Character traits: examples. Psychological characteristics of personality
Organizations are made up of people. Some of them make decisions, give orders, achieve their execution. Others - obey, carry out these orders. Together, these leadership and execution processes ensure that organizational goals are achieved. However, they rarely go smoothly, conflict-free. Much more often in organizations there are large and small conflicts on a variety of occasions. The reason for this is that each person is an individual, with his own own system values, individual experience and skills, a unique set of needs and interests, so that in the same situation, people will respond to incentives in different ways. For example, there was an urgent production need to work overtime. The boss offered! for overtime work good bonus. How will people behave? It's safe to say it's different. Some will gladly accept the possibility of additional earnings, others will react to the proposal without enthusiasm, but will obey the authorities, and still others may clearly express their dissatisfaction and even refuse to obey, referring to labor law. Such a range of attitudes, needs and desires of people requires managers to understand the features of the manifestation of personality traits in organizational management. Therefore, the concept of personality is one of the main ones both for psychology in general and for the psychology of management.
term "personality" designate an individual in the totality of his socially significant qualities and traits, expressed in the unique features of his consciousness and activity. Thus, although the natural basis of the personality is formed by all biological characteristics, its essence is not natural factors(for example, one or another type of higher nervous activity), and social parameters - views, abilities, interests, beliefs, values, etc. Personality - an individual included in social relations. This social quality a person, while the term "individual" refers to a separate representative of a biological species Homo sapiens. For example, an individual is a newborn or a severely mentally ill person.
Individuals are not born, individuals are made. The formation of a personality is a complex process in which, on the one hand, an individual forms his inner world in the process of communicating with other people, by mastering the forms and types that have developed in his time. social activities, and on the other - in one way or another in behavior expresses its inner "I", its mental processes. Psychologists usually consider the "core" of a personality to be the sphere of its motives (needs, interests, orientation) and internal regulatory mechanisms (self-awareness, self-esteem, self-respect, etc.).
From a management psychology point of view, importance have such personality traits as temperament, character, abilities and personality orientation. It is on mental properties that the ability or inability of a person to a particular type of activity, his relations in a team largely depend. From this, in particular, the following recommendation follows: when selecting personnel for work, a manager must take into account the mental properties of a particular candidate in order to be confident in his ability to fulfill the necessary professional role in the organization.
The easiest to determine temperament person. Sometimes it is enough for an experienced employee of the personnel department to talk for a few minutes with the applicant for workplace during the interview. Modern researchers recognize the need to take into account sustainable individual features psyches that persist long years(often - all life), and are called temperament. The most common point of view is that temperament depends on the innate physiological characteristics of the human body on its type. nervous system. This explains the stability of temperament, although the nervous system may change somewhat over the course of life depending on the conditions of existence, upbringing, and illnesses experienced, therefore, there are facts of temperament changes under the influence of certain events, changes in lifestyle. Temperament is the individual characteristics of a person, characterizing the speed and rhythm of the course of his mental processes, the degree of stability of his feelings.
The ancient Greek scientist Hippocrates proposed the first classification of temperament types, which is still used as a basis for understanding psychological characteristics person. He identified four main types:
- sanguine;
- choleric;
- phlegmatic person;
- melancholic.
sanguine call a living person, quickly responding to changes environment relatively easy to experience failure. A worker with a sanguine temperament is usually energetic, has a quick speech, and does not get tired for a long time. A negative moment for an employee of this type may be the inability to concentrate for a long time, relative inattention.
Choleric - a person is impulsive, passionate, unbalanced, prone to emotional experiences of what is happening and sudden changes in mood. Workers with this type of temperament are usually highly productive, talk a lot and loudly, and are capable of overcoming difficulties on their own. The disadvantages of such employees may be excessive haste and a tendency to nervous breakdowns.
Phlegmatic person he is slow, imperturbable, his mood is more or less constant, he prefers not to show his states of mind. Such an employee will be balanced, thoughtful, punctual, but sometimes too slow and inert, it will be difficult for him to "switch" to new activities. Phlegmatic people are capable of painstaking, thorough work, which can be a real test for a choleric person.
Melancholic feel easy vulnerable person who is able to deeply and sincerely experience even minor failures, but inside himself, practically without showing it outwardly. Usually melancholic people speak quietly, often embarrassed. Workers of this type do not have the ability to be a leader, a leader, such an assignment can cause them deep anxiety. The melancholic will do best with work that requires stereotyped actions; it is better for him to make critical remarks in private.
An excellent humorous illustration of the behavior of people of different temperaments is a drawing by the Danish artist H. Bidstrup (Fig. 1). It depicts the same situation: a passer-by accidentally sits on the hat of a man sitting on a bench. The situation is the same, but the reaction of people differs in a striking way, depending on their temperament. Look at the picture and try to determine the temperament type of the hat wearer in each case.
Rice. one. x. Bidstrup. Hat
The borders separating different types temperament are quite arbitrary: even people with the same type show it differently, and their behavior may differ in similar situations. Here, the phenomenon of "disguise of temperament" can also manifest itself, when a person deliberately "blocks" certain features of his innate temperament, replacing them with acquired habits and behavioral skills. So, realizing his responsibility for the success of the business, the choleric leader, instead of his temper, can show restraint and self-control. Nevertheless, knowledge of the typical characteristics of the temperament of an employee can facilitate communication with him, contribute to the effective management of his professional activity, to prevent failures and conflict situations.
Other important aspect personality is character - an individual combination of stable mental characteristics of a person, which determines his typical way of behavior in certain conditions and his attitude to reality.
Character is closely related to the temperament of a person, but is not completely determined by him: temperament only leaves its mark on the external form of expression of character, its manifestations. Moreover, if temperament is determined by natural, physiological factors, then character develops in the process of education. It is customary to talk about the types of characters depending on their certainty. A certain character is understood as a character with one or more dominant traits. For example, Gogol's Plyushkin was clearly dominated by greed, and all other traits were subordinate to it. The indefinite character does not have such a clear dominant, in different situations different features come to the fore.
The characters are also described from the point of view of their integrity. Integral characters - those in which there are no obvious contradictions between the awareness of goals and the behavior itself, for them the unity of thoughts and feelings is typical. Pushkin's Tatyana from "Eugene Onegin" can become a classic example of such an integral nature. But there are also contradictory characters, they are characterized by a discord between goals and behavior, the presence of incompatible motives, thoughts, feelings, conflicting desires and aspirations. And again an example from Russian classical literature can be useful as an illustration: Gogol's Khlestakov had just a contradictory character - he dreamed of a brilliant career, but led the life of a loafer, he sincerely wanted to be a respected person, but did not give others a reason for respect, dreamed of wealth, but easily littered with money, when they showed up. Obviously, for a manager, a person with a controversial character can become a source of conflict and anxiety in the team, he is difficult to manage.
Everything in psychology character traits Individuals are divided into the following groups:
- strong-willed (purposefulness, perseverance, determination, indecision, firmness, stubbornness, courage, cowardice);
- moral (sensitivity, humanity, truthfulness, attentiveness, deceit, collectivism, individualism);
- emotional (temper, tenderness, tearfulness, touchiness, passion).
Obviously, for the successful work of an employee in a team, moral character traits are of particular importance - the presence of such qualities as goodwill, sincerity, and attentiveness. For the leader, the possession of such strong-willed character traits as decisiveness, self-control, endurance, etc. comes to the fore.
In addition to the types of temperament, psychology distinguishes related concepts extraversion And introversion. We are talking about the characteristics of the individual psychological differences of a person, the extreme expressions of which speak of the predominant orientation of the personality either to the world of external objects, or to the phenomena of his inner world. extroverts (as a rule, they are sanguine and choleric) are distinguished by their orientation to the outside world, they are characterized by impulsiveness, initiative, flexibility of behavior, sociability. The opposite personality type is introverts (melancholic and phlegmatic), which are characterized by a focus on their own inner world, lack of communication, isolation, social passivity, a tendency to introspection.
For the evaluation of the employee and the manager, the idea of his abilities is no less important. Capabilities - these are individual psychological characteristics, which are subjective conditions for successful activity. Abilities are formed in the process of human interaction with society, other people, they are not limited to the knowledge and skills that a person possesses, they also include the speed and strength of mastering new ways of activity. Abilities are made up of various components, due to which it is possible to compensate for certain weaknesses, lack of abilities in one area with the help of other components that are clearly represented in the human psyche. For example, an employee who does not have the ability to quickly assimilate new knowledge can compensate for this lack of perseverance in achieving goals. Scientists have created numerous methods for the development of certain abilities. There are, for example, methods for developing an ear for music for those who are deprived of it, methods for developing speech and public speaking skills, etc.
For the psychology of management, the problem of the formation of abilities to specific type activities. Most scientists believe that abilities can be developed through the creation personal setting. Installation - the psychological predisposition of the individual to a certain behavior, which prompts him to orient his activity in a certain way. Therefore, in order to improve abilities in a particular area, it is necessary to create in a person an attitude to mastering the subject of activity, otherwise even the most advanced methods of developing abilities may be powerless.
Close to the concept of personal attitude is also orientation of personality a mental property of a person expressing the goals and motives of her behavior. The motives of activity induce a person to perform certain actions, this is what the activity itself is carried out for. Usually, the needs of the individual are specified in the motives - material (in food, clothing, etc.) or spiritual (in reading books, getting an education, communicating with other people, etc.). Needs regulate human activity, being transformed in the brain into the form of desires, drives, interests. How the need is transformed in the brain is an ambiguous process, since the experience of needs reveals a certain independence in relation to the state of the organism. Subject content needs depend on many factors. The famous physiologist I.P. Pavlov cited such interesting example: if a puppy is fed only milk food from birth, and then you offer him meat, then it will not cause him a food reaction. Only after tasting the meat, the puppy begins to react to it as food. The situation with human needs is even more difficult. subject matter even material needs depends not only on the needs of the organism, but also on society, social group to which a person belongs, his upbringing and other social parameters.
Needs take the form of motives in the behavior of the individual. Motives do not remain unchanged, in the process of life they can expand and enrich, or, conversely, narrow. Conscious motives become goals. The totality of motives determines the direction of the personality. For example, for one student, the motive for studying is the grade at the exam and the scholarship assigned to him in accordance with this, for another - acquiring a profession, mastering knowledge. Their learning successes may be the same, but the meaning of their activities is very different. Therefore, it is the motives that induce actions that characterize the personality. We will explore the complex process of motivation in more detail in the next chapter.
Personality in psychology is one of the leading concepts. In the process of development, it begins to form as an individuality, it begins to have specific features that make a person original, unique, different from others. Personality properties in psychology distinguish the following. These are temperament, orientation, abilities, character and others. It is worth dwelling in more detail on the characteristics of some of them.
So, the main types of temperament were identified by Hippocrates, dividing people into four main groups. Unlike other properties, this quality is determined, first of all, by the biological organization of the individual. Its features appear quite early, they can already be seen in young children, in their behavior, games, communication with each other and with adults. So, choleric people are characterized by a strong excitability of the nervous system, which is why they often differ in unbalanced behavior. One of the most stable types of temperament is the sanguine. Usually this is a cheerful person with a quick reaction, thoughtfulness of decisions. The most vulnerable is the melancholic, who has a weak nervous system, and is particularly sensitive to the slightest stimuli. Phlegmatic is difficult enough to swing for any activity, however, if he gets carried away, he will continue to work no matter what, until it is completed. Such personality traits as impressionability, anxiety, emotionality, impulsivity largely depend on the type of temperament.
In psychology, individual personality traits are distinguished (that is, special, characteristic only this person). They include character. This is a kind of warehouse of mental activity, which is manifested in the features of human social behavior. It is formed, as a rule, gradually, through the process of cognition and practical activity. Researchers studying personality traits in psychology distinguish two sides in the character structure, namely content and form. At the same time, they are inextricably linked, constituting an organic unity. The content includes the interests, needs, life values of a person. These are individual-peculiar relationships that speak of the activity of the individual in society. Character forms express various manifestations of relationships, temperament and other qualities. Interests, temperament, will, beliefs, intellect, etc. are also distinguished in the character structure.
Speaking about personality traits, abilities are also distinguished. At the same time, it must be remembered that in psychology this concept is clearly separated from “inclinations”. The latter constitute the natural basis for the development of abilities and are innate anatomical and physiological features of the brain, nervous system, and sensory organs.
No less important than other personality traits are feelings and emotions. Although they are interconnected, they are different phenomena of the emotional sphere. Feelings are characterized by stability and duration. Emotions are a direct manifestation of experiences at a certain moment.
Will is a conscious regulation of one's actions and deeds by a person, despite external or internal difficulties. Most of the people deal with this property almost every day. A person in whom this quality is developed on high level, not only knows himself well, but can also manage circumstances, achieving many of his goals.
Thus, personality traits in psychology are a rather voluminous concept, including a large number of characteristics of a person. At the same time, it is necessary to know them for those who want to better understand themselves or others.
Theme: "Man".
Part 1 . Level A assignments.
A1. Individuality is
1) specific features inherent in man as a biological
body
2) the temperament of a person, his character
3) the unique originality of both natural and
public in man
4) set human needs and abilities
A2. The characteristic that distinguishes man from animals is
1) manifestation of activity
2) goal setting
3) adaptation to the environment
4) interaction with the outside world
A3. Are the following judgments about a person's life in society correct?
A. In man, nature itself has the ability to live in
society.
B. Personality can only be formed in the human
society.
1) only A is true
2) only B is true
3) both statements are correct
4) both judgments are wrong
A4. The results of industrial, social and spiritual
activities of man and society in the aggregate can be
1) culture
2) economy
3) worldview
4) history
A5. Human activity and animal behavior are characterized
1) setting goals
2) self-control mechanism
3) a conscious choice of means
4)Satisfaction
A6. Work as opposed to communication
1) is a human need
2) can give a person pleasure
3)Directly transforms the objects of the environment
4) assumes the presence of a goal
A7. Are the following judgments about human freedom correct?
A. Human freedom is synonymous with permissiveness.
B. Human freedom is impossible in the conditions of social
connections and interactions.
1) Only A is true.
2) Only B is true.
3) Both statements are correct.
4) Both judgments are wrong.
A8. To the needs of a person, due to his biological
nature, include the need for
1)self-preservation
2) self-realization
3) self-knowledge
4) self-education
A9. personality traits are manifested in
1) features of a person as a biological organism
2) hereditary predisposition
3) features of temperament
4) socially transformative activities
A10. Are the following judgments about the manifestation of individual and
public in man?
A. Individual and social in man - the result
biological evolution.
B.Individual and community development no human
connected to each other.
1) only A is true
2) only B is true
3) both statements are correct
4) both judgments are wrong
A11. Both humans and animals are capable of
1) use objects of nature
2) to make tools with the help of other tools
3) transfer labor skills to future generations
4) be aware of your own needs
A12. In such species human activity like communication and
game, the common thing is that they
1)allow use certain rules or norms
2) require the mandatory presence of a partner
3) are conditional
4) prescribe mandatory compliance rituals
gradual evolution from great ape to the actual person?
I.I. Mechnikov
I.P. Pavlov
C. Darwin
J. Cuvier
A14. Which of the following characteristics is characteristic of a person and absent in
animal?
metabolic processes
creative activity
the work of the sense organs
need for food
the means must match the ends
the goal is to obtain reliable knowledge
the individual is the subject
the result is a new product
biological program
natural environment
socialization
A17. The student for the teacher is:
object of activity
competitor
subject of activity
colleague
A. The main thing in the characterization of personality is the participation of a person in public relations and creative activities.
B. A newborn person is a person.
1) true A
right B
A and B are correct
both statements are wrong
radio journalist
cousin
professor
company manager?
Formal interpersonal relationships:
A. They are built depending on the individual characteristics of the individual.
B. Standardized and depersonalized.
only A is correct
only B is correct
both statements are correct
both statements are wrong
organize together with other people into close-knit groups to defend their interests;
to repulse any aggressive attacks against him;
adapt to environmental conditions that are not always favorable for him;
to creative creative activity based on a developed, improving consciousness (thinking, imagination, intuition, etc.)
comfort
communication
cognition
self-respect
A. A person can determine what he is by comparing himself with other people.
B. A person can determine what he is without being interested in the opinion of other people about himself.
only A is correct
only B is correct
both statements are correct
both statements are wrong
A24. Are the following statements about a person correct?
A. Man remains part of the natural world.
B. Man develops in the process of social and cultural evolution.
only A is correct
only B is correct
both statements are correct
both statements are wrong
BUT. Ingenious man makes nature.
B. Mental talent is a quality determined by the biological nature of a person.
only A is correct
only B is correct
both statements are correct
both statements are wrong
production of wealth
knowledge of the laws of development of nature
formation religious beliefs about the world
composing music
is a human need
can make a person happy
assumes a purpose
directly transforms objects in the environment
A. Human freedom presupposes the responsibility of a person to society for his actions and deeds.
B. Freedom is the ability to choose a course of action to achieve some goal.
only A is correct
only B is correct
both statements are correct
both statements are wrong
A person as a separate representative of the human community, a carrier of individually free traits is called:
figure
individual
leader
personality
The world of social and artificial objects created by man.
The world of the supernatural, mysterious and mysterious.
The realm of the true and present, in contrast to the everyday, boring and monotonous life.
The result of overcoming or denying the first - the natural biological nature of man.
This is an innate biopsychic constitution common to all people.
There is nothing but the totality of his basic needs.
It represents the basic and unchanging qualities of a person.
This is a combination of such qualities as reason, conscience, duty, the gift of communication.
labor activity
preservation of the genus
self-preservation
physical activity
articulate speech
consciousness and thinking
ability to take responsibility
presence of physical needs
A. The ideal "I" is an idea of how others want to see me.
B. An integral part of self-knowledge is self-esteem.
only A is correct
only B is correct
both statements are correct
both statements are wrong
natural environment
communication with others
mechanism of heredity
inborn tendencies
A36. Personality is
a person living in society and possessing a system of socially significant features, properties and qualities
temperament of a person, his character
unique psychophysiological features of a person
totality of original human abilities
A37. Are the following judgments about the separation of man from nature correct?
A. The separation of man from nature occurred due to the presence of consciousness in him
and mind.
B. The isolation of man from nature occurred due to the presence of
certain set of instincts.
only A is correct
only B is correct
both A and B are correct
both statements are wrong
A38. The concept of "individuality" captures:
single representative of the human race
features of a person's temperament, his character
human labor activity
the unique original originality of a person, implying not only his appearance, but also a set of socially significant qualities.
A39. The guidelines for human activity are:
values
attraction
needs
interests.
A40. Are the following judgments about the formation of continuity in behavior correct?
human?
A. The functions of innate instincts, characteristic of animals, in humans
replaced by norms (rules).
B. Culture is a peculiar program of human behavior.
only A is correct
only B is correct
both A and B are correct
both statements are wrong
A41. What attribute characterizes a person as a person?
active life position
physical and mental health
belonging to kind of homo sapiens
appearance features
A42. “Individuality is the unique originality of a person, a set of his unique
properties". This statement is an example
artistic image
mythological knowledge
religious norm
scientific knowledge
A43. The properties and roles of a person that he acquires only in interaction with
other people characterize him as
individual
individuality
organism
personality
A44. What is common in the activity of inventors, writers, artists is that it is
administrative
practical
material
creative
A45. Both humans and animals have needs for
self-realization
self-preservation
self-knowledge
self-education
A46. Man, unlike animals, is capable of
do habitual activities
pre-think your behavior
show emotions
take care of offspring
A47. Unlike animals, humans are capable of
respond with feelings
develop conditioned reflexes
meet the needs
predict the results of actions
A48. TO social needs human needs
breathe
eat
sleep
communicate
A49. Scientific discoveries are the result of activities
material and production
socially transformative
practical
spiritual
A50. Play, learning, work act as
criteria of truth
activities
social qualities
biological needs
A51. Indicate one of the signs of human activity that distinguishes it from
animal behavior:
manifestation of activity
goal setting
adaptation to the environment
interaction with the environment
A52. What is the name of the process in which a person comprehends the essence of his "I"?
self-education
self-knowledge
self-preservation
narcissism
A53. The result of self-knowledge, in particular, is
accumulation of knowledge about man and nature
knowledge of the values of society
study of social norms
idea of one's abilities
A54. The process of self-knowledge includes the accumulation of knowledge about the features
A55. The assertion that a person is a product and subject of social
historical activity, is a characteristic of his
social entity
biological nature
physiological features
psychological qualities
A56. Man is a unity of three components: biological,
psychological and social. The social component includes
knowledge and skills
feelings and will
physical development
age features
A57. Are the following statements about personality correct?
A. Personality is a product of biological evolution.
B. Society has the maximum influence on the individual.
1) only A is true
2) only B is true
3) both statements are correct
4) both judgments are wrong
A58. Are the following judgments about the connection between activity and communication correct?
A. Communication is a side of any joint activity, since
activity involves interaction.
B. Communication is a special activity based on the exchange of knowledge, ideas,
actions.
only A is correct
only B is correct
both statements are correct
both statements are wrong
A59. The basis of human existence is
consumerism
activity
love
friendship
A60. Human activity that has a moral or immoral meaning,
called
window dressing
behavior
self-expression
presentation
A61. Will is
power over oneself, control over one's actions, conscious regulation of one's behavior
the ability to hit back an offender
ability to speak
Being born, a new personality receives a unique character as a gift. Human nature can consist of traits inherited from parents, or it can manifest itself in a completely different, unexpected quality.
Nature not only determines behavioral reactions, it specifically affects the manner of communication, attitude towards others and one's own person, to work. Character traits of a person create a certain worldview in a person.
A person's behavioral responses depend on the nature
These two definitions create confusion, because both of them are involved in the formation of personality and behavioral responses. In fact, the character and temperament are heterogeneous:
- The character is formed from a list of certain acquired qualities of the personality's mental make-up.
- Temperament is a biological quality. Psychologists distinguish four types of it: choleric, melancholic, sanguine and phlegmatic.
Having the same warehouse of temperament, individuals can have a completely different character. But temperament has an important influence on the development of nature - smoothing or sharpening it. Also, human nature directly affects temperament.
What is character
Psychologists, speaking of character, mean a certain combination of traits of an individual, persistent in their expression. These traits have the maximum impact on the behavioral line of the individual in diverse relationships:
- among people;
- in the work team;
- to one's own personality;
- to the surrounding reality;
- to physical and mental labor.
The word "character" Greek origin, it means "to mint". This definition was introduced by the naturalist Ancient Greece Theophrastus philosopher. Such a word really, very accurately defines the nature of the individual.
Theophrastus first coined the term "character" The character seems to be drawn as a unique drawing, it gives rise to a unique seal that a person wears in a single copy.
Simply put, character is a combination, a combination of stable individual mental characteristics.
How to understand nature
To understand what kind of nature an individual has, you need to analyze all his actions. It is behavioral reactions that determine examples of character and characterize the personality.
But this judgment is often subjective. Far from always a person reacts as intuition tells him. Action is influenced by upbringing. life experience, the customs of the environment where the person lives.
But you can understand what kind of character a person has. Watching and Analyzing long time actions of a certain personality, it is possible to identify individual, especially stable features. If a person in completely different situations behaves in the same way, showing similar reactions, makes the same decision - this indicates the presence of a certain nature in him.
Knowing which character traits are manifested and dominated by a person, it is possible to predict how she will manifest herself in a given situation.
Character and traits
A character trait is an important part of a personality; it is a stable quality that determines the interaction of a person and the surrounding reality. This is a defining method of resolving emerging situations, so psychologists consider a trait of nature as a predictable personal behavior.
Variety of characters A person acquires features of character in the course of the entire life span, it is impossible to attribute individual features of nature to innate and characterological. In order to analyze and assess the personality, the psychologist not only determines the totality of individual characteristics, but also highlights their distinctive features.
It is the character traits that are defined as leading in the study and compilation of the psychological characteristics of the individual.
But, defining, evaluating a person, studying the features of behavior in the social plan, the psychologist also uses knowledge of the content orientation of nature. It is defined in:
- strength-weakness;
- latitude-narrowness;
- static-dynamic;
- integrity-contradiction;
- integrity-fragmentation.
Such nuances constitute the general complete description a certain person.
List of personality traits
Human nature is the most complex cumulative combination of peculiar features, which is formed into a unique system. This order includes the most striking, stable personal qualities, which are revealed in the gradations of human-society relationships:
| Relationship system | Inherent traits of an individual | |
| Plus | Minus | |
| To self | fastidiousness | Condescension |
| Self-criticism | Narcissism | |
| Meekness | Boastfulness | |
| Altruism | Egocentrism | |
| To the people around | Sociability | Closure |
| Complacency | Callousness | |
| Sincerity | deceitfulness | |
| Justice | Injustice | |
| Commonwealth | Individualism | |
| sensitivity | Callousness | |
| Courtesy | shamelessness | |
| To work | organization | Laxity |
| obligatory | stupidity | |
| diligence | slovenliness | |
| Enterprise | inertia | |
| industriousness | laziness | |
| to items | frugality | Waste |
| thoroughness | Negligence | |
| Neatness | Negligence | |
In addition to character traits included by psychologists in the gradation of relationships (a separate category), manifestations of nature in the moral, temperamental, cognitive and sthenic spheres were identified:
- moral: humanity, rigidity, sincerity, good nature, patriotism, impartiality, responsiveness;
- temperamental: gambling, sensuality, romance, liveliness, receptivity; passion, frivolity;
- intellectual (cognitive): analyticity, flexibility, inquisitiveness, resourcefulness, efficiency, criticality, thoughtfulness;
- sthenic (volitional): categoricalness, perseverance, obstinacy, stubbornness, purposefulness, timidity, courage, independence.
Many leading psychologists are inclined to believe that some personality traits should be divided into two categories:
- Productive (motivational). Such traits push a person to commit certain acts and actions. This is the goal-feature.
- Instrumental. Giving personality during any activity individuality and way (manners) of action. These are traits.
Gradation of character traits according to Allport
Allport's theory
The famous American psychologist Gordon Allport, an expert and developer of gradations of personality traits of an individual, divided personality traits into three classes:
Dominant. Such features most clearly reveal the behavioral form: actions, activities of a certain person. These include: kindness, selfishness, greed, secrecy, gentleness, modesty, greed.
Usual. They are equally manifested in all the numerous spheres of human life. These are: humanity, honesty, generosity, arrogance, altruism, egocentrism, cordiality, openness.
Secondary. These nuances do not have a particular effect on behavioral responses. These are not dominant behaviors. These include musicality, poetry, diligence, diligence.
A strong relationship is formed between the traits of nature existing in a person. This regularity forms the final character of the individual.
But any existing structure has its own hierarchy. The warehouse of man was no exception. This nuance is traced in Allport's proposed gradation structure, where minor features can be suppressed by dominant ones. But in order to predict the act of a person, it is necessary to focus on the totality of the features of nature..
What is typicality and individuality
In the manifestation of the nature of each personality, it always reflects the individual and typical. This is a harmonious combination of personal qualities, because the typical serves as the basis for identifying the individual.
What is a typical character. When a person has a certain set of traits that are the same (common) for a particular group of people, such a warehouse is called typical. Like a mirror, it reflects the accepted and habitual conditions for the existence of a particular group.
Also, typical features depend on the warehouse (a certain type of nature). They are also a condition for the appearance of a behavioral type of character, in the category of which a person is “recorded”.
Having understood exactly what signs are inherent in a given personality, a person can make an average (typical) psychological portrait and assign a certain type of temperament. For example:
| positive | negative |
| Choleric | |
| Activity | Incontinence |
| Energy | irascibility |
| Sociability | Aggressiveness |
| Determination | Irritability |
| Initiative | Rudeness in communication |
| Impulsiveness | Behavior instability |
| Phlegmatic person | |
| persistence | Low activity |
| performance | slowness |
| calmness | immobility |
| Consistency | uncommunicative |
| Reliability | Individualism |
| good faith | laziness |
| sanguine | |
| Sociability | Rejection of monotony |
| Activity | Superficiality |
| benevolence | Lack of persistence |
| adaptability | bad perseverance |
| Cheerfulness | Frivolity |
| Courage | Recklessness in actions |
| Resourcefulness | Inability to focus |
| melancholic | |
| Sensitivity | Closure |
| Impressionability | Low activity |
| diligence | uncommunicative |
| Restraint | Vulnerability |
| cordiality | Shyness |
| Accuracy | Poor performance |
Such typical character traits corresponding to a certain temperament are observed in each (to one degree or another) representative of the group.
individual manifestation. Relationships between individuals always have an evaluative characteristic, they are manifested in a rich variety of behavioral reactions. The manifestation of individual traits of an individual is greatly influenced by emerging circumstances, a formed worldview and a certain environment.
This feature is reflected in the brightness of various typical features of the individual. They are not the same in intensity and develop in each individual individually.
Some typical features are so powerfully manifested in a person that they become not just individual, but unique.
In this case, typicality develops, by definition, into individuality. This classification of personality helps to identify negative characteristics an individual that prevent them from expressing themselves and achieving a certain position in society.
Working on himself, analyzing and correcting the shortcomings in his own character, each person creates the life he aspires to.
Plan
The concept of personality.
Basic concepts: individual, individuality, personality, depersonalization, personalization, self-realization, self-consciousness, self-image, self-concept, psychological defense, identification, cognitive dissonance, value orientations, personality orientation, worldview, motive, motivation, causal attribution, locus of control, motivation to achieve success, motivation to avoid failure.
Literature
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2. Ananiev, B. G. On the problems of modern human knowledge / B. G. Ananiev. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2001. - 272 p.
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4. Burns, E. Development of self-concept and education / E. Burns. - M., 1986.
5. Gippenreiter, Yu. B. Introduction to general psychology / Yu. B. Gippenreiter. - M .: Publishing House of CheRo, "Yurayt", 2000. - 336 p.
6. Godefroy, J. What is psychology: In 2 volumes / J. Godefroy. – M.: Mir, 1999.
7. Leontiev, A. N. Activity. Consciousness. Personality / A. N. Leontiev. - M., 1975. - 304 p.
8. Meili, R. Personality structure // Experimental psychology / R. Meili. – Issue 5. - 1975. - P. 197 - 277. Petrovsky, V. A. Psychology of non-adaptive activity / V. A. Petrovsky. - M .: LLP "Gorbunok", 1992. – 224 p.
9. Raygorodsky, D. Ya. Psychology of personality: in 2 vols. / D. Ya. Raigorodsky. - V.2. Reader. – Second ed., add. – Samara: Publishing House"BAHRAKH-M", 2000. - 544 p.
10. Rubinshtein S. L. Problems of general psychology / S. L. Rubinshtein. - M .: Publishing house of Moscow State University, 1973.
11. Stolin, V. V. Self-consciousness of the individual / V. V. Stolin, - M .: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1983. - 284 p.
12. Freud, Z. Psychology of the unconscious / Z. Freud. – M.: Enlightenment, 1989. – 448 p.
The concept of personality. Personality - the highest integration of all mental processes and properties, the formation of special, purely personal neoplasms: beliefs, value orientations, worldview.
The concept of "personality" is often combined with the word "person". However, these are different concepts. Individual is a biological phenomenon, a representative of Homo sapiens, with genetically transmitted properties. Human - this phenomenon is half biological, half social, participating in socially useful activities. A. G. Asmolov wrote: “They are born an individual, they become a person, and they defend individuality.” Closely related to these concepts is the concept individuality. It has the following features: 1) individuality implies the presence of properties and characteristics of mental processes, neoplasms of one person that distinguish him from other people; 2) permanent, stable difference.
A person is born twice.
First "birth" personality - at the age of three, when self-consciousness appears, a person distinguishes himself from the outside world, realizes himself and his "I". The first sign of independence is noted when a person begins to prefer something, delays one behavior for the sake of another, when a system of his needs is formed and a hierarchy of motives is determined.
Second birth" happening in adolescence when the ability for self-development and self-education appears, when a person realizes himself as a doer, plans his own life. In general, the personality in adolescence is already formed, although later it may change.
In a person's life, there are also crises, turning points, when a rethinking of everything lived and the adoption of new decisions are required. American psychologist Gail Sheehy argues that these crises have a certain theme and frequency, follow each other every seven years, starting at the age of 16. Other researchers believe that the very first mental crisis is a neonatal crisis, then there is a crisis of three years, admission to elementary school, adolescence, a crisis of nineteen years, thirty, thirty-seven, forty-five and beyond every seven years. A mental crisis is a phenomenon of the transition of quantitative changes, accumulations into qualitative ones, at each age there is the formation of one’s neoplasms, the clarification of values, the meanings of life, the ability to see oneself, loved ones and the world around them with different eyes, in a new way.
Thus, a person becomes a person in communication, in joint activities. In every person who enters into concrete historical social relations, there awakens the need to be a person and the ability to become one. This need is determined by the adoption of a social role.
Role- a concept that denotes a person's behavior in a certain life situation corresponding to his position (for example, the role of a doctor, patient, leader, father, mother, etc.).
“The social role is a unit of transmission of social-typical experience, which ensures the adaptive behavior of the individual and expresses the general tendency of the “individual in the group” system to be preserved. Being included in the life of the individual, the role is individualized, ”wrote A. G. Asmolov. If this role is not included in the value system of the individual, then the individual does not "invest" himself in the activity. It only manifests itself at the level of individual operations (knowledge, skills) in accordance with social normative requirements. If the social role acquires a personal meaning, then the person in his activity strives to make the most effective “investment” of his abilities and at the same time goes beyond the limits of normative restrictions, in the interests of the cause he shows non-adaptive activity in solving problems, takes a supra-situational risk (V. A . Petrovsky, 1981).
Thus, the formation of a personality goes through two phases: 1) operational, where the role determines the behavior of the individual, 2) personal-semantic, when the personality personifies the activity, influencing the productivity of the case and thereby causing “contributions” to other people.
At the first stage, there is a tendency towards social adaptation, adherence to the norms and values of the group. Through role prescriptions, "I" passes into "We".
The second stage is characterized by the emergence of freedom of choice, when a person becomes the subject of self-development, determining not only his own destiny, but also the life circumstances of others. The "I" is represented in others. The achievements of a large-scale, mature personality are translated into the experience of other people. A person who has stepped over the normative-role boundaries of activity acts in a new capacity - bright, strong, original. individuality.
In the 20th century, philosophical, sociological, teleological, socio-psychological developments of the problem of personality became more active.
The humanistic approach postulates that in each person there is an orientation that pushes him to the realization of opportunities (Godefroy J.).
According to K. Rogers, every living organism is endowed with the desire to preserve and improve its life. The competence required for this can only be developed in the context of social values, in which the individual is given the opportunity to make positive connections.
According to humanistic psychology, the following personal characteristics:
1) self-consciousness (self-knowledge and self-esteem), when a person distinguishes himself from the outside world and understands his personality as a “I-image”, “I-mental image”, “I-social image”, roles in public life that add up to “ Self-concept" - a complete, complex idea of yourself, not only appearance but also the meaning of life; the main functions of self-consciousness are self-knowledge, self-improvement, search for the meaning of life;
2) consciousness of the continuity and identity of one's "I": "I" - in the past, "I" - now, "I" - in the future; if this connection is broken, depersonalization occurs, or a split personality, and it ceases to exist;
3) individuality:
a) specific mental processes, for example: observation, prudence, impressionability, emotional excitability, determination, initiative;
b) stable manifestation of these mental phenomena in the personality;
4) activity that is generated not by basic needs, not due to the dominant need, but due to the formation of a hierarchy of motives, needs, a person chooses the direction of his activity;
5) self-regulation - not only behavior, but also personal development, setting the goal of life, understanding the meaning of life. Self-regulation leads to self-actualization, personalization, self-development of one's personality, which constantly thinks about it and creates temporary meanings for itself that temporarily satisfy it. Self-actualization - the desire to realize one's potential - and personalization - the desire to enter the lives of other people - are innate human needs (A. G. Maslow's meta-need). There is a fight for this. People want to leave a mark. For some, this becomes the meaning of life: “No! All of me will not die - the soul in the cherished lyre will survive my ashes and run away from decay ... ".
The self-image, that is, the “I-concept”, is also made up of the “I-real” and “I-ideal”. If we feel that we are accepted as we are, then we tend to reveal our true emotions, feelings, thoughts. On the contrary, if we do not correspond to socially approved forms of behavior, then we will hide our feelings and thoughts, demonstrating instead those that are approved by others. This will lead to a discord between the real "I", formed by the environment, and that part of the psyche that we are forced to abandon, which will become a source of anxiety. Personality is balanced the better, the greater the agreement, or congruence, between the real "I" of a person and his feelings, thoughts and behavior. Truth, beauty, perfection and simplicity are the highest values, the vocation of a self-actualizing personality. Involvement in the business, devotion to this business encourages striving for self-improvement.
In the hierarchy of human needs, the desire for self-actualization, according to A. G. Maslow, occupies the top of the pyramid, while the simplest physiological needs lie at its base:
1. Physiological (hunger, thirst, etc.);
2. The need for security, security;
3. The need for love, attachment, acceptance, friendship;
4. The need for respect and self-respect;
5. Cognitive, research needs;
6. Aesthetic (the need for harmony, order, beauty);
7. The need for self-actualization (self-development, realization of abilities).
Personality in its development passes four stages:
1. Survival;
2. Adaptation niche (gaining security);
3. Active activity (knowledge and assessment of the situation);
4. Prosperity of the individual (maladaptive activity). This stage is the most significant and successful for the individual, because in this case the individual is realized as a bright individuality, bringing maximum abilities and contributions to his activity, stepping over normative restrictions and assigning his own face to the activity.
Personality formation: social and biological, unconscious and conscious in personality. The formation of personality occurs under the influence of many factors: the presence of vitamins in the diet, musical instruments, both parents, place of residence, etc., primarily biological, influencing from the inside, and social, influencing from the outside.
The group of factors that act from within is the whole set of innate needs, instincts, growth characteristics (small, tall), physique (thin, fat), appearance (handsome or with body defects), hormonal and humoral balance, and the structure of the nervous system. All these components will indirectly affect the formation of a person's personality. Rarely, only in the presence of a compensatory environment (smart and strong parents, friends, teachers), a disabled child can grow into a morally and psychologically complete person. A beautiful child, more often than other children, can be drawn into a certain system of asocial relations.
On the other hand, from the outside, a person can also be influenced by the whole gamut of social factors: the characteristics of relationships in the family, the school team, the education system, and society as a whole. A person in camps and prisons loses his personality under the influence of the system of these relations. The interaction of factors, their influence on a person is different. The result of personality is in the balance between these two groups of factors.
Biological and social in personality resembles what he wrote about Z. Freud. According to Freud, personality is formed under the influence of three factors (structures):
1. "It" ("id") - a cauldron of lower passions that do not go to the level of consciousness, but give energy to search for objects to satisfy passions according to the principle: satisfy the need, regardless of reality; but this is unacceptable, and the person in real life imposes a "taboo" on it.
2. "I" ("ego") - is formed above the "It" and is separated from it by a thin partition in order to impose restrictions on the actions of the "It". "I" is the result of using experience and thinking to organize behavior. The task of the “I” is to preserve the integrity of the neoplasms that make up the personality, to protect them from the “ids”, as well as from the prohibitions and norms of society due to sublimation, displacement, regression, replacement and other mechanisms of psychological protection.
3. "Super-I" ("super-ego") - stands out from the "I", is formed by society within the personality and consists of taboos and values inspired by parents and society, since personality is an arena of struggle between I want (It) and necessary / impossible (super-I). Sometimes the “super-ego” generates signals, and the person goes to violations, and “guilt” (the mechanism of internal punishment for the possible weakness of the “I”, for the concessions that the “I” made) falls on the “I” of this personality. The "I" includes a part of the "It" and a part of the "super-I". We do not remember many of the taboos that were laid in us in early childhood, what we were limited to. “I” cognizes everything, the whole world, inside the “I” there are entire zones (for example, the Oedipus complex and the Electra complex) that are not realized, but break through in dreams, in forgetfulness, humor, typos, mistakes.
The unconscious always remains unconscious, but it can take on some verbal form: a person should try to find suitable words, as accurate as possible to define his state. The task of the psychoanalyst is to find words that are not frightening and put a different meaning into them in order to correct this state of a person. Sometimes a conflict ripens in a personality if the “It” and the “super-I” are strong. "It" is always strong, always presses on the personality in the same way, but only with a strong "super-I" there are conflicts. If the "super-ego" is weak, "it" is always satisfied. "It" can be compared with a horse, and "I" - with a rider on this horse. The rider can always use the energy of the horse. Sometimes the “I” only pretends to control the “It”, and the whole power of the “I” lies in the sublimation of the “It”, in bringing it into a state acceptable for a person and society, a channel (for example, the fate and work of Leonardo da Vinci).
L. I. Bozhovich identifies 2 main criteria for the formation of personality:
1) the ability to overcome one's own immediate impulses on socially significant facts (“the first birth of a person”, according to A. N. Leontiev);
2) the ability to act on the basis of conscious motives, goals and principles, that is, conscious mediation. "It presupposes the existence of self-consciousness as a special instance of personality." The emergence of self-consciousness means "the second birth of personality." The main function of self-consciousness is self-knowledge, self-improvement, the search for the meaning of life.
Yu. B. Gippenreiter characterizes the following "spontaneous mechanisms of personality formation": 1) the shift of the motive to the goal; 2) identification and 3) development of social roles.
These mechanisms operate in line with the general, general process of "objectifying the need for communication." "The need for another", in contact with one's own kind, turns out to be the main driving force in the formation and development of personality.
Let's take it in order.
1)Shifting the motive to the goal: the norms and requirements of a loving mother are illuminated for the child personal meaning. Communication with her is a joy. Initially, he fulfills her demands in order to continue experiencing this joy. The child performs the required actions (goal) for the sake of communication with the mother (motive). “Over time, an increasing number of positive experiences are “projected” onto this action, and together with their accumulation, the correct action acquires an independent motivating force (becomes a motive). So, at first the action takes place for the sake of one goal, and then the activity itself becomes a motive-inducing, for example: a sailor can first go to sea for the sake of money, then - for the sake of the sea and the whole complex of interactions. The child's need for positive emotional contacts proceeds as a huge internal work, leading to good, correct and cultural behavior and becomes an internal human need. This speaks of a successful upbringing. “That object (idea, goal), which is saturated with positive emotions for a long time and steadfastly, turns into an independent motive (shift of the motive to the goal)” . “If communication with an adult goes badly, joylessly, brings grief, then the child does not have new motives, the correct upbringing of the personality does not occur.” The syndrome of sudden infant mortality is known, when a child not only does not develop as a person, but also dies physically if he is subjected to emotional trauma. “Parents, make your child strong! Your most powerful weapon is unconditional love,” the American scientist Ross Campbell (1992) addresses his readers.
2)Identification- assimilation, identification with someone, gaining personal experience through imitation and an attempt to merge with this image, appropriation of experience; introducing one's personality into the personality of another (in early childhood, through imitation, they learn social experience). Projecting oneself into the personality of an adult or another person and mastering his experience is called social heredity. Then there may be a change in the object of imitation: educator, teacher, leader of peers, etc. Youth does not reject authorities, it only looks for them not in the immediate environment, but fictitious, literary or in pop-rock culture. But then disappointment may come, and the person is freed from identification.
3)Acceptance and development of social roles. This differs from identification in that identification does not occur with a person, but with the role. The child plays roles in early childhood, and this is of great importance, being an essential factor in the formation of his personality.
The transition to the role has several stages:
- the stage of role expectations - at first we dream of becoming someone, we try on this role;
- the stage of implantation into the role - there is an awareness of the role, an understanding of it;
- the stage of performance - the role can lead, leaving a special imprint on the personality, forming qualities in it that were previously absent, for example: a white coat for a doctor, a class magazine for a teacher, a whistle and a club in the hands of a policeman, etc.
So, the fate of the individual is in the hands of the closest social environment, but the strength of the inner desire for self-improvement and self-development raises a person above the personal level - to an original individuality.
B. G. Ananiev defined the following personality levels:
- cellular (type of heredity),
- morphological (type of constitution),
– organic functions (life support),
- psychophysiological (vitality),
- psychological (reflection of the reflected and transformed),
– socio-psychological (role),
– social (statuses).
The vertical movement of the personality becomes possible due to the inclusion basic functions of self-consciousness: self-knowledge, search for the meaning of life, self-improvement. A person, squeezed in the grip of conformism, does not go beyond the norm-group, stereotyped consciousness and behavior. And, conversely, a person who breaks out of the adaptive niche, goes to the explosion of this niche, to the destruction of his physical and social balance, enters into new era of its existence - manifests itself as individuality. According to the definition of S. L. Rubinshtein, the existence of a personality is a continuous going beyond oneself: “With my actions, I constantly explode, change the situation in which I find myself, and at the same time I continuously go beyond myself. This going beyond myself is not a denial of my essence, as existentialists think, it is its formation and, at the same time, the realization of my essence.
Bright individuality such psychological qualities as:
1) creativity and constant creative search;
2) the presence of bright, stable ideas;
3) a sense of the material, including intuition, conjecture, forecasting;
4) persistence and obsession;
5) installation on the originality of the solution of emerging problems.
The non-triviality of personality is "cast" in the style of activity. A person of bright individuality acts not as a formal subject of activity, but as an “author”, contributing to the originality of the operational and semantic aspects of activity. A high professional level of activity turns out to be a condition for the emancipation of an original personality: “The higher the skill, the more clearly the individual handwriting is manifested” (Klimov E. M., 1969).
Orientation of the personality (role).
Orientation of personality a personality property that characterizes the totality of stable motives that guide the personality's activity and are relatively independent of the current situations. This is an integrative system-forming property that mobilizes and regulates human activity in specific situations. The orientation of the personality is characterized by its interests, beliefs, ideals, in which the worldview of a person is expressed. The content side of the personality's orientation is value orientations. The formation of personality orientation is associated with the development of self-awareness and with the transition from external criteria for evaluating oneself and one's actions to internal ones based on one's own beliefs, values and meanings. The orientation of the individual is found in the style of thinking, behavior, relationships, communication and activities, in the nature of attitudes, value orientations and goals. The essence of orientation is not only “what” a person wants, but “why” he wants it, that is, the motives of his behavior.
Value orientations - 1) ideological, political, moral, aesthetic and other grounds for the assessment by the subject of the surrounding reality and orientation in it; 2) a way of differentiating objects by an individual according to their significance. Value orientations are formed during the assimilation of social experience and are found in goals, ideals, beliefs, interests and other manifestations of the personality. The coincidence of the most important value orientations of the members of the group ensures its cohesion (value-oriented unity).
Need- this is a need for something, some kind of anxiety of the body, experienced by a subjectively defined feeling. The need gives rise to an impulse - a feeling of lack of something, which has a certain direction and purpose. Needs are the source of human activity.
motive- perceived need as well as 1) motivation for activity related to meeting the needs of the subject; a set of external or internal conditions that cause the activity of the subject and determine its direction; 2) the object (material or ideal) that stimulates and determines the choice of the direction of activity, for the sake of which it is carried out; 3) the perceived reason underlying the choice of actions and actions of the individual; 4) what belongs to the subject of behavior itself is his stable personal property, which prompts him to perform certain actions from the inside.
outlook- a system of views on the objective world and a person's place in it, on a person's attitude to the reality around him and to himself, as well as the main life positions of people, their beliefs, ideals, principles of knowledge and activity, value orientations conditioned by these views. The social group and the individual really act as the subject of the worldview.
Motivation- a set of conscious needs (motives) that causes the activity of the body and determines the dominant orientation of the personality.
It is a process of continuous choice and decision making based on the weighing of behavioral alternatives. Motivation explains the purposefulness of the action, the organization and sustainability of a holistic activity aimed at achieving a specific goal; These are impulses that cause the activity of the organism and determine its direction. The term "Motivation", taken in a broad sense, is used in all areas of psychology that study the causes and mechanisms of purposeful behavior in humans and animals. According to their manifestations and functions in the regulation of behavior, motivating factors can be divided into three relatively independent classes. When analyzing the question of why the body generally enters a state of activity, the manifestations of needs and instincts as a source of activity. If the question is being studied, what is the activity of the organism aimed at, for the sake of which the choice of these particular acts of behavior, and not others, is made, the manifestations of motives as the reasons for choosing the direction of behavior. When deciding how, how the dynamics of behavior is regulated, the manifestations of emotions, subjective experiences(aspirations, desires, etc.) and installations in the behavior of the subject.
Localization of control and causal attribution.
Causal attribution(from lat.cause - reason, atribucio - I attribute) - one of the most important issues of motivation of human activity - a causal explanation of his actions. Causal attribution is an interpretation by the subject of interpersonal perception of the causes and motives of the behavior of other people, a motivated process of a cognitive plan aimed at comprehending the information received about a person’s behavior, finding out the reasons for certain of his actions, and most importantly, at developing a person’s ability to predict them. If one person knows the reason for the act of another person, then he can not only explain it, but also predict it, and this is very important in communication and interaction between people. Causal attribution simultaneously acts as a person's need to understand the causes of the phenomena he observes, and his ability to such an understanding. Causal attribution is directly related to the regulation of human relations and includes the explanation, justification or condemnation of people's actions.
The study of causal attribution began with the work of F. Haider "The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations" (1958). At the same time, important studies on the perception of a person by a person appeared in the press, where the effects of the influence of the sequence of presenting information about a person on his perception as a person were established, for example, G. Kelly's work on the theory of personality constructs - stable cognitive-evaluative formations, which are a system of concepts, through through which a person perceives the world. One person tends to turn more often to positive characteristics (positive poles of constructs), the other to negative ones.
Personal constructs can serve to predict human behavior, its motivational-cognitive explanation (causal attribution). In modern psychological literature, there are several concepts of the relationship between the motivation of activity (communication, behavior). One of them - theory of causal attribution.
Under causal attribution is understood as the interpretation by the subject of interpersonal perception, the causes and motives of the behavior of other people and the development on this basis of the ability to predict their future behavior. Experimental studies of causal attribution have shown the following: a) a person explains his behavior differently than he explains the behavior of other people; b) the processes of causal attribution are not subject to logical norms; c) a person is inclined to explain the unsuccessful results of his activity by external factors, and the successful ones - by internal factors.
It turned out that people are very willing to attribute the causes of the observed actions of the individual to the stable qualities of the person who performs them, rather than to external circumstances independent of the person. They give reasons for their actions. This pattern has been called the "fundamental error of causal attribution" (I. Jones, 1979).
Locus of control- a characteristic of the localization of the reasons on the basis of which a person explains his behavior and responsibility and the behavior and responsibility of other people observed by him. Internal (internal) locus of control - the search for the causes of behavior and responsibility in the person himself, in himself; external (external) locus of control - the localization of such causes and responsibility outside the person, in his environment, fate.
Self-esteem- assessment by the individual of himself, his capabilities, qualities, advantages and disadvantages, his place among other people. Self-assessment includes assessments of various kinds. Estimation of the first kind- this is an assessment of one's appearance and one's capabilities, the products of one's labor, the results of one's activity. This is a procedural assessment in which the object and the subject are combined. There is an innate need for a positive assessment of oneself, all sides of oneself, and for self-respect. Estimation of the second kind is an assessment in itself of the integral formation of selfevolution. But integral self-esteem is not equal to the “I-concept”, and self-knowledge is not equal to self-esteem. Self-concept includes integrated, sustainable assessments that consist of outcome assessments (rather than the assessment process). Evaluation of the third kind- this is self-esteem as a property of a person, it reveals itself not in evaluative processes, but in the choice of the difficulty of tasks - in the level of claims.
The level of claims of the individual(English . personal level of aspiration) - the desire to achieve goals of the degree of complexity that a person considers himself capable of. It is based on such an assessment of one's capabilities, the preservation of which has become a need for a person. The level of claims can be private and general character. The private nature of the level of claims refers to achievements in certain types and fields of activity or human relations. It is based on self-assessment in the relevant area. The general nature of the level of claims applies to many areas of human life and activity, and above all to those in which his mental and moral qualities are manifested. At the heart of this level of claims is a holistic assessment of oneself as a person. The concept was introduced by K. Levin and his students. The decisive factor in its formation is not objective success or failure in itself, but the subject's experience of his achievements as successful or unsuccessful. The level of claims can be adequate to the capabilities of the individual and inadequate (underestimated, overestimated). An overestimated level of claims can become a source of the affect of inadequacy: conflicts with other people, with oneself, which can lead to deviations in personality development. Compliance of the level of claims with human capabilities is one of the conditions for the harmonious development of the individual.
Theory of achievement motivation in various types activity was created and developed in detail by the American scientists D. McClelland, D. Atkinson and the German scientist H. Hekhauzen. A person has two different motives that are functionally related to activities aimed at achieving success. This is the motive for achieving success and the motive for avoiding failure.
The behavior of people motivated to achieve success and to avoid failure differs as follows. Success-motivated people usually set some positive goal in their activities, the achievement of which can be unequivocally regarded as success. They clearly show a desire to achieve only success in their activities by all means, they are looking for such activities. They are actively involved in it, choose means and prefer actions aimed at achieving the goal. Such people usually have an expectation of success in their cognitive sphere, that is, when they take on some kind of work, they necessarily expect that they will succeed, they are sure of it. They expect to receive approval for actions aimed at achieving their goal, and the work associated with this causes them positive emotions. They are characterized by the full mobilization of all their resources and focus on achieving the goal.
Individuals motivated to avoid failure behave quite differently. Their explicit goal in activity is not to succeed, but to avoid failure, all their thoughts and actions are primarily subordinated to this goal. A person, initially motivated to fail, shows self-doubt, does not believe in the possibility of success, and is afraid of criticism. Negative emotional experiences are usually associated with his work, he does not feel pleasure from the activity, he is burdened by it. As a result, he is often not a winner, but a loser.
Success-oriented individuals are able to better assess their opportunities, successes and failures and usually choose for themselves professions that correspond to their knowledge, skills and abilities. Failure-oriented people, on the contrary, are often characterized by inadequate professional self-determination, preferring for themselves either too easy or too difficult types of professions. At the same time, they often ignore objective information about their abilities, have overestimated or underestimated self-esteem, and an unrealistic level of claims. People who are motivated to succeed are more persistent in achieving their goals. With too easy and very difficult tasks, they behave differently than those who are motivated to fail. With the dominance of the motivation to achieve success, a person prefers tasks of an average or slightly increased degree of difficulty, and with the predominance of the motivation to avoid failure, the tasks that are the easiest and most difficult.
For a person striving for success in activity, the attractiveness of a certain task, interest in it after failure in its solution increases, and for a person focused on failure, it decreases. Individuals motivated to succeed tend to return to solving the problem in which they failed, while those initially motivated to fail tend to avoid it, the desire to never return to it again. People who are initially set to succeed usually achieve better results after failure, and those who were set to avoid failure from the very beginning, on the contrary, achieve better results after success.
Review questions
Give definitions of an individual, a person, a personality, an individuality.
Tell us about the stages of "personality birth".
What stages of personality development do you know?
Name personal characteristics.
What is the orientation of the personality, what is the role?
What mechanisms of personality formation and development do you know?
What is motivation, motive, need, self-esteem, locus of control, value orientations, causal attribution?
What theories of personality and motivation do you know?
What is self-actualization and personalization?
Rice. 38. Motivation (student E. Kocherova, EiU-329)
Rice. 39. Motivation (student E. Maltseva, EiU-329)
Rice. 40. "Personality" and "Motivation" (student G. Kasatkin, EiU-428)
Rice. 41. "Personality" and "Motivation" (student Yu. Goglidze, EiU-428)
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