior - what we today call etiquette. Confucius believed that only a civilized society can have a stable and lasting order. The philosophy of ancient China, schools of thought, and subsequent teachings took much from Confucianism.

Taoism

Taoism is:

1) a philosophical school based on the texts of the Tao Te Ching (Lao Tzu) and Chuang Tzu;

2) Chinese folk religion.

"Tao" literally means "way," but in Chinese religion and philosophy, the word has taken on a more abstract meaning. The philosophy of ancient China, briefly described in this article, drew many ideas from this abstract and seemingly simple concept of "path".

Yin and Yang and the Theory of the Five Elements

It is not known exactly where the idea of ​​the two principles of Yin and Yang came from, probably it arose in the era of ancient Chinese philosophy. Yin and Yang are two complementary principles, the interaction of which forms all phenomenal phenomena and changes in the cosmos. Yang is active and Yin is passive. Additional elements, such as day and night, light and darkness, activity and passivity, masculine and feminine, and others, are a reflection of Yin and Yang. Together, these two elements constitute harmony, and the idea of ​​harmony is spreading in medicine, art, martial arts and social life in China. The philosophy of ancient China, schools of thought also absorbed this idea.

The concept of Yin-Yang is often associated with the theory of the five elements, which explains natural and social phenomena as the result of a combination of the five basic elements or agents of the cosmos: wood, fire, earth, metal, and water. The philosophy of Ancient China (the most important things are summarized in this article) certainly includes this concept.

Legalism

Legalism has its origins in the ideas of the Chinese philosopher Xun Tzu (310-237 BC), who believed that ethical standards are necessary to control the evil inclinations of a person. Han Fei (280-233 BC) developed this concept into a totalitarian pragmatic political philosophy based on the principle that man seeks to avoid punishment and achieve personal gain, since people are inherently selfish and evil. Thus, if people begin to freely express their natural inclinations, this will lead to conflicts and social problems. The ruler must maintain his power with the help of three components:

1) law, or principle;

2) method, tactics, art;

3) legitimacy, power, charisma.

The law must severely punish violators and reward those who follow it. Legalism was chosen by the philosophy of the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC), which united China for the first time. In contrast to the intuitive anarchy of Taoism and the virtue of Confucianism, Legalism considers the demands of order more important than others. The political doctrine was developed during the cruel time of the fourth century BC.

The Legists believed that the government should not be deceived by pious, unattainable ideals of "tradition" and "humanity." In their opinion, attempts to improve life in the country through education and ethical precepts are doomed to failure. Instead, people need a strong government and a carefully crafted code of laws, as well as a police force that enforces the rules strictly and impartially and punishes violators severely. The founder of the Qin Dynasty had high hopes for these totalitarian principles, believing that the reign of his dynasty would last forever.

Buddhism

And China has a lot in common. Although Buddhism originated in India, it was of great importance in China. Buddhism is believed to have originated in China during the Han Dynasty. About three hundred years later, during the Eastern Jin Dynasty (317-420), it experienced an explosion in popularity. During these three hundred years, the adherents of Buddhism were mainly newcomers, nomadic people from the western regions and Central Asia.

In a sense, Buddhism was never adopted in China. At least not in a purely Indian form. The philosophy of ancient India and China still has many differences. Legends are replete with stories of Indians such as Bodhidharma who instilled various forms of Buddhism in China, but they make little mention of the inevitable changes that the teaching undergoes when it is transferred to foreign soil, much less to such a rich one as China of that time in regarding philosophical thought.

Certain features of Indian Buddhism were incomprehensible to the practical Chinese mind. With its tradition of asceticism inherited from Hindu thought, Indian Buddhism can easily take on the appearance of the delayed gratification envisaged in meditation (meditate now, reach Nirvana later).

The Chinese, heavily influenced by a tradition that encourages industriousness and satisfying the necessities of life, could not accept this and other practices that seemed otherworldly and out of touch with everyday life. But, being practical people, many of them also saw some good ideas of Buddhism in relation to both the individual and society.

The War of the Eight Princes is a civil war between the princes and kings of the Jin Dynasty from 291 to 306, during which the nomadic peoples of northern China, from Manchuria to eastern Mongolia, were included in large numbers in the ranks of mercenary troops.

Around the same time, the level of political culture in China declined markedly, the teachings of Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu were revived, gradually adapted to Buddhist thought. Buddhism, which appeared in India, took on a completely different form in China. Take, for example, the concept of Nagarjuna. Nagarjuna (150-250 AD), Indian philosopher, the most influential Buddhist thinker after Gautama Buddha himself. His main contribution to Buddhist philosophy was the development of the concept of Shunyat (or "emptiness") as an element of Buddhist metaphysics, epistemology and phenomenology. After being imported into China, the concept of Shunyat was changed from "Void" to "Something that exists" under the influence of traditional Chinese thought of Laozi and Chuangzi.

Moism

The philosophy of Ancient China (briefly) was founded by the philosopher Mozi (470-390 BC), who promoted the idea of ​​universal love, the equality of all beings. Mozi believed that the traditional concept is controversial, that human beings need guidance to determine which traditions are acceptable. In Moism, morality is not defined by tradition, it rather correlates with utilitarianism, the desire for the good for the greatest number of people. In Moism, government is seen as an instrument for providing such leadership, and for stimulating and rewarding social behavior that benefits the greatest number of people. Activities such as song and dance were considered a waste of resources that could be used to provide people with food and shelter. Mohists created their own highly organized political structures and lived modestly, leading an ascetic life, practicing their ideals. They were against any form of aggression and believed in the divine power of the sky (Tian), which punishes the immoral behavior of people.

You have studied what the philosophy of ancient China is (summary). For a more complete understanding, we advise you to get acquainted with each school separately in more detail. Features of the philosophy of Ancient China were briefly outlined above. We hope that this material helped you understand the main points and was useful to you.