The essence of global problems. Relationship and interdependence

GLOBAL PROBLEMS OF MODERNITY

I. Read the text and complete tasks C1 - C4.

It seems to me that today, when humanity has come close to an ecological catastrophe, when all the terrible consequences of utopian claims to total control of social processes are extremely clear, the fate of the humanistic ideal is connected with the rejection of the idea of mastery, suppression and domination. The new understanding of the relationship between nature and man corresponds not to the ideal of anthropocentrism, but to the one developed by a number of modern thinkers, in particular, the famous scientist N.I. Moiseev, the idea of co-evolution, the joint evolution of nature and humanity, which can be interpreted as a relationship of equal partners, if you like, interlocutors in an unplanned dialogue...

This can and should be understood in a broader sense. Freedom as an integral characteristic of the humanistic ideal is conceived not as mastery and control, but as the establishment of equal partnerships with what is outside of a person: with natural processes, with another person, with the values of a different culture, with social processes, even with unreflexible and " opaque” processes of my own psyche.

C5 (1). Name 3 main global problems of our time.

C 6. Illustrate with three examples the relationship between the problems associated with the widening gap between developed and third world countries and the problem of preventing a new world war.

C6 (1). Give three examples of the relationship of global problems of our time.

C7 (1). Today, due to the existence of global problems of our time, there are quite loud calls for the rejection of scientific and technological progress, the cessation of research in the field of new technologies. Do you share this point of view? Are these calls consistent with the concept of sustainable development? Give three reasons to support your opinion.

C7 (2). Speaking at a scientific conference, an environmental scientist said: “It's time to realize that humanity is coming to its end. We do not have the strength and ability to save ourselves. We are doomed". Do you agree with this opinion? Give three reasons to support your position.

C8. You have been instructed to prepare a detailed answer on the topic "The environmental crisis as a global problem of our time." Make a plan according to which you will cover this topic. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

Answers to the tasks of the topic " Global problems of our time»

Part 1

1 - 1
3 – 3
5 – 2
7 – 4
9 – 1
Part 3

C1 - C4

C1.

1) realities modern society:

- “Humanity has come close to an ecological catastrophe”;

- "all the terrible consequences of utopian claims to the total control of social processes are extremely clear";

2) the essence of the new understanding humanistic ideal:

"the idea of co-evolution, the joint evolution of nature and humanity, which can be interpreted as a relationship of equal partners, if you like, interlocutors in an unprogrammed dialogue."

“Freedom as an integral characteristic of the humanistic ideal is conceived ... as the establishment of equal partnerships with what is outside of a person: with natural processes, with another person, with the values of a different culture, with social processes, even with non-reflective and “opaque” processes of my own psyche";
“freedom is understood as such an attitude when I accept the other, and the other accepts me”;
"free acceptance based on understanding as a result of communication."

C3. Anthropocentrism has ceased to correspond to the humanistic ideal at the present stage the following reasons:

the establishment of human dominance over nature led to irreversible changes in the external environment;
irreversible changes in the external environment have a negative impact on human health, the functioning of society;
the amount of resources that the rapidly growing humanity can use for its development has been significantly reduced;
the installation of domination extended to the relationship of a person to his own kind, to public interests.

C4. The relationship of people "with what is outside of man":

“relationships with natural processes”: the use of nature-saving and resource-saving technologies by man, limiting consumption;
“relationship with another person”: recognition of the unconditional value of the personality of another person, respect for his freedom;
“relationships with the values of a different culture”: a tolerant attitude towards the values of a different culture and the bearers of these values;
"relationships with social processes": rejection of the installation of personal and group egoism, consumerism, striving for social peace;
“relationships with non-reflexible and “opaque” processes of my own psyche”: attentive attitude to one’s own psychological state, sparing its adjustment if necessary, maximum use of one’s own mental abilities and states in activity.

C1 - C4

C1. The author highlights the following issues:

Limited resources;

The North-South problem;

Demographic;

Consequences of NTR.

C2. Assumptions:

Availability of scientific knowledge and technical means for mankind for global transformative activity (and means for the destruction of life on the planet);

Formation of a consumer society in which speed and comfort are among the dominant values.

C3. Examples supporting the author's statement:

communist ideologies;

Ideology of the Enlightenment;

The illusion of the omnipotence of science and the possibility of its victory over hunger and disease.

C4. Overcoming the contrasts between "rich" and "poor" countries in the near future is hardly possible, since this is hindered by the following:

The situation of uncontrolled births in conditions of limited resources and unfavorable living conditions;

A small share of participation in the global division of labor;

Growth of military and other expenditures of developed countries, preventing the redistribution of funds in favor of "poor" countries.

C5 (1). The main global problems of our time:

Ecological;

Demographic;

The North-South Problem.

C6 (1). Examples of the relationship of global problems of our time:

The threat of an ecological crisis forces economically developed countries to transfer harmful, environmentally hazardous industries to third world countries, which exacerbates the North-South problem;

The threat of international terrorism in modern conditions is closely related to the problem of preventing nuclear war, maintaining peace (terrorists are trying to gain access to technologies for the production of weapons of mass destruction);

The demographic problem in the modern world appears primarily as a problem of the rapid demographic growth of third world countries, which increases the backlog from economically developed countries.

C6 (2). Examples that reveal the global nature of the environmental problems of the modern world:

Climate warming is leading to the melting of polar ice caps and an increase in the level of the world's oceans, which in the future may change the contours of continents, engulf islands and archipelagos, i.e. the human environment is threatened;

The population of all countries of the continents suffers from pollution of soils, atmosphere and the World Ocean by industrial and household waste;

The extinction of certain animal species affects not only local ecosystems, but in its long-term consequences upsets the balance of the global ecosystem.

In order to understand how the interconnection of global problems is expressed, it is important to carefully study each of them. Humanity of the modern world faces the most difficult tasks. Some issues really threaten our existence, however, as well as all life on the "green" planet.

What are called global problems?

Why is the topic of the interconnection of global problems constantly raised at scientific conferences, at UN meetings? Apparently, the previous century became a kind of breaking point in world history into “before” and “after”. Not so long ago, humanity lost confidence in an immortal existence. And even nature seems to be hinting with its massive cataclysms that sooner or later one will have to pay too high a price for the desire to conquer it indefinitely and receive the maximum benefit to the detriment of it.

The interconnection of the global problems of our time is a mechanism consisting of individual elements - threats hanging over humanity, and working clearly against life on Earth.

Unlike natural disasters and natural disasters, which are of a temporary passing nature, this chain of dangers has an incomparable scale and concerns the future of an entire civilization. The global problems of mankind affect the destinies and interests of all segments of the population, leading to significant socio-economic losses, and therefore their solution requires close cooperation of interstate significance, the application of efforts of all countries, nations and nationalities.

requiring an urgent solution

Scholars who have explored this topic have presented the world with different understandings of global problems and the relationship between them. They are endowed with inconsistency and disproportion, uncharacteristic for the full life of a modern person. Threats looming over the world are usually classified as follows:

International social difficulties. Here we are talking about such an example of the interconnection of global problems of our time as militarization in most countries and an increase in the arms race, which in some cases leads to war, slowing down the formation of states with developing economies.
Problems of a humanitarian nature. These include the global demographic boom, difficulties in overcoming hunger and incurable diseases, cultural and ethnic issues.
The result of the negative impact of society on the world around. The problems of the low level of environmental protection, food production, lack of natural resources, etc. can be called topical today.

How Global Issues Are Connected: Obvious Examples

Give examples of the interconnection of global problems. Puzzled? You don't have to be a great scientist to do this. We should start with the most burning problem of interaction between man and the world around him.

As is known, until the middle of the last century, natural phenomena of nature, i.e., natural disasters, were considered the causes of ecological chaos. At the moment, no one doubts that irresponsible human management is to blame, which, in turn, has led to widespread pollution, not limited locally, but affecting the entire globe.

Another example of the interconnection of global problems is the intersection of the demographic crisis with global indicators of food security due to the growing growth. The number of inhabitants of the planet is increasing every year in a stable progression, which inevitably leads to pressure on natural potential, negative anthropogenic development of the natural environment, but accompanied by an increase in the food base. Thus, an increase in the population, as a rule, falls on developing states with a lower cultural and economic level.

The interconnection of the global problems of our time can be continued by the next "link" - the exploration of outer space. Considering how young the industry is, it has made significant progress over a half-century period. One way or another, humanity keeps a steady course towards the prospect of extracting alien resources in order to make up for the shortage of terrestrial reserves. However, the problem lies in the financial inaccessibility of the study of outer space. To date, spending money on research in this industry is beyond the reach of the predominant number of states.

War as the cause of the global world crisis

The above three examples of the interconnection of global problems of our time are not the only ones. No less acute are the issues of war and peace. The confrontation of interstate interests often acquires total features: the number of casualties, crazy financial costs and the destruction of material support. The general damage from the escalation of numerous conflicts, the active phase of hostilities in the last century forced mankind to make a sharp scientific and technological leap forward. However, progress and the establishment of an industrial society gave rise to other negative consequences. The inability to economically competently manage natural resources, the unjustified increase in their spending led to the backwardness of individual states, while other, more successful countries worked to improve weapons production.

The arms race, despite the relative easing of global tension, has enormous negative consequences, impoverishing the world economy, constantly provoking aggressive attacks on the international arena of individual countries, leveling the culture of spirituality and militarizing political thinking. The desire of individual states to increase their defensive power led to the fact that by the mid-80s, the world's nuclear potential had reached a hundredfold excess of the total firepower of weapons used by all parties during the Second World War.

Interdependence of demographic and social tasks

It is impossible not to mention one more element in the chain of interconnection of global problems - overcoming the backwardness of developing countries. It's no secret: every fifth inhabitant of the earth is starving. Again returning to the problem of disappearing resources, which are consumed by the number of earthlings increasing every year. As a rule, an increase in the birth rate occurs in economically poorly developed countries. It is enough to imagine this situation a little differently. What would happen if all representatives of modern humanity would have a high standard of living? Unfortunately, our planet would not have survived long ago. One of the ways to solve the problem should be to limit the birth rate while reducing mortality rates, accompanied by an increase in the quality of life.

In this context, discord in social relations joins the interconnection of global problems of mankind. Due to the high importance of religious beliefs in most modern states, birth control, which implies, in particular, the absence of a ban on artificial termination of pregnancy, is de facto becoming an inactive and unpopular measure in society. Most religious teachings promote and encourage large families. Today, however, only a few countries in Western Europe and North America are able to provide "large" families with social guarantees to the extent necessary for a full-fledged life. Otherwise, primitive forms of farming (community), illiteracy, lack of education, bad manners, the presence of chronic diseases and the absence of any real prospects “win”.

Almost all examples of the interconnection of global problems intersect with each other within the framework of the social system of relations "man-society" and the plane "man-nature-man". So, in order to overcome the difficulties of providing raw materials, it is supposed to make decisions based on the rational use of energy sources used, including the reserves of the World Ocean. To remove the barriers that impede the development of scientific and technological progress, it is not enough to pay attention only to the material and production segment in the state economy. Since the low indicators of human potential are the result of imperfections in the systems of education, health care and culture, a contribution to their development can be considered the first step for the successful formation of the scientific and technical sphere.

At the same time, examples of the relationship between global problems can be given for a long time. Each of the above prerequisites for the total self-destruction of the modern world can be viewed from a different angle, which will help to find completely different cause-and-effect relationships, and hence more effective solutions. Perhaps, at first glance, the relationship between global environmental problems and the lag in the economic development of some states will seem absurd or completely non-existent. Yet finding evidence of its relevance is not so difficult.

Economically developed and backward countries: what difficulties arise?

To begin with, it is worth paying attention to some regularities. Thus, the division of labor within the world economy is implemented according to the scheme in such a way that it is promising, rapidly developing urbanized countries that are endowed with the role of leading industrial centers. States with a low standard of living "by default" take on the functions of the periphery, aimed at providing the agricultural raw material segment.

And what comes out of all this? Stronger and more confidently standing powers find legal (in accordance with the norms of international law) ways to use the resources of underdeveloped economic countries, thereby blocking the latter's path to self-development and formation, increasing economic performance and financial independence.

Poverty and hunger as a result of external public debt

In addition, the conditions of the demographic boom are forcing countries with a low standard of living to seek financial assistance from international financial organizations. Large loans over and over again tightened the knot of bondage around the neck of the borrowers. To date, the problem of external long-term states is acquiring global features: 1.25 trillion dollars is the debt of the powers of the so-called "third world".

Interest and debt payments place a heavy burden on the population of these states, and therefore the numbers demonstrating the global nature of the problem around the globe are, to put it mildly, impressive:

more than 700 million hungry;
twice as many people who do not have access to health care;
Nearly 1.5 billion people live below the extreme poverty line.

The economic stability and financial solvency of the state is inversely proportional to the amount of external debt. The example of the Russian Federation can easily be traced over the past few years, the debt to the creditor countries has tripled - from 50 billion to 150 billion dollars.

The scale of the potential environmental threat

Against the backdrop of wholesale industrialization around the world, the problem of ecology has become radically aggravated. The reason for this is the predominant approach to material production. The creation of the most powerful enterprises in a particular industrial branch still entails the manufacture of one or more consumer goods, while the rest, being obsolete or impossible to store, is destroyed.

Scientists call the current situation an "environmental heart attack." More than three examples of the interconnection of global problems originate from this:

Of the total mass of raw materials mined by man, only a few percent are used for their intended purpose and are of practical importance. The rest is garbage, waste that is sent back to the environment, but already in a modified, unacceptable and alien form for nature. Given that the volume of world industrial production is doubling every decade, the level of pollution of the planet will become critical in the near future.
In the process of recycling such waste over the past 200 years, almost 200 billion tons of carbon dioxide have entered the atmosphere. The permissible concentration of a substance is increasing at an unprecedented pace, which has led to a change in the composition of the air shell and the formation of the so-called greenhouse effect.
In turn, the climate "cap" of carbon dioxide has caused a global increase in temperature. Its consequence is the melting of Arctic and Antarctic ice. Global warming leads to the fact that the air temperature in 70-80 years will increase by several degrees Celsius.
Changing the temperature regime, in accordance with the elementary laws of physics, will lead to an increase in precipitation. Thus, scientists predict that the level of the World Ocean will rise by 65 cm, hiding entire megacities and billions of lives under its waters.
Emissions of other chemical compounds into the atmosphere lead to a reduction in the thickness of the ozone layer. As you know, this atmospheric shell plays the role of a kind of filter, retaining ultraviolet rays. Otherwise, i.e., with the thinning of the ozone layer, the human body is threatened by the negative effects of solar radiation, which implies an increase in the number of oncological diseases, pathologies of the heart and blood vessels, genetic abnormalities and a decrease in life expectancy.

AIDS and drug addiction: the misfortune of youth!

Awareness of the interconnection of global problems in the world ecology is terrifying. But, unfortunately, the list of potential threats to human existence does not end there. What is AIDS worth! The disease keeps everyone at bay and not only because of the loss of an actual human resource - the disease is striking in its geography. The interconnection of the global problem with drug addiction is obvious: a favorable environment for the spread of this "evil" cripple the lives and health of millions of people. The term “drug addiction” among many modern residents is associated with a large-scale catastrophe that has befallen entire generations.

If only there was no nuclear war!

However, not a single disease, not a single substance can be compared with the danger to humans that nuclear weapons carry. The full-scale interconnection of the global problems described above is incomparable with the irreversible consequences of the Third World War. The thermonuclear effect of even an insignificant fraction of the arsenal of superpowers accumulated until today will lead to the final destruction of the planet.

That is why the prevention of the use of nuclear weapons is the primary task of mankind. Only a peaceful compromise that does not involve the use of nuclear weapons will make it possible to find solutions to other global problems within the framework of close international cooperation.

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The problems of modernity and the future of mankind - these are the questions that concern all modern politicians and scientists. This is quite understandable. After all, the future of the Earth and all mankind really depends on the solution of modern problems.

Origin of the term

The term "global problems" began to appear in the scientific literature in the late 60s of the last century. This is how the scientists characterized both the new problems that appeared at the junction of the industrial and information eras, and the old ones that existed in the system "man - nature - society", aggravated and aggravated in modern conditions.

Fig 1. Environmental pollution

Global problems are problems that cannot be solved by the forces of one country or one people, but, at the same time, the fate of the entire human civilization depends on their solution.

Causes

Scientists identify two large groups of reasons that led to the emergence of global problems.

The development of local problems, conflicts and contradictions into global ones (this is due to the process of globalization, unification and generalization of mankind).
Active transformative human activity that affects nature, the political situation and society.

Types of global problems

The global problems facing humanity include three large groups of problems (modern classification).

Table"List of global problems of mankind"

Common features (signs) of global problems

Despite the fact that there are many global problems at the present stage of human development, they all have common features:

they affect the vital activity of all mankind at once;
they are an objective factor in the development of mankind;
they require an urgent decision;
they involve international cooperation;
the fate of the entire human civilization depends on their decision.

Figure 3. Hunger in Africa

Main Directions for Resolving World Problems and Threats

To solve global problems, the efforts of all mankind are needed, and not only material and physical, but also psychological. In order for the work to be successful, it is necessary

form a new planetary consciousness, constantly inform people about threats, give them only up-to-date information, and educate;
develop an effective system of cooperation between countries in solving global problems: studying, monitoring the state, preventing aggravation of the situation, creating a forecasting system;
concentrate a large number of forces precisely on solving global problems.

Social predictions of the existence of mankind

Based on the fact that at the moment there is an aggravation and expansion of the list of global problems, scientists make social forecasts for the existence of mankind:

pessimistic forecast or environmental pessimism(in short, the essence of the forecast boils down to the fact that humanity is waiting for a large-scale environmental catastrophe and inevitable death);
optimistic forecast or scientific and technical optimism(scientists hope that scientific and technological progress will lead to the fact that global problems are resolved).

What have we learned?

The term "global problems" is not new, and it does not refer only to those problems that appeared at the end of the 20th century. All global problems have both their own characteristics and similarities. They are interrelated and the solution of one problem depends on the timely resolution of another.

The topic "Global problems of our time" is one of the main topics in social science lessons at school. On the topic "Global problems, threats and challenges" they make reports and write abstracts, and it is necessary not only to give examples of problems, but also to show their connection, and explain how it is possible to cope with a particular problem.

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The global problems of modern society have become a natural continuation of the uneven development, both between the levels of states (the problem of the North-South), and within the countries themselves in different areas. Which is further aggravated by a large gap between the financial situation, the real standard of living and the opportunities of various strata of society. The emergence of many global problems of our time was facilitated by the scientific and technological revolution, which brought humanity to a new stage of development, gave it modern technologies, allowed it to cope with diseases ... And opened the way to the destruction of the entire planet.

So, as a result of the arms race, already in the 80s, the total stock of weapons was 100 times higher than that used by all participants during the Second World War. Thus, the global problems of the modern world raise sharply the question of the survival of man as a species. This is so important that they are considered not only by social science, but also by sociology, political science, economics, some branches of geography, statistics, ecology, and so on.

There is an opinion that the blame for everything was globalization, which gave rise to such growth. Some also blame certain countries, in particular the economically developed West, as well as Europe, believing that the current state of affairs in the world was largely the result of their exploitation of former monopolies, consumerism and often predatory attitude towards the world ecology.

However, thinking about whether the following judgments about global problems, that is, those already mentioned, are correct, one cannot help but note that the USSR played its role in exactly how everyone came to the present. And the countries that were part of the USSR, with the exception of the Baltic states and partly Georgia, now cannot be called economically successful and belong to this group of states. Nevertheless, this does not relieve them of responsibility, including historical.

Thus, it is difficult to say that the cause of global problems is somehow connected with prosperity or, on the contrary, with backwardness in terms of economic relations. And the phenomenon is much deeper, it is not a simple sum of national or regional problems that have reached a new level. There is an opinion of scientists that a person found himself on the next stage of development and faced new problems for himself. The more opportunities he has, the more serious tasks have to be solved. And the higher the bet - the price for a probable loss. In fact, in the present, the economic, scientific, technological, transportation, etc. capabilities of people as a whole are unprecedented. And, accordingly, the risk is also maximum.

What are they?

Social science and philosophy divide the global problems of mankind into 3 large groups. The first includes those that arose along the line of the relationship between people and nature. In particular, global environmental problems (and we are talking about them) include environmental pollution, the rapid decline in biodiversity, the destruction of ecological systems, the lack of clean drinking water and food. The issue of resources is also often included in this list, although it is rather at the junction.

In terms of people and society as a whole, there is a demographic crisis, which has now become more complicated than just a matter of overpopulation of the planet. So, in some countries there is too much density, while others cannot even simply provide a guaranteed generational change due to a sharp drop in the birth rate. This also includes the problem of poverty, terrorism, social inequality, although the latter will already be controversial, many consider them rather regional, just some - very large-scale.

And finally, intersocial. These are the problems of preventing nuclear war, the backwardness of developing countries in comparison with developed ones. And not only. In general, the global problems of the world economy are associated with hyperinflation, periodic crises, as well as the amount of resources spent on permanent weapons. And now this issue has again been sharply raised in connection with the confrontation between Russia and the West.

Separate global problems of mankind

Some problems are so acute that they stand out from the main group and receive a special status. This is exactly what happened at one time with the greenhouse effect, which began to be discussed separately at the international level, when it was realized that among all environmental problems, this could be the most critical in the near future. Today, the topic of the World Ocean has a similar status.

Recall that it occupies 70% of the land. Without it, there would be no life on the planet. At the same time, ocean pollution is much more difficult to control than many developing countries take advantage of, dumping waste there and thus saving on their disposal or recycling. Developed countries are trying to control this process, but, firstly, they do not always have enough legal capacity, because no country can fully tell another what to do. Secondly, the oceans are huge. To cover the entire space, too large resources will be needed.

In addition, let us recall that the global problems of the world economy are, among other things, also a matter of resources, the provision of raw materials. What does oil production refer to, and now it is increasingly affecting the oceans. Of course, most companies follow safety precautions, try to prevent leaks, and carefully control the process. However, one major accident is enough to affect a significant part of the territory. And it is difficult to localize the disaster zone in the World Ocean.

In general, examples of this kind of global problems are known in large numbers. Sometimes we are talking about a simple mistake, sometimes - about technical imperfection. But most often, tragedies are caused by negligence, neglect of one's own duties, malicious intent, and even more often - poverty (people in developing countries cut down forests, because for them this is often almost the only way to feed themselves) and illiteracy.

Let me explain about the latter: in the modern world, with the availability of education, as well as the Internet, everyone can, if desired, find out what types of plants and (or) animals are listed in the Red Book, what is the danger of their destruction, how to behave in nature. But there are a fairly large number of people living just in places where wild animals gather, who do not understand the whole picture. They do not have Internet access, they may not be aware of the problem. And yet such people

exploit nature without thinking. Many do not understand what else they can have a way out. Educational programs in India, for example, helped save the lives of many leopards: local residents began to help them when they found themselves, quite by accident, in traps designed for other animals.

The relationship of global problems

The global nature of today's existing problems is connected not only with the fact that they have an impact on the entire planet. Among other things, they cannot be solved by the forces of one country or even a group of states. This is where efforts need to be made. And it is also critical to consider the relationship. It is impossible to find something that would relate to the global problems of our time, but at the same time did not influence others or did not experience a corresponding influence - in turn.

In general, the chain can be considered as follows. Approximately two hundred years ago, a critical mass of discontent accumulated in different countries, which led to dramatic social changes and revolutions that took place somewhere earlier, somewhere later. People were no longer satisfied with religion, they began to look for answers in science, which resulted in a scientific and technological revolution. And it led to the creation of new medicines, an increase in living standards, and a solution to the issue of hunger (despite the fact that food shortage continues to be one of the global ones, fewer people are now undernourished than before). As a result, there was a population explosion, as a result - overpopulation.

Which, in turn, led to the threat of resource depletion and environmental pollution. A large number of people in itself can also exacerbate problems between countries and lead to new conflicts. And scientific and technological progress has put new, more powerful and dangerous weapons in the hands of states. Which led to the current state of affairs.

Group	The essence of the problems (characteristic)	Examples of major global issues included in the group
Intersocial global problems	Problems existing in the “society-society” system related to maintaining security and peace on the planet	1. The problem of preventing a global nuclear catastrophe. 2. The problem of war and peace. 3. The problem of overcoming the backwardness of developing countries. 4. Creation of optimal conditions for the social progress of all peoples.
Ecological problems	Problems that exist in the "society - nature" system associated with overcoming various environmental problems	1. Raw material problem. 2. Food problem. 3. Energy problem. 4. Prevention of environmental pollution. 5. Preventing the extinction of various animals and plants.
Social problems	Problems existing in the "man-society" system associated with overcoming complex social problems	1. Demographic problem. 2. The problem of maintaining human health. 3. The problem of the spread of education. 4. Overcoming the negative impacts of scientific and technical revolution (scientific and technological revolution).

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