The most important aspects of Alexander's domestic policy 1 table. Cheat sheet: Domestic policy of Alexander I

Historical portrait of Alexander 1: Alexander Pavlovich reigned as Emperor of Russia from March 23, 1801 to December 1, 1825. He was the son of Emperor Paul 1 and Sophie Dorothea of ​​Württemberg. Alexander was the first Russian king of Poland, reigning from 1815 to 1825, and also the Russian Grand Duke of Finland. He was sometimes called Alexander the Blessed.

Initially a supporter of limited liberalism, as can be seen from his approval of the Polish constitution in 1815, from the end of 1818, Alexander changed his views dramatically. It is said that the revolutionary plot to kidnap him on his way to the Aix-la-Chapelle convention shook the foundations of his liberalism. In Aix, he first came into close contact with Metternich and from that time Metternich's influence on the mind of the Russian emperor and on the Council of Europe ascends.

Alexander firmly believed that he had been chosen by Providence to secure peace in general and European nations in particular. In fulfilling this supposed mission, he was not very successful, because his concept of national happiness - and the means of obtaining it - was significantly different from the desires of other people.

He ruled Russia during the chaotic period of the Napoleonic Wars. As prince and emperor, Alexander often used liberal rhetoric, but continued Russia's absolutist policies in practice.

Domestic and foreign policy

The domestic policy of Alexander 1 is brief: in the early years of his reign, he initiated some minor social reforms and major liberal educational reforms such as building more universities. The collegium was abolished and replaced by the State Council, which was created to improve legislation. Plans were also made to create a parliament and sign a constitution.

The foreign policy of Alexander 1 briefly: In foreign policy, he changed the position of Russia towards France four times between 1804 and 1812 between neutrality, opposition and alliance. In 1805 he joined Great Britain in the War of the Third Coalition against , but after a massive defeat at the Battle of Austerlitz, he made the Treaty of Tilsit (1807) with Napoleon, joined Napoleon's Continental System and fought in the naval war against Great Britain between 1807 and 1812. Alexander and Napoleon could never agree, especially on Poland, and their alliance collapsed by 1810.

The Tsar's greatest triumph came in 1812, when Napoleon's invasion of Russia proved to be a complete disaster for the French. He created the Holy Alliance to suppress revolutionary movements in Europe, which he saw as immoral threats to legitimate Christian monarchs. Alexander helped the Austrian Foreign Minister Klemens von Metternich to suppress all national and liberal movements.

In the second half of his reign, he became more and more arbitrary, reactionary, afraid of conspiracies against him, hindering many previous reforms. He cleared schools of foreign teachers as education became more religiously oriented as well as politically conservative.

The main directions of domestic policy

At first Orthodox Church had little effect on Alexander's life. The young king was set reform the inefficient, highly centralized systems of government that Russia relied on.

The government reform of Alexander I abolished the old Colleges, and in their place new ministries were created, headed by ministers responsible to the Crown. The Council of Ministers, chaired by the emperor, dealt with all interdepartmental issues. The Council of State was created to improve the technique of legislation. It was to become the second chamber of the representative legislature. The governing Senate was reorganized as the Supreme Court of the Empire. The codification of laws, begun in 1801, was never carried out during his reign.

Alexander wanted to resolve another important issue in Russia - the status of serfs, although this was not achieved until 1861 (during the reign of his nephew Alexander II).

The peasant question under Alexander 1 was resolved as follows. In 1801, he created a new social category of "free farmer" for peasants voluntarily freed by their masters.

When did Alexander's reign begin?, there were three universities in Russia:

• in Moscow;
• Vilna (Vilnius).
• Tartu.

They were expanded, and in addition, three more universities were opened:

• in St. Petersburg;
• in Kharkov;
• Kazan.

Literary and scientific bodies were created or encouraged, Alexander later expelled the foreign scientists.

After 1815, military settlements (farms with working soldiers and their families) were introduced with the idea of ​​making the army or part of it economically independent and providing it with recruits.

Foreign policy

By the end of the 18th century, Russia was entering a new phase of its history with respect to foreign affairs. Until now, it has limited its efforts to expand the territory in Eastern Europe and in Asia, and sought foreign alliances only as temporary means to help achieve this goal. Now she began to consider herself a powerful member of the European family, and sought to exercise a predominant influence in all European matters.

The main attention of the emperor was paid not to domestic politics, but to foreign affairs, in particular, to Napoleon. Fearing Napoleon's expansionist ambitions and the rise of French power, Alexander joined Britain and Austria against Napoleon. Napoleon defeated the Russians and Austrians at Austerlitz in 1805.

Napoleonic Wars

Alexander was forced to conclude the Treaty of Tilsit, signed in 1807, after which he became an ally of Napoleon. Russia lost little territory in the treaty, but Alexander used his alliance with Napoleon to expand further. He wrested the Grand Duchy of Finland from Sweden in 1809 and Bessarabia from Turkey in 1812.

After the Battle of Austerlitz (December 1805), the two emperors not only reconciled, but also agreed to divide the world between them. The grandiose project was immediately vaguely outlined in three formal documents, to the intense satisfaction of both parties, and there was much joy on both sides at the conclusion of such a favorable alliance; but the diplomatic honeymoon was not long.

Napoleon, harbored a secret hope that Alexander could be used as an obedient subordinate in the implementation of his own plans. Alexander soon began to suspect that he was being deceived.

His suspicions were heightened by the hostile criticism of the Tilsit Accord among his own subjects and the arbitrary behavior of his ally, who continued his aggression in a reckless manner, as if he were the sole master of Europe.

The rulers were overthrown:

• Sardinia.
• Naples.
• Portugal.
• Spain.

The pope was expelled from Rome. The Confederation of the Rhine was expanded until France gained a foothold in the Baltic Sea. The Grand Duchy of Warsaw was reorganized and strengthened, and the promised evacuation of Prussia was postponed indefinitely. A truce between Russia and Turkey was concluded by French diplomacy so that the Russian troops had to leave the Danubian principalities, which Alexander intended to annex to his empire.

At the same time, Napoleon openly threatened to crush Austria, and in 1809 he carried out his threat by crushing the Austrian armies.

The Russo-French alliance gradually became tense. Napoleon worried about Russia's intentions in the strategically important straits of the Bosporus and the Dardanelles. At the same time, Alexander viewed the French-controlled Polish state with suspicion. The demand to join the continental blockade of France against Great Britain was a serious violation of Russian trade, and in 1810 Alexander refused the obligation.

Invasion

Russia remained the only unconquered power on the continent, and it was obvious that war with it was inevitable and it began in 1812 with the advance of the Napoleonic army on Russia and ended in 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo.

In June 1812, Napoleon invaded Russia with an army of 600,000 men, twice the size of the Russian regular army. Napoleon hoped to inflict a serious defeat on the Russians and force Alexander to agree to surrender. However, during the war, the Russian army inflicted a catastrophic defeat on Napoleon.

During these three years, Alexander was the main antagonist of Napoleon, and it was largely thanks to his skill and perseverance that the Allies liberated Europe forever from Napoleonic domination. When the French retreated, the Russians pursued them into Central and Western Europe, reaching as far as Paris. When the peace was finally concluded, Alexander 1 received a dominant position in European politics, which was the object of his ambitions from the beginning of his reign.

After the Allies defeated Napoleon, Alexander became known as the savior of Europe, and he played a prominent role in redrawing the map of Europe at the Congress of Vienna in 1815. In the same year, under the influence of religious mysticism, Alexander initiated the creation of the Holy Alliance, a loose agreement binding the rulers of the countries involved - including most of Europe - to act in accordance with Christian principles.

More pragmatically, in 1814 Russia, Britain, Austria and Prussia formed the Quadruple Alliance. Allies created international system to maintain the territorial status quo and prevent the resurgence of an expansionist France. The quadruple alliance, confirmed by a number of international conferences, ensured Russia's influence in Europe.

During the war with Napoleon the people of different countries fought to free themselves not only from the yoke of Napoleon, but also from the tyranny of their own governments, while Alexander expected them to remain submissively under the patriarchal institutions that imposed them on the nation. Thus, despite his academic sympathy for liberal ideas, he became, with Metternich, the leader of the political stagnation, and willingly cooperated with the reactionary authorities against the revolutionary movements in Germany, Italy and Spain.

At the same time, Russia continued its expansion. The Congress of Vienna created the Kingdom of Poland (Russian Poland), to which Alexander 1 granted a constitution. Thus, Alexander I became the constitutional monarch of Poland, remaining the autocratic tsar of Russia. He was also the limited monarch of Finland, which was annexed in 1809 and granted autonomous status. In 1813, Russia received territory in the Baku region of the Caucasus at the expense of Persia. By the early nineteenth century, the empire was also well established in Alaska.

Alexander I became Russian Emperor as a result of a palace coup and regicide on March 11, 1801.

In the first years of his reign, he believed that the country needed fundamental reforms and serious renewal. To carry out reforms, he created an Unspoken Committee to discuss reform projects. The secret committee put forward the idea of ​​limiting autocracy, but at first it was decided to carry out reforms in the sphere of administration. In 1802, the reform of the highest bodies of state power began, ministries were created, and the Committee of Ministers was established. In 1803, a decree was issued on "free cultivators", according to which landowners could release their serfs into freedom with land allotments for a ransom. After the appeal of the Baltic landowners, he approved the law on the complete abolition of serfdom in Estonia (1811).

In 1809, the emperor's secretary of state M. Speransky presented to the tsar a project for a radical reform of public administration - a project for the creation of a constitutional monarchy in Russia. Having met the active resistance of the nobles, Alexander I abandoned the project.

In 1816-1822. in Russia, noble secret societies arose - the "Union of Salvation". Welfare Union Southern Society, Northern Society - with the aim of introducing a republican constitution in Russia or a constitutional monarchy. By the end of his reign, Alexander I, under pressure from the nobles and fearing popular uprisings, refused all liberal ideas and major reforms.

In 1812, Russia experienced the invasion of Napoleon's army, the defeat of which ended with the entry of Russian troops into Paris. Russia's foreign policy has undergone fundamental changes. Unlike Paul I, who supported Napoleon, Alexander, on the contrary, opposed France, and resumed trade and political relations with England.

In 1801, Russia and England concluded an anti-French convention "On Mutual Friendship", and then, in 1804, Russia joined the third anti-French coalition. After the defeat at Austerlitz in 1805, the coalition fell apart. In 1807, the forced Peace of Tilsit was signed with Napoleon. Subsequently, Russia and its allies inflicted a decisive defeat on Napoleon's army in the "Battle of the Nations" near Leipzig in 1813.

In 1804-1813. Russia won the war with Iran, seriously expanded and strengthened its southern borders. In 1806-1812. there was a protracted Russo-Turkish war. As a result of the war with Sweden in 1808-1809. Russia included Finland, later Poland (1814).

In 1814, Russia took part in the work of the Congress of Vienna to resolve issues of the post-war structure of Europe and in the creation of the Holy Alliance to ensure peace in Europe, which included Russia and almost all European countries.

THE BEGINNING OF THE REIGN OF ALEXANDER I

And yet, the first years of the reign of Alexander I left the best memories among contemporaries, “A wonderful beginning of the Days of Alexander” - this is how A.S. Pushkin. A short period of enlightened absolutism set in.” Universities, lyceums, gymnasiums were opened. Measures were taken to alleviate the situation of the peasants. Alexander stopped the distribution of state peasants into the possession of the landowners. In 1803, a decree on "free cultivators" was adopted. According to the decree, the landowner could free his peasants by giving them land and receiving a ransom from them. But the landlords were in no hurry to take advantage of this decree. During the reign of Alexander I, only 47 thousand male souls were released. But the ideas laid down in the decree of 1803 subsequently formed the basis of the reform of 1861.

In the Unspoken Committee, a proposal was made to prohibit the sale of serfs without land. Human trafficking was carried out in Russia in undisguised, cynical forms. Announcements about the sale of serfs were published in newspapers. At the Makariev fair, they were sold along with other goods, families were separated. Sometimes a Russian peasant, bought at a fair, went to distant eastern countries, where until the end of his days he lived in the position of a foreign slave.

Alexander I wanted to stop such shameful phenomena, but the proposal to ban the sale of peasants without land ran into the stubborn resistance of the highest dignitaries. They believed that this undermined serfdom. Without showing perseverance, the young emperor retreated. It was forbidden only to publish advertisements for the sale of people.

By the beginning of the XIX century. the administrative system of the state was in a state of apparent collapse. The collegial form of central administration that was introduced clearly did not justify itself. A circular irresponsibility reigned in the colleges, covering up bribery and embezzlement. Local authorities, taking advantage of the weakness of the central government, committed lawlessness.

At first, Alexander I hoped to restore order and strengthen the state by introducing a ministerial system of central government based on the principle of unity of command. In 1802, instead of the previous 12 colleges, 8 ministries were created: military, naval, foreign affairs, internal affairs, commerce, finance, public education and justice. This measure strengthened the central administration. But a decisive victory in the fight against abuse was not achieved. Old vices settled in the new ministries. Growing, they rose to the upper floors of state power. Alexander was aware of senators who took bribes. The desire to expose them struggled in him with the fear of dropping the prestige of the Senate. It became obvious that it was impossible to solve the problem of creating such a system of state power that would actively promote the development of productive forces country rather than devouring its resources. A fundamentally new approach to solving the problem was required.

Bokhanov A.N., Gorinov M.M. History of Russia from the beginning of the XVIII to the end of the XIX century, M., 2001

"RUSSIAN POLICY DOES NOT EXIST"

Russian, Russian politics in the reign of Emperor Alexander I, one might say, does not exist. There is a European policy (a hundred years later they would say "pan-European"), there is a policy of the universe - the policy of the Holy Alliance. And there is the “Russian policy” of foreign cabinets that use Russia and its Tsar for their own selfish purposes by the skillful work of proxies who have unlimited influence on the Sovereign (such, for example, Pozzo di Borgo and Michaud de Boretour - two amazing adjutant generals who ran Russian politics , but for their long-term adjutant general who did not learn a single Russian word).

There are four phases here:

The first is the era of predominantly English influence. This is "the days of Alexander's wonderful beginning." The young Sovereign is not averse to dreaming in a circle of intimate friends about "projects for the Russian constitution." England is the ideal and patroness of all liberalism, including Russian. At the head of the English government, Pitt the Younger is the great son of a great father, the mortal enemy of France in general and Bonaparte in particular. They embark on the wonderful idea of ​​liberating Europe from the tyranny of Napoleon ( financial side England takes over). The result - the war with France - the second French war ... True, little English blood is shed, but Russian blood flows like a river at Austerlitz and Pultusk, Eylau and Friedland.

Friedland is followed by Tilsit, who opens the second era - the era of French influence. Napoleon's genius makes a deep impression on Alexander... The Tilsit banquet, St. George's crosses on the breasts of the French grenadiers... The Erfurt rendezvous - Emperor of the West, Emperor of the East... Russia's hands are untied on the Danube, where she is waging war with Turkey, while Napoleon gets freedom of action in Spain. Russia recklessly joins the continental system without considering all the consequences of this step.

Napoleon left for Spain. In the meantime, Stein's brilliant Prussian head had matured a plan for the liberation of Germany from the yoke of Napoleon - a plan based on Russian blood ... From Berlin to St. Petersburg is closer than from Madrid to St. Petersburg. Prussian influence begins to supplant French. Stein and Pfuel handled the matter skillfully, deftly presenting to the Russian Emperor all the greatness of the feat of "saving the tsars and their peoples." At the same time, their accomplices set Napoleon on Russia, in every possible way insinuating Russia's non-compliance with the continental treaty, touching on Napoleon's sore spot, his hatred for his main enemy - England. Relations between the Erfurt allies completely deteriorated and a trifling pretext (artfully inflated by the efforts of German well-wishers) turned out to be enough to involve Napoleon and Alexander in a cruel three-year war that bled and ruined their countries - but turned out to be extremely profitable (as the instigators counted on) for Germany in general and for Prussia in particular.

Using to the end the weaknesses of Alexander I - a passion for posture and mysticism - foreign cabinets with subtle flattery forced him to believe in their messianism and, through their trusted people, inspired him with the idea of ​​the Holy Alliance, which then turned in their skillful hands into the Holy Alliance of Europe against Russia. Contemporary to those sad events, the engraving depicts "the oath of three monarchs on the coffin of Frederick the Great in eternal friendship." An oath for which four Russian generations paid a terrible price. At the Congress of Vienna, Galicia, which it had received shortly before, was taken away from Russia, and in exchange the Duchy of Warsaw was given, which prudently, to the greater glory of Germanism, introduced into Russia a hostile Polish element. In this fourth period, Russian policy is directed at the behest of Metternich.

WAR OF 1812 AND FOREIGN CAMPAIGN OF THE RUSSIAN ARMY

Of the 650 thousand soldiers of the "Great Army" of Napoleon returned to their homeland, according to some sources, 30 thousand, according to others - 40 thousand soldiers. In essence, the Napoleonic army was not expelled, but exterminated in the endless snowy expanses of Russia. December 21 reported to Alexander: "The war is over for the complete extermination of the enemy." On December 25, the tsar's manifesto, timed to coincide with the Nativity of Christ, was published announcing the end of the war. Russia turned out to be the only country in Europe capable of not only resisting Napoleonic aggression, but also inflicting a crushing blow on it. The secret of victory was that it was a national liberation, truly Patriotic, war. But this victory came at a high cost to the people. Twelve provinces, which became the scene of hostilities, were devastated. The ancient Russian cities of Smolensk, Polotsk, Vitebsk, Moscow were burned and destroyed. Direct military losses amounted to over 300 thousand soldiers and officers. Even greater losses were among the civilian population.

The victory in the Patriotic War of 1812 had a huge impact on all aspects of the social, political and cultural life of the country, contributed to the growth of national self-consciousness, and gave a powerful impetus to the development of advanced social thought in Russia.

But the victorious end of the Patriotic War of 1812 did not yet mean that Russia had succeeded in putting an end to Napoleon's aggressive plans. He himself openly announced the preparation of a new campaign against Russia, feverishly put together a new army for the campaign of 1813.

Alexander I decided to preempt Napoleon and immediately transfer military operations outside the country. In pursuance of his will, Kutuzov, in an order for the army of December 21, 1812, wrote: “Without stopping among heroic deeds, we are now moving further. Let's go through the borders and try to complete the defeat of the enemy on his own fields. Both Alexander and Kutuzov with good reason counted on help from the peoples conquered by Napoleon, and their calculation was justified.

On January 1, 1813, a hundred thousandth Russian army under the command of Kutuzov crossed the Neman and entered Poland. On February 16, in Kalisz, where the headquarters of Alexander I was located, an offensive and defensive alliance was concluded between Russia and Prussia. Prussia also assumed the obligation to supply the Russian army with food on its territory.

In early March, Russian troops occupied Berlin. By this time, Napoleon had formed an army of 300,000, from which 160,000 soldiers moved against the allied forces. A heavy loss for Russia was the death of Kutuzov on April 16, 1813 in the Silesian city of Bunzlau. Alexander I appointed P.Kh. as the commander-in-chief of the Russian army. Wittgenstein. His attempts to lead his own strategy, different from Kutuzov's, led to a number of failures. Napoleon, having inflicted defeats on the Russian-Prussian troops at Luzen and Bautzen in late April - early May, threw them back to the Oder. Alexander I replaced Wittgenstein as Commander-in-Chief of the Allied Forces with Barclay de Tolly.

In July - August 1813 England, Sweden and Austria joined the anti-Napoleonic coalition. At the disposal of the coalition was up to half a million soldiers, divided into three armies. The Austrian Field Marshal Karl Schwarzenberg was appointed commander-in-chief of all the armies, and the general leadership of the conduct of military operations against Napoleon was carried out by the council of three monarchs - Alexander I, Franz I and Friedrich Wilhelm III.

By the beginning of August 1813, Napoleon already had 440 thousand soldiers, and on August 15 he defeated the coalition forces near Dresden. Only the victory of the Russian troops three days after the Battle of Dresden over the corps of Napoleonic General D. Vandam near Kulm prevented the collapse of the coalition.

The decisive battle during the campaign of 1813 took place near Leipzig on October 4-7. It was a "battle of the nations". More than half a million people participated in it from both sides. The battle ended with the victory of the allied Russian-Prussian-Austrian troops.

After the battle of Leipzig, the allies slowly moved towards the French border. In two and a half months, almost the entire territory of the German states was liberated from French troops, with the exception of some fortresses, in which the French garrisons stubbornly defended themselves until the very end of the war.

On January 1, 1814, the Allied forces crossed the Rhine and entered French territory. By this time, Denmark had joined the anti-Napoleonic coalition. The allied troops were continuously replenished with reserves, and by the beginning of 1814 they already numbered up to 900 thousand soldiers. During the two winter months of 1814, Napoleon won 12 battles against them and drew two. In the camp of the coalition again there were fluctuations. The allies offered peace to Napoleon on the condition that France return to the borders of 1792. Napoleon refused. Alexander I insisted on continuing the war, striving to overthrow Napoleon from the throne. At the same time, Alexander I did not want the restoration of the Bourbons to the French throne: he offered to leave Napoleon's infant son on the throne under the regency of his mother, Marie-Louise. On March 10, Russia, Austria, Prussia and England signed the Treaty of Chaumont, according to which they pledged not to enter into separate negotiations with Napoleon about peace or a truce. The threefold superiority of the allies in the number of troops by the end of March 1814 led to a victorious end to the campaign. Having won in early March in the battles of Laon and Arcy sur Aube, a 100,000-strong group of allied troops moved on Paris, defended by a 45,000-strong garrison. March 19, 1814 Paris capitulated. Napoleon rushed to liberate the capital, but his marshals refused to fight and forced him to sign an abdication on March 25. According to the peace treaty signed on May 18 (30), 1814 in Paris, France returned to the borders of 1792. Napoleon and his dynasty were deprived of the French throne, on which the Bourbons were restored. Louis XVIII, who returned from Russia, where he was in exile, became the King of France.

ENTERTAINMENT AND ENTERTAINMENT OF THE ALEXANDER AGE

The holidays of the dynasty were national days of rest and festivities, and every year the whole of Petersburg, seized with festive excitement, waited for July 22. A few days before the celebrations, thousands of people rushed from the city along the Peterhof road: to know in luxurious carriages, nobles, townspeople, commoners - whoever needs it. A journal from the 1820s tells us:

“Several people are crowded on the droshky and willingly endure shaking and anxiety; there, in a Chukhon wagon, there is a whole family with large stocks of provisions of all kinds, and they all patiently swallow thick dust ... Moreover, on both sides of the road there are many pedestrians, whose hunting and strength of legs overpower the lightness of the wallet; peddlers of various fruits and berries - and they rush to Peterhof in the hope of profit and vodka. ... The pier also presents a lively picture, here thousands of people crowd and rush to get on the ship.

Petersburgers spent several days in Peterhof - the parks were open for everyone. Tens of thousands of people spent the night right on the streets. The warm, short bright night did not seem tiring to anyone. The nobles slept in their carriages, the burghers and peasants in the wagons, hundreds of carriages formed real bivouacs. Everywhere one could see horses chewing, people sleeping in the most picturesque poses. They were peaceful hordes, everything was unusually quiet and orderly, without the usual drunkenness and massacre. After the end of the holiday, the guests just as quietly left for St. Petersburg, life went back to its usual track until the next summer ...

In the evening, after dinner and dancing in the Grand Palace, a masquerade began in the Lower Park, where everyone was admitted. By this time, Peterhof parks were being transformed: alleys, fountains, cascades, as in the 18th century, were decorated with thousands of lit bowls and multi-colored lamps. Orchestras played everywhere, crowds of guests in fancy dress walked along the alleys of the park, parting in front of a cavalcade of elegant horsemen and carriages of members royal family.

With the ascension of Alexander, St. Petersburg celebrated its first century with particular joy. In May 1803, there were continuous festivities in the capital. Spectators saw on the birthday of the city how a myriad of festively dressed people filled all the alleys of the Summer Garden ... on the Tsaritsyn Meadow there were booths, swings and other devices for all kinds of folk games. In the evening Summer garden, the main buildings on the embankment, the fortress and the small Dutch house of Peter the Great ... were magnificently illuminated. On the Neva, a flotilla of small ships of the imperial squadron, dismantled with flags, was also brightly lit, and on the deck of one of these ships one could see ... the so-called "Grandfather of the Russian Fleet" - the boat from which the Russian fleet began ...

Anisimov E.V. Imperial Russia. SPb., 2008

LEGENDS AND RUMORS ABOUT THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER I

What happened there in the south is shrouded in mystery. It is officially known that Alexander I died on November 19, 1825 in Taganrog. The body of the sovereign was hastily embalmed and taken to St. Petersburg. […] And around 1836, already under Nicholas I, rumors spread around the country that a certain wise old man Fyodor Kuzmich Kuzmin lives among the people, righteous, educated and very, very similar to the late emperor, although he does not at all pretend to imposture . He walked for a long time in the holy places of Russia, and then settled in Siberia, where he died in 1864. The fact that the elder was not a commoner was clear to everyone who saw him.

But then a furious and insoluble dispute flared up: who is he? Some say that this is the once brilliant cavalry guard Fyodor Uvarov, who mysteriously disappeared from his estate. Others believe that it was the Emperor Alexander himself. Of course, among the latter there are many crazy and graphomaniacs, but there are also serious people. They pay attention to many strange facts. The cause of death of the 47-year-old emperor, in general, a healthy, mobile person, is not fully understood. There is some strange confusion in the documents about the death of the king, and this led to the suspicion that the papers were drawn up backdating. When the body was delivered to the capital, when the coffin was opened, everyone was amazed by the cry of the mother of the deceased, Empress Maria Feodorovna, at the sight of Alexander’s dark, “like a Moor’s” face: “This is not my son!” There was talk of some mistake in the embalming. Or maybe, as supporters of the departure of the king say, this mistake was not accidental? Just shortly before November 19, a courier crashed before the eyes of the sovereign - the carriage was carried by horses. They put him in a coffin, and Alexander himself ...

[…] In recent months, Alexander I has changed a lot. It seemed that some important thought possessed him, which made him thoughtful and resolute at the same time. […] Finally, relatives recalled how Alexander often spoke of being tired and dreaming of leaving the throne. The wife of Nicholas I, Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, wrote in her diary a week before their coronation on August 15, 1826:

“Probably, when I see the people, I will think about how the late Emperor Alexander, once speaking to us about his abdication, added: “How I will rejoice when I see you passing by me, and I will shout to you in the crowd“ Hurray! waving his cap.

Opponents object to this: is it ever seen to give up such power? Yes, and all these conversations of Alexander are just his usual pose, affectation. And in general, why did the king need to go to the people that he did not like so much. Was there no other way to live without the throne - remember the Swedish Queen Christina, who left the throne and went to enjoy life in Italy. Or it was possible to settle in the Crimea and build a palace. Yes, you could go to the monastery, finally. […] Meanwhile, from one shrine to another, pilgrims wandered around Russia with staffs and knapsacks. Alexander saw them many times in his trips around the country. These were not vagabonds, but people full of faith and love for their neighbor, eternal enchanted wanderers of Russia. Their continuous movement along an endless road, their faith, visible in their eyes and not requiring proof, could suggest a way out for the weary sovereign ...

In a word, there is no clarity in this story. The best connoisseur of the time of Alexander I, historian N.K. Schilder, the author of a fundamental work about him, a brilliant connoisseur of documents and an honest person, said:

“The whole dispute is only possible because some certainly want Alexander I and Fyodor Kuzmich to be one and the same person, while others absolutely do not want this. Meanwhile, there are no definite data to resolve this issue in one direction or another. I can give as much evidence in favor of the first opinion as in favor of the second, and no definite conclusion can be drawn. […]

This war began at the initiative of Iran. His army numbered 140,000 cavalry and 60,000 infantry, but it was poorly armed and equipped. The Russian Caucasian army was initially led by General I.V. Gudovich. In a short time, his troops managed to conquer the Ganja, Sheki, Karabakh, Shirvan, Quba and Baku khanates. However, after the unsuccessful assault on the city of Erivan (Yerevan) in 1808, General A.P. Tormasov was appointed commander. He won several more victories.

In 1810. Persians and Turks made an alliance against Russia, which, however, did not help them much. In 1812. Russian troops of General P. S. Kotlyarevsky, consisting of 2 thousand people, attacked the 10 thousandth Persian army led by Crown Prince Abbas Mirza and put it to flight, after which they occupied Arkevan and Lankaran. October 24, 1813. was signed Gulistan peace treaty. The Shah of Iran recognized the territories of Georgia, Dagestan, Shirvan, Mingrelia, Imeretia, Abkhazia and Guria for Russia. He was forced to conclude a military alliance with Russia and grant her the right to free navigation in the Caspian. The result of the war was a serious expansion and strengthening of the southern borders of Russia.

Rupture of the Russian-French alliance.

Alexander unsuccessfully demanded that Napoleon refuse to support the intentions of the Poles to annex the lands of Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine to the Duchy of Warsaw. Finally in February 1811 Napoleon dealt another blow to his " dear ally"- annexed the Duchy of Oldenburg in Germany to France, the crown prince of which was married to Alexander's sister Catherine. In April 1811, the Franco-Russian alliance was broken. Both countries began intensive preparations for an inevitable war.

Patriotic War of 1812 (briefly)

The cause of the war was the violation by Russia and France of the terms of the Tilsit Treaty. Russia actually abandoned the blockade of England, accepting ships with English goods under neutral flags in its ports. France annexed the Duchy of Oldenburg, and Napoleon considered Alexander's demand for the withdrawal of French troops from Prussia and the Duchy of Warsaw insulting. A military clash between the two great powers was becoming inevitable.

June 12, 1812. Napoleon at the head of a 600,000-strong army, crossing the river. Neman, invaded Russia. With an army of about 240 thousand people, the Russian troops were forced to retreat before the French armada. On August 3, the 1st and 2nd Russian armies joined forces near Smolensk, and a battle was fought. Napoleon failed to win a complete victory. In August, M.I. was appointed commander-in-chief. Kutuzov. Kutuzov decided to give battle near the village of Borodino. A good position was chosen for the troops. The right flank was defended by the Koloch River, the left was defended by earthen fortifications - flushes, they were defended by the troops of P.I.Bagration. In the center stood the troops of General N.N. Raevsky and artillery. Their positions were closed by Shevardinsky redoubt.

Napoleon intended to break through the Russian formation from the left flank, and then direct all efforts to the center and press Kutuzov's army to the river. He directed the fire of 400 guns at Bagration's flashes. The French launched 8 attacks, which began at 5 o'clock in the morning, incurring in them huge losses. Only by 4 o'clock in the afternoon did the French manage to advance in the center, temporarily capturing Raevsky's batteries. In the midst of the battle, a desperate raid behind French lines was made by the lancers of the 1st Cavalry Corps F.P. Uvarova and the Cossacks of Ataman M.I. Platov. This held back the attacking impulse of the French.

The battle ended late in the evening. The troops suffered huge losses: the French - 58 thousand people, the Russians - 44 thousand.

September 1, 1812. At a meeting in Fili, Kutuzov decides to leave Moscow. The retreat was necessary for the preservation of the army and the further struggle for the independence of the Fatherland.

Napoleon entered Moscow on September 2 and stayed there until October 7, 1812, awaiting peace proposals. During this time, most of the city was destroyed by fires. Bonaparte's attempts to make peace with Alexander I were unsuccessful.

Leaving Moscow in October, Napoleon tried to go to Kaluga and spend the winter in a province not devastated by the war. On October 12, near Maloyaroslavets, Napoleon's army was defeated and began to retreat along the devastated Smolensk road, driven by frost and hunger. Pursuing the retreating French, the Russian troops destroyed their formations in parts. The final defeat of Napoleon's army took place in the battle near the river. Berezina November 14-16. Only 30 thousand French soldiers were able to leave Russia. On December 25, Alexander I issued a manifesto on the victorious end of the Patriotic War.

Nicholas I

Emperor Nicholas 1 was born on June 25 (July 6), 1796. He was the third son of Paul 1 and Maria Feodorovna. He received a good education, but did not recognize the humanities. He was versed in the art of war and fortification. He was good at engineering. However, despite this, the king was not loved in the army. Cruel corporal punishment and coldness led to the fact that the nickname of Nicholas 1, Nikolai Palkin, was fixed among the soldiers.

Alexandra Fedorovna- the wife of Nicholas 1, who has amazing beauty, - became the mother of the future Emperor Alexander 2.

Nicholas 1 ascended the throne after the death of his elder brother Alexander 1. Constantine, the second pretender to the throne, renounced his rights during the life of his elder brother. Nicholas 1 did not know about this and at first swore allegiance to Constantine. This short period would later be called the Interregnum. Although the manifesto on the accession to the throne of Nicholas 1 was issued on December 13 (25), 1825, legally the reign of Nicholas 1 began on November 19 (December 1). And the very first day was overshadowed by the uprising of the Decembrists on Senate Square, which was suppressed, and the leaders were executed in 1826. But Tsar Nicholas 1 saw the need to reform the social system. He decided to give the country clear laws, while relying on bureaucracy, since trust in the nobility was undermined.

The domestic policy of Nicholas 1 was characterized by extreme conservatism. The slightest manifestations of free thought were suppressed. He defended autocracy with all his might. The secret office under the leadership of Benckendorff was engaged in political investigation.

The reforms of Nicholas 1 were limited. Legislation has been streamlined. Under the leadership of Speransky, the issue of the Complete Collection of Laws began Russian Empire. Kiselev carried out a reform of the management of state peasants. Peasants were allotted land when they moved to uninhabited areas, first-aid posts were built in the villages, and innovations in agricultural technology were introduced. In 1839 - 1843. a financial reform was also carried out, which established the ratio between the silver ruble and banknotes. But the question of serfdom remained unresolved.

The foreign policy of Nicholas 1 pursued the same goals as the domestic policy. During the reign of Nicholas 1, Russia fought the revolution not only within the country, but also outside it.

Nicholas 1 died on March 2 (February 18), 1855 in St. Petersburg, and his son, Alexander 2, ascended the throne.

Brief biography of Alexander 2

The domestic policy of Alexander 2 was strikingly different from the policy of Nicholas 1 and was marked by many reforms. The most important of them was peasant reform Alexander 2, according to which in 1861, on February 19, serfdom was abolished. This reform caused an urgent need for further changes in many Russian institutions and led Alexander II to carry out bourgeois reforms.

In 1864. Zemstvo reform was carried out by decree of Alexander II. Its goal was to create a system of local self-government, for which the institute of the county zemstvo was established.

In 1870. the city reform was carried out, which had a positive effect on the development of industry and cities. City dumas and councils were established, which were representative bodies of power.

The judicial reform of Alexander 2, carried out in 1864, was marked by the introduction of European legal norms, but some features of the previously existing judicial system were retained, for example, a special court for officials.

Military reform Alexandra 2. Its result is universal military service, as well as army organization close to European standards.

In the course of the financial reform of Alexander II, the State Bank was created, and official accounting was born.

The foreign policy of Alexander 2 was very successful. During his reign, Russia regained its military power, which had been shaken under Nicholas 1.

The great reforms of Alexander II were interrupted by his death. March 1, 1881 On that day, Tsar Alexander II intended to sign Loris-Melikov's large-scale economic and administrative reform project. The assassination attempt on Alexander 2, committed by the People's Will Grinevitsky, led to his severe injury and the death of the emperor.

Alexander 3 - the policy of counter-reforms (briefly)

April 29, 1881 - Manifesto, in which the emperor declared his will to preserve the foundations of autocracy and thereby eliminated the hopes of the democrats to transform the regime into a constitutional monarchy.

Alexander III replaced liberal figures in the government with hardliners. The concept of counter-reforms was developed by its main ideologist KN Pobedonostsev.

To strengthen the autocratic system, the system of zemstvo self-government was subjected to changes. In the hands of the zemstvo chiefs, the judicial and administrative power. They had unlimited power over the peasants.

Published in 1890 The "Regulations on Zemstvo Institutions" strengthened the role of the nobility in Zemstvo institutions and the administration's control over them. The representation of landowners in zemstvos increased significantly by introducing a high property qualification.

In 1881. the “Regulations on Measures to Preserve State Security and Public Peace” were issued, which granted numerous repressive rights to the local administration (declare a state of emergency, expel without trial, bring them to a military court, close educational institutions). This law was used until the reforms of 1917 and became a tool for fighting the revolutionary and liberal movement.

In 1892. A new “City regulation” was issued, which infringed on the independence of city governments. The government included them in the general system of state institutions, thereby putting them under control.

Alexander 3 by law of 1893 forbade the sale and pledge of peasant lands, nullifying all the successes of previous years.

In 1884. Alexander undertook a university counter-reform, the purpose of which was to educate an intelligentsia obedient to the authorities. The new university charter severely limited the autonomy of universities, placing them under the control of trustees.

Under Alexander 3, the development of factory legislation began, which restrained the initiative of the owners of the enterprise and excluded the possibility of workers fighting for their rights.

The results of the counter-reforms of Alexander 3 are contradictory: the country managed to achieve an industrial boom, refrain from participating in wars, but at the same time social unrest and tension intensified.

Emperor Nicholas 2 (Nikolai Alexandrovich Romanov)

Nicholas 2 (May 18, 1868 - July 17, 1918) - the last Russian emperor, son of Alexander III.

May 26, 1896. The coronation of Nicholas II and his wife took place. AT holidays a terrible event takes place, called "Khodynki", as a result of which 1282 people died in a stampede.

During the reign of Nicholas 2, Russia experienced a rapid economic recovery. The agricultural sector is strengthening - the country becomes the main exporter of agricultural products in Europe, a stable gold currency is introduced. The industry was actively developing: cities grew, enterprises were built, railways. Nicholas 2 was a reformer, he introduced a standardized day for workers, provided them with insurance, and carried out reforms in the army and navy. The emperor supported the development of culture and science in Russia.

But, despite significant improvements in the country, there were popular unrest. In January 1905, the first Russian revolution took place, the impetus for which was Bloody Sunday. As a result, on October 17, 1905, a manifesto "On the improvement of the state order" was adopted. It talked about civil liberties. A parliament was created, which included the State Duma and the State Council. On June 3 (16), 1907, the “Third of June coup” took place, which changed the rules for elections to the Duma.

In 1914, the First World War began, as a result of which the situation inside the country worsened. Failures in battles undermined the authority of Tsar Nicholas 2. In February 1917, an uprising broke out in Petrograd, which reached grandiose proportions. On March 2, 1917, fearing mass bloodshed, Nicholas 2 signed the act of abdication.

On March 9, 1917, the provisional government arrested the entire Romanov family and sent them to Tsarskoye Selo. In August they are transported to Tobolsk, and in April 1918 to their last destination - Yekaterinburg. On the night of July 16-17, the Romanovs were taken to the basement, the death sentence was read out and the execution was carried out. After a thorough investigation, it was determined that none of the royal family managed to escape.

Russia in World War I

The First World War was the result of contradictions that arose between the states of the Triple Alliance (Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary) and the Entente (Russia, England, France). At the heart of these contradictions was the conflict between England and Germany, including economic, naval and colonial claims. There were disputes between France and Germany over the regions of Alsace and Lorraine that were taken away from France, as well as Germany's claims to French colonies in Africa.

The reason for the start of the war was the murder in Sarajevo on June 25, 1914 of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife. August 19, 1914 Germany declared war on Russia.

Military operations in Europe were divided into two fronts: Western (in France and Belgium) and Eastern - Russian. Russian troops operated on the North-Western Front (East Prussia, the Baltic states, Poland) and the South-Western (Western Ukraine, Transcarpathia). Russia entered the war without having had time to complete the rearmament of its troops.

Successful operations were carried out against German troops near Warsaw and Lodz.

Autumn 1914. Turkey took the side of the Triple Alliance. The opening of the Caucasian front greatly complicated the position of Russia. The troops began to experience an acute need for ammunition, the situation was complicated by the helplessness of the allies.

In 1915. Germany, concentrating its main forces on Eastern Front, conducted a spring-summer offensive, as a result of which Russia lost all the gains of 1914 and partly the territories of Poland, the Baltic States, Ukraine and Western Belarus.

Germany transferred its main forces to the Western Front, where it began active fighting near the fortress of Verdun.

Two offensive attempts - in Galicia and Belarus ended in defeat. The Germans managed to capture the city of Riga and the Moonsund archipelago.

October 26, 1917. The 2nd All-Russian Congress of Soviets adopted the Decree on Peace, in which all the belligerents were asked to start peace negotiations. On November 14, Germany agreed to conduct negotiations, which began on November 20, 1917 in Brest-Litovsk.

A truce was concluded, Germany put forward demands, which the delegation headed by L. Trotsky rejected and left Brest-Litovsk. To this, the German troops responded with an offensive along the entire front. On February 18, the new Soviet delegation signed a peace treaty with Germany on even more difficult terms.

Russia lost Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, part of Belarus. No military presence Soviet troops in the Baltic States, Finland, Ukraine.

Russia pledged to demobilize the army, transfer ships to Germany Black Sea Fleet to pay a cash contribution.

February Revolution of 1917 (briefly)

The difficult economic situation pushed the government to involve the bourgeoisie in managing the economy. Numerous committees and bourgeois unions appeared, the purpose of which was to provide assistance to the victims of the war. Military-industrial committees dealt with issues of defense, fuel, transport, food, etc.

At the beginning of 1917. the level of the strike movement has reached critical point. In January-February 1917, 676,000 workers went on strike, presenting mainly (95% of the strikes) political demands. The growth of the workers' and peasants' movement showed the "unwillingness of the lower classes to live in the old way."

February 14, 1917 A demonstration took place near the Taurida Palace demanding that the deputies of the State Duma create a "government of people's salvation". At the same time, the Bolsheviks, calling on the workers to a one-day general strike, led 90,000 people out onto the streets of Petrograd. The revolutionary explosion was facilitated by the introduction of bread cards, which caused its rise in price and panic among the population. On February 22, Nicholas II left for Mogilev, where his Headquarters was located. On February 23, the Vyborg and Petrograd sides went on strike, pogroms of bakeries and bakeries began in the city.

The success of the revolution began to depend on which side the Petrograd garrison would take. On the morning of February 26, the soldiers of the Volynsky, Preobrazhensky and Lithuanian regiments joined the rebels, they captured the armory and arsenal.

Political prisoners held in the Kresty prison were released. By the end of the day, most of the units of the Petrograd garrison went over to the side of the rebels.

The corps under the command of N.I. Ivanov, sent to suppress the demonstrators, was disarmed on the outskirts of the city. Without waiting for support and realizing the futility of resistance, on February 28, all other troops, led by the commander of the military district, General S.S. Khabalov, surrendered.

The rebels have established control over the most important objects in the city.

On the morning of February 27, members of the "working group" at the Central Military Industrial Committee announced the creation of a "Provisional Executive Committee of Soviets of Workers' Deputies" and called for the election of representatives to the Soviet.

Nicholas II from Headquarters tried to break through to Tsarskoye Selo. In a situation of a developing revolutionary crisis, the emperor was forced to sign a manifesto on abdication for himself and his young son Alexei in favor of his brother, Mikhail Alekseevich Romanov. However, Michael refused the throne, stating that the issue of power should be decided by the Constituent Assembly.

October Revolution of 1917 in Russia

The Great October Socialist Revolution took place on October 25-26, 1917. This is one of the greatest events in the history of Russia, as a result of which there were cardinal changes in the position of all classes of society.

The October Revolution began as a result of a number of good reasons:

• In 1914-1918. Russia was involved in the first world war, the situation at the front was not the best, there was no sensible leader, the army suffered heavy losses. In industry, the growth of military products prevailed over consumer products, which led to an increase in prices and caused discontent among the masses. The soldiers and peasants wanted peace, and the bourgeoisie, who profited from the supply of military equipment, longed for the continuation of hostilities.
• national conflicts.
• The intensity of the class struggle. The peasants, who for centuries dreamed of getting rid of the oppression of the landowners and kulaks and taking possession of the land, were ready for decisive action.
• The fall of the authority of the Provisional Government, which was unable to solve the problems of society.
• The Bolsheviks had a strong authoritative leader V.I. Lenin, who promised the people to solve all social problems.
• The prevalence of socialist ideas in society.

The Bolshevik Party achieved tremendous influence over the masses. In October, there were already 400,000 people on their side. On October 16, 1917, the Military Revolutionary Committee was created, which began preparations for an armed uprising. During the revolution, by October 25, 1917, all the key points in the city were occupied by the Bolsheviks, led by V.I. Lenin. They're taking over the Winter palace and arrest the provisional government.

On October 26, the Decree on Peace and Land was adopted. At the congress, a Soviet government was formed, called the "Council of People's Commissars", which included: Lenin himself (chairman), L.D. Trotsky (People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs), I.V. Stalin (People's Commissar for National Affairs). The “Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia” was introduced, which stated that all people have equal rights to freedom and development, there is no longer a nation of masters and a nation of oppressed.

As a result of the October Revolution, the Bolsheviks won, and the dictatorship of the proletariat was established. The class society was liquidated, the landlords' land was transferred into the hands of the peasants, and industrial facilities: factories, factories, mines - into the hands of the workers.

Civil War and intervention (briefly)

The civil war began in October 1917 and ended with the defeat of the White Army in the Far East in the autumn of 1922. During this time, various social classes and groups on the territory of Russia resolved the contradictions that arose between them by armed methods.

To the main reasons for starting civil war can be attributed:

The discrepancy between the goals of the transformation of society and the methods for achieving them,

Refusal to create a coalition government,

Overclocking Constituent Assembly,

Nationalization of land and industry,

Elimination of commodity-money relations,

The establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat,

Creation of a one-party system,

The danger of the revolution spreading to other countries,

Economic losses of the Western powers during regime change in Russia.

Spring 1918. English, American and French troops landed in Murmansk and Arkhangelsk. within the limits Far East the Japanese invaded, the British and Americans landed in Vladivostok - the intervention began.

May 25 there was an uprising of the 45,000th Czechoslovak corps, which was transferred to Vladivostok for further shipment to France. A well-armed and well-equipped corps stretched from the Volga to the Urals. Under the conditions of decayed Russian army, he became the only real force at that time.

November-December 1918 English troops landed in Batumi and Novorossiysk, the French occupied Odessa. In these critical conditions, the Bolsheviks managed to create a combat-ready army by mobilizing people and resources and attracting military specialists from the tsarist army.

By the autumn of 1918. The Red Army liberated the cities of Samara, Simbirsk, Kazan and Tsaritsyn.

The revolution in Germany had a significant impact on the course of the civil war. Recognizing its defeat in the First World War, Germany agreed to annul the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and withdrew its troops from the territory of Ukraine, Belarus and the Baltic states.

The Entente began to withdraw its troops, providing only material assistance to the Whites.

By April 1919. The Red Army managed to stop the troops of General A.V. Kolchak. Driven into the depths of Siberia, they were defeated by the beginning of 1920.

Summer 1919. General Denikin, having captured Ukraine, moved to Moscow and approached Tula. The troops of the first cavalry army under the command of M.V. Frunze and the Latvian riflemen concentrated on the Southern Front. In the spring of 1920, near Novorossiysk, the "Reds" defeated the Whites.

In the north of the country, the troops of General N.N. Yudenich fought against the Soviets. In the spring and autumn of 1919 they made two unsuccessful attempts to capture Petrograd.

In April 1920. the conflict started Soviet Russia with Poland. In May 1920, the Poles captured Kyiv. The troops of the Western and Southwestern fronts launched an offensive, but failed to achieve a final victory.

Realizing the impossibility of continuing the war, in March 1921 the parties signed a peace treaty.

The war ended with the defeat of General P.N. Wrangel, who led the remnants of Denikin's troops in the Crimea. In 1920, the Far Eastern Republic was formed, by 1922 it was finally liberated from the Japanese.

Formation of the USSR (briefly)

In 1918, the "Declaration of the Rights of the Working and Exploited People" was adopted, proclaiming the principle of the future structure of the country. Its federal basis, as a free union of republics, assumed the right of nations to self-determination. Following this, the Soviet government recognized the independence of Finland and the statehood of Poland.

The collapse of the Russian Empire and the imperialist war led to the establishment of Soviet power throughout Russia.

Proclaimed in 1918. The RSFSR occupied 92% of the entire territory and was the largest of all Soviet republics, where more than 100 peoples and nationalities lived. It partly included the territories of Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan. In fact, until 1922, the Far Eastern Republic functioned in its likeness.

From 1920 to 1921. units of the Red Army occupied these states without visible resistance and established the laws of the RSFSR there. The Sovietization of Belarus passed easily.

In Ukraine, it was not without a struggle with the pro-Kiev course. The process of establishing Soviet power in the Central Asian Soviet People's Republics - Bukhara and Khorezm - was going on heavily. Detachments of the local armed opposition continued to resist there.

Most of the communist leaders of the republics were worried about the existence of "Great Russian chauvinism", so that the unification of the republics into a single whole would not become the creation of a new empire. This problem was perceived especially painfully in Georgia and Ukraine.

The unity and rigidity of the repressive bodies served as powerful factors in the unification of the republics.

The commission of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee was engaged in the development of the principles of the national state structure. Autonomous, federal and confederal options for building a single state were considered.

The plan for the declared autonomous entry of the Soviet republics into the RSFSR was proposed by the People's Commissar for Nationalities, Stalin. However, the commission accepted Lenin's proposal for a union federal state. He gave future republics formal sovereignty.

Lenin clearly understood that a single party and a single repressive system were a sure guarantee of the integrity of the state. Lenin's project could attract other peoples to the union, and not scare them away, as Stalin's version.

December 30, 1922. At the First Congress of Soviets, the formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was proclaimed. The Congress adopted the Declaration and the Treaty.

The Central Executive Committee (CEC) was elected as the supreme legislative body, which consisted of two chambers: the Union Council and the Council of Nationalities.

January 31, 1924. The II All-Union Congress of Soviets adopted the first Constitution of the USSR, which stipulated the principles of the Declaration and the Treaty.

The foreign policy of the USSR was quite active. Progress has been made in relations with the countries of the capitalist camp. An agreement on economic cooperation was signed with France (1966). The Treaty on the Limitation of Strategic Nuclear Arms (SALT-1) is concluded. an important role in the removal international tension played the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) in 1975. The USSR maintained and strengthened ties with developing countries.

The 1980s were a time of radical change and restructuring in the USSR. It led to problems in the social sphere and social production, the impending crisis in the economy of the USSR, caused by a devastating arms race for the country. Course towards democratization public life and publicity was announced by M.S. Gorbachev.

But perestroika could not prevent the collapse of the USSR.

Among the main reasons for the collapse of the USSR are the following:

• The actual destruction of the philosophy of communism, the spirit of which was lost first by the ruling elite of the country, and then by all its citizens.
• The imbalance in the development of industry in the USSR - as in the pre-war years, the main attention was paid to heavy industry, as well as defense and energy. The development of light industry and the level of production of consumer goods were clearly insufficient.
• The ideological failure also played its role. Life behind the Iron Curtain Soviet people seemed beautiful and free. And benefits like free education and medicine, housing and social security were taken for granted, people did not know how to appreciate them.
• Prices in the USSR, relatively low, were artificially "frozen", but there was a problem of shortage of many goods, often also artificial.
• The Soviet man was completely controlled by the system.
• Many experts say that one of the reasons for the fall of the USSR was a sharp drop in oil prices and the prohibition of religions.

The Baltic republics (Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia) were the first to secede from the USSR.

Russia after the collapse of the USSR declared itself the heir great empire. The 1990s turned into a severe crisis for the country in all spheres. The production crisis led to the actual destruction of many industries, the contradiction between the legislative and executive authorities- to a crisis situation in the political sphere.

THE GREAT PATRIOTIC WAR

At dawn on June 22, 1941, Nazi Germany attacked Soviet Union. On the German side were Romania, Hungary, Italy and Finland. In accordance with the Barbarossa plan developed in 1940, Germany planned to enter the Arkhangelsk-Volga-Astrakhan line as soon as possible. It was a setting for a blitzkrieg - a lightning war. Thus began the Great Patriotic War.

The main periods of the Great Patriotic War. The first period (June 22, 1941 - November 18, 1942) from the beginning of the war to the start of the Soviet offensive near Stalingrad. It was the most difficult period for the USSR, called the Battle of Stalingrad.

Having created a multiple superiority in people and military equipment in the main directions of the offensive, the German army has achieved significant success. By the end of November 1941, the Soviet troops, having retreated under the blows of superior enemy forces to Leningrad, Moscow, Rostov-on-Don, left the enemy a vast territory, lost about 5 million people killed, missing and captured, most of the tanks and aircraft .

The second period (November 19, 1942 - the end of 1943) - a radical turning point in the war. Having exhausted and bled the enemy in defensive battles, on November 19, 1942, Soviet troops launched a counteroffensive, surrounding 22 fascist divisions near Stalingrad, numbering more than 300 thousand people. On February 2, 1943, this grouping was liquidated. At the same time, enemy troops were expelled from the North Caucasus. By the summer of 1943, the Soviet-German front had stabilized.

The third period (the end of 1943 - May 8, 1945) is the final period of the Great Patriotic War. In 1944, the Soviet economy reached its highest expansion ever. war time. Industry, transport, and agriculture developed successfully. War production grew especially rapidly.

1944 was marked by the victories of the Soviet Armed Forces. The entire territory of the USSR was completely liberated from the fascist invaders. The Soviet Union came to the aid of the peoples of Europe - the Soviet Army liberated Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, fought its way to Norway. Romania and Bulgaria declared war on Germany. Finland left the war.

During the winter offensive of 1945, the Soviet Army pushed the enemy back more than 500 km. Poland, Hungary and Austria, the eastern part of Czechoslovakia were almost completely liberated. The Soviet Army reached the Oder. On April 25, 1945, a historic meeting of Soviet troops with American and British troops took place on the Elbe, in the Torgau region.

The fighting in Berlin was exceptionally fierce and stubborn. On April 30, the banner of Victory was hoisted over the Reichstag. On May 8, the act of unconditional surrender of Nazi Germany was signed. May 9 - became Victory Day.

Development of the USSR in 1945-1953

The main task post-war period was the restoration of the destroyed economy. In March 1946, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted a plan for the reconstruction and restoration of the national economy.

The demilitarization of the economy and the modernization of the military-industrial complex began. Heavy industry was declared a priority area, mainly engineering, metallurgy, and the fuel and energy complex.

By 1948, production reached pre-war levels thanks to the heroic labor of the Soviet people, the free labor of Gulag prisoners, the redistribution of funds in favor of heavy industry, the transfer of funds from the agricultural sector and light industry, the attraction of funds from German reparations, and strict economic planning.

In 1945, the gross agricultural output of the USSR was 60% of the pre-war level. The government tried to bring the industry out of the crisis by punitive measures.

In 1947, a mandatory minimum of workdays was established, the law “For encroachment on collective farm and state property” was tightened, the tax on livestock maintenance was increased, which led to its mass slaughter.

The areas of individual allotments of collective farmers have been reduced. Reduced wages in kind. Collective farmers were denied passports, which limited their freedom. At the same time, farms were enlarged and control over them was tightened.

These reforms were not successful, and only by the 1950s did they manage to reach the pre-war level of agricultural production.

In 1945 the State Defense Committee was abolished. The work of public and political organizations has been resumed

In 1946, the Council of People's Commissars was transformed into the Council of Ministers, and the people's commissariats into ministries.

Since 1946, the drafting of a new Constitution of the USSR began. In 1947, the Politburo of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks submitted the question “On the project new program VKP(b)".

There have been changes in science and culture. Compulsory seven-year education was introduced in 1952, evening schools were opened. The Academy of Arts and the Academy of Sciences with its branches in the republics were formed. Postgraduate courses are open in many universities. Television began to broadcast regularly.

In 1948, the persecution of "cosmopolitans" began. Bans were imposed on contacts and marriages with foreigners. A wave of anti-Semitism swept across the country.

Khrushchev's foreign and domestic policy

Khrushchev's activities played a significant role in organizing mass repressions, both in Moscow and in Ukraine. During the Great Patriotic War, Khrushchev was a member of the military councils of the fronts, and by 1943 he had received the rank of lieutenant general. Also, Khrushchev led the partisan movement behind the front line.

One of the most famous post-war initiatives was the strengthening of the collective farms, which contributed to the reduction of bureaucracy. In the autumn of 1953, Khrushchev took the highest party post. The reign of Khrushchev began with the announcement of a large-scale project for the development of virgin lands. The purpose of the development of virgin lands was to increase the volume of grain harvested in the country.

Khrushchev's domestic policy was marked by the rehabilitation of the victims political repression, improving the standard of living of the population of the USSR. Also, he made an attempt to modernize the party system.

Foreign policy changed under Khrushchev. Thus, among the theses put forward by him at the 20th Congress of the CPSU, there was also the thesis that the war between socialism and capitalism is by no means inevitable. Khrushchev's speech at the 20th Congress contained rather harsh criticism of Stalin's activities, the personality cult, and political repressions. It was perceived ambiguously by the leaders of other countries. An English translation of this speech was soon published in the United States. But the citizens of the USSR were able to get acquainted with it only in the 2nd half of the 80s.

In 1957 a conspiracy was created against Khrushchev, which was not crowned with success. As a result, the conspirators, which included Molotov, Kaganovich and Malenkov, were dismissed by the decision of the Plenum of the Central Committee.

Brief biography of Brezhnev

During the Great Patriotic War, Brezhnev L.I. served as head of the Southern Front, and received the rank of major general in 1943. At the end of hostilities, Brezhnev successfully builds a political career. He consistently works as secretary of the regional committee of Ukraine and Moldova. Since 1952, he became a member of the Presidium of the Central Committee, and after Khrushchev came to power, he was appointed secretary of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan.

By 1957, Brezhnev returned to the Presidium and after 3 years held the position of Chairman of the Presidium. During the Brezhnev years, the country refuses to implement the ideas of the previous leader, Khrushchev. Since 1965, Brezhnev's unhurried and outwardly more modest reforms began, the goal of which was to build "developed socialism." Enterprises are gaining greater independence than in previous years, and the standard of living of the population is gradually improving, which is especially noticeable in the villages. However, already by the beginning of the 1970s, stagnation appeared in the economy.

In international relations, Khrushchev's course is maintained, and dialogue with the West continues. The agreements on disarmament in Europe, enshrined in the Helsinki Accords, are also important. Tension in international relations reappears only after the entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan.

Brief biography of Gorbachev Mikhail Sergeevich

Party career Gorbachev M.S. turned out to be successful. And high yields in the Stavropol region have created a good reputation for him. In an effort to introduce more rational methods of agricultural labor, Gorbachev publishes articles in the regional and central press. As secretary of the Central Committee, he deals with the problems of the country's agriculture.

Gorbachev came to power in 1985. Later, he held other high posts in the USSR. Gorbachev's rule was marked by serious political reforms designed to put an end to stagnation. The most famous were such actions of the country's leadership as the introduction of cost accounting, acceleration, money exchange. The famous dry law of Gorbachev caused a sharp rejection of almost all citizens of the Union. Unfortunately, the decree "On strengthening the fight against drunkenness" had an absolutely opposite effect. Most of the liquor stores were closed. However, the practice of home brewing has spread almost everywhere. There was also fake vodka. Prohibition was repealed in 1987 for economic reasons. However, fake vodka remained.

Gorbachev's perestroika was marked by a weakening of censorship and, at the same time, a deterioration in the standard of living of Soviet citizens. This happened due to ill-conceived domestic policy. The interethnic conflicts in Georgia, Baku, Nagorno-Karabakh, etc. also contributed to the growth of tension in society. The Baltic republics already during this period headed for secession from the Union.

Gorbachev's foreign policy, the so-called "policy of new thinking", contributed to the detente of the difficult international situation and the end of the Cold War.

In 1989, Mikhail Sergeevich Gorbachev took the post of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, and in 1990 he became the first and only president of the USSR.

In 1990, M. Gorbachev received the Nobel Peace Prize as a person who did a lot to ease international tension. But the country at that time was already in a deep crisis.

As a result August coup In 1991, organized by the former supporters of Gorbachev, the USSR ceased to exist. Gorbachev resigned after the signing of the Belovezhskaya Accords. Subsequently, he continued his social activities, headed the Green Cross and Gorbachev Foundation organizations.

RUSSIA DURING B.N. YELTSIN

June 12, 1991 B.N. Yeltsin elected president Russian Federation. After his election, the main slogans of B. Yeltsin were the fight against the privileges of the nomenklatura and the independence of Russia from the USSR.

July 10, 1991 Boris Yeltsin took an oath of allegiance to the people of Russia and Russian Constitution, and assumed the office of President of the RSFSR.

In August 1991, the confrontation between Yeltsin and the putschists began, which led to a proposal to ban the activities of the Communist Party, and on August 19, Boris Yeltsin delivered a famous speech from a tank, in which he read out a decree on the illegitimate activities of the GKChP. The coup is defeated, the activities of the CPSU are completely banned.

In December 1991, the USSR officially ceased to exist.

December 25, 1991 B.N. Yeltsin received full presidential power in Russia in connection with the resignation of the President of the USSR Mikhail Gorbachev and the actual collapse of the USSR.

1992 - 1993 - new stage in the construction of the Russian state - privatization has begun, economic reform is being carried out.

In September-October 1993, a confrontation between Boris Yeltsin and the Supreme Soviet began, which led to the dissolution of parliament. Unrest in Moscow, which peaked on October 3-4, supporters of the Supreme Soviet seized the television center, the situation was brought under control only with the help of tanks.

In 1994, the 1st Chechen War, which led to a huge number of casualties among both the civilian population and the military, as well as among law enforcement officers.

May 1996 Boris Yeltsin forced to sign an order in Khasavyurt on the withdrawal of troops from Chechnya, which theoretically means the end of the first Chechen war.

In 1998 and 1999 in Russia, as a result of unsuccessful economic policy, a default occurs, then a government crisis.

On December 31, 1999, in a New Year's address to the people of Russia, B. Yeltsin announced his early resignation. Prime Minister V.V. Putin, who provides Yeltsin and his family with guarantees of complete security.

During the reign of Emperor Alexander 1, Russia was already the largest country in the world in terms of size, so a huge number of different peoples and nations lived on its territory. The constant annexation of new lands led to the fact that the Russian Empire included territories with their own culture, traditions and customs. All this had to be taken into account when conducting the internal policy of the country. Therefore, the national policy of Alexander 1 is a very important topic, which allows us to understand the processes that took place in Russia in the first quarter of the 19th century, as well as to demonstrate the position of the authorities in relation to the annexed lands and peoples.

Each of these regions is unique, each with its own traditions and customs. Therefore, we will study the features of the domestic policy of the Russian Empire of the era of Alexander 1, aimed at the national outskirts of the country.

Grand Duchy of Finland

Finnish lands were part of Sweden for a long time. The situation changed in 1809 when the Swedes lost the Russo-Swedish War. The terms of the peace turned out to be rather moderate, but the Swedes lost Finland. On the new land of Russia, it was necessary to carry out a national policy, since the empire included lands with peoples that did not exist before. In Finland, there were mainly 2 nationalities: Swedes and Finns. Alexander 1 chose a very restrained policy for this region, endowing these lands with great independence.

The distinctive features of the national policy of Russia in Finland during the era of Alexander 1 are as follows:

• Office work in the principality was conducted in Swedish. I draw your attention to the fact that the language is not Finnish, since Finland has never had an independent status. The Swedes ruled here for centuries and the main language was Swedish.
• The administration of the principality was carried out by the Sejm - a gathering of representatives of various categories of the population. The Sejm is something similar to the Slavic veche. Without the consent of the Seimas, it was impossible to introduce new laws on the territory of the Principality of Finland, or cancel the old ones.
• The principality was ruled by a governor-general. He, like any other officials, was appointed by the Emperor.
• Finnish Headquarters Committee supervised all administrative matters. It consisted of 12 local residents who were subordinate to the Governor General. Of these 12 residents, 6 were from the nobility and 6 were not.
• The Principality retained full independence in the system of education and self-government.

Finland, in the status of a separate principality of the Russian Empire, received the status of a state within a state. Yes, the Russian emperor appointed the governor-general and other officials, but, as a rule, this candidacy was initially agreed with the Finnish Sejm. In other aspects of the development of the principality, there are no restrictions and no attempts to crush national movement or to completely subjugate the peoples of Finland or Sweden to Russia was not undertaken. Therefore, Finland developed very confidently in Russia and lived without any shocks.

Polish kingdom

Poland was annexed to the Russian Empire in 1815. As a territorial unit and official name used - Polish kingdom. In the same year, the Constitution was approved, according to which the current emperor was approved as the head of the kingdom. The constitution was quite liberal, so the Poles were very happy about it. On the other hand, this led to big problems that resulted in Russian-Polish conflicts already 10 years later, after the death of Alexander 1. The Polish question is very important, since there were many Poles in Russia. They occupied the 3rd place in terms of numbers among all the peoples that inhabited Russia, yielding in numbers only to Russians and Ukrainians. It is noteworthy that the fourth in terms of the number of national representatives in the Russian Empire were Jews, who lived in large numbers on the territory of Poland.

The national policy of Alexander 1 towards Poland assumed:

• The Russian emperor became the full and sole ruler of the Kingdom. However, the Constitution was introduced, which was the main law of this region, and to which the emperor swore, among other things.
• Legislature belonged to the emperor. Partially, these functions fell on the local Sejm, which was attended only by the Poles. The Sejm had the right to recommend the necessary laws to the tsar, but the adoption of laws was assigned exclusively to the State Council under Alexander I.
• Only Poles were to be appointed to all key positions in the administration of the Kingdom.
• The official language in this region remained Polish. Office work was also conducted in Polish.

The Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland is an important topic, since it is unambiguously impossible to interpret it. On the one hand, it maintained Russia's liberal attitude towards the Poles (especially towards the nobility), but on the other hand, it created huge contradictions. The Constitution itself was perceived differently by the emperor and the Polish nobility. The Polish nobility was sure that a liberal constitution was only the first step, and in the future the territory of Poland could grow at the expense of the territories of Ukraine and Belarus in order to recreate the collapsed Commonwealth in the future. Alexander the First was sure that the adoption of the liberal Constitution gave the Kingdom of Poland huge advantages and opportunities, which, perhaps, were even superfluous. Therefore, on the part of the Emperor, the national policy towards the Poles assumed the transfer of specific rights and opportunities, the expansion of which was not expected, and the Polish nobles were sure that the Russian Emperor should continue to increase their rights. As a result, the foundation was laid for subsequent national conflicts in the region.

Comparative position of Poland and Finland

For a detailed description of the national policy of Russia in the era of Alexander 1, I propose to compare the position of Finland and Poland in the Russian Empire, to find common and distinctive features in the management of each of these regions. To do this, we will prepare a special table.

Comparing the position of the two regions of the Russian Empire, it is important to note that the Principality of Finland had greater independence than the Kingdom of Poland. This was largely facilitated by the fact that the Poles had historical disagreements with the Russian Empire, and giving them full independence could create big problems.

Baltic lands

In the western national outskirts of Russia, the Baltic states, the national question was very acute. Basically, this issue concerned the land. You should start with the fact that the Baltic States at the time of the reign of Alexander 1 consisted of 3 provinces:

1. Courland. It became part of the Russian Empire with the collapse of the Commonwealth.
2. Liflyandskaya. Annexed to the Russian Empire in 1721.
3. Estonian.

The Baltic States did not enjoy such broad national privileges as Poland or Finland had. The main issue in this region was land. The issue was very acute, since the peasants were mostly Estonians and Latvians, and the landlords, due to historical reasons, were Germans. Therefore, the national conflicts in this region were not Russian in nature, but exclusively German-Baltic. To solve this problem, in 1804 Alexander actually abolishes serfdom in the Baltics. According to the Decree issued by the emperor, each peasant received land at his disposal, which he had the right to inherit. The landowners lost the right to sell or exchange peasants without land. At the same time, the land and other duties of the peasants to the landlords were significantly reduced.

The implementation of such a national policy by Alexander 1 led to contradictions with the Baltic landowners. To eliminate them, in 1816-1819, partial counter-reforms were carried out on the territory of all 3 Baltic provinces, which partially rolled back what had been done earlier. The peasants retained their independence from the landlords, but lost the right to land, even personal, not to mention inherited. All land returned to the landowners. Peasants received only the right to rent this land. All the organs of administration and execution for the peasants were their own, but now they were controlled by their landowners.

Territory of the Caucasus

The Caucasus has always been a difficult region for Russia. AT early XIX centuries, about 50 nationalities lived here, each of which had its own language, culture and religion. The main language groups of the Caucasus of this period are as follows:

• Iranian. Representatives are Tats, Kurds and Ossetians.
• Armenian. Representative - Armenians.
• Turkic. Representatives are Balkars, Kumyks, Azerbaijanis, Karachays, Nogais.
• Karelian. Representatives are Georgians.
• North Caucasian. Representatives are Ingush, Circassians, Abazins, Lezgins, Sokurs, Abkhazians, Dargins, Rutulians and others.

All peoples had their own language. They had a different religion. They had different culture and customs. They were doing different things and various industries. The Russian Empire expanded its possessions in the Caucasus. The national policy here was rather soft and the regions did not lose their status and their right to religion, language and traditions. For the Russian Empire itself, the annexation of the regions of the Caucasus spoiled relations primarily with Iran and Turkey. These countries also claimed their rights to the region.

The accession of different peoples took place in different ways. Many of them, fleeing from Turkey and Iran, themselves voluntarily joined the Russian Empire, and some peoples had to be subjugated by force.

Siberia

The national question in Siberia was no less acute for the Russian Empire. Suffice it to say that at the beginning of the 19th century 200 thousand people lived here, and by the middle of the century more than 600 thousand people lived here. Such growth is associated not only with demographic factors, but also with the resettlement of people from the western part of the Empire to the east. At that time, all Siberian peoples were called aliens. There were quite a lot of such foreign peoples, and the Russian Empire set itself the task of preserving the national identity of each of these peoples. The second task was to smoothly and gradually fit these peoples into the life of the empire. To solve these problems in 1822 was adopted Charter on the management of foreigners. Its author was Speransky, who, as of this year, held the post of Governor-General of Siberia. The charter was very progressive and divided all foreigners into three large groups:

1. Stray. These included the Nenets, Koryaks and others. They lived by tribal rules. The leaders of these foreigners were princes from the local nobility.
2. Nomadic. These included Buryats, Yakuts, Khakasses and others. According to the management system, they looked like vagrants.
3. Settled. These included Tatars, Altaians, Mansi and others. These are people who "settled on the ground", so they were equated in rights with the peasants. But they were not serfs. and state peasants.

The Charter of Speransky assumed that wandering and nomadic peoples should eventually move into the status of settled peoples, and also receive the rights of state peasants. It is important to note only the fact that all aliens of Siberia were freed from military service . Even settled peoples, who were equated with state peasants, from military service were released and not allowed to see her. The charter of Speransky from the point of view of history is interesting in that there was no such document in relation to national outskirts and nationalities in any other country in the world. In this regard, the national policy of Alexander 1 was very flexible and very progressive. He did not seek to subdue and destroy the annexed peoples, but, on the contrary, sought to preserve their identity.

Politics of Alexander 1 briefly

Alexander 1 Tsar, who ruled Russia from 1801 to 1825, the grandson of Catherine 2 and the son of Paul 1 and Princess Maria Feodorovna, was born on December 23, 1777. Initially, it was planned that the domestic policy of Alexander 1 and foreign policy would develop in accordance with the course outlined by Catherine 2. In the summer of June 24, 1801, a secret committee under Alexander 1 was created. It included associates of the young emperor. In fact, the council was the highest (unofficial) advisory body in Russia.

The beginning of the reign of the new emperor was marked liberal reforms Alexandra 1. On April 5, 1803, an Indispensable Committee was created, whose members had the right to challenge the royal decrees. Part of the peasants was released. The Decree ʼʼOn free cultivatorsʼʼ was issued on February 20, 1803.

Education was also of great importance. The education reform of Alexander 1 actually led to the creation of a state education system. It was headed by the Ministry of Public Education. Also, on January 1, 1810, the State Council was formed under Alexander 1.

Established 8 ministries: interior, finance, military and ground forces, naval forces, commerce, public education, foreign affairs, justice. The ministers governing them were subordinate to the Senate. The ministerial reform of Alexander 1 was completed by the summer of 1811.

According to the project of Speransky M.M. This outstanding figure in the country was to be created a constitutional monarchy. The power of the sovereign was planned to be limited by a parliament consisting of 2 chambers. At the same time, due to the fact that the foreign policy of Alexander 1 was rather complicated, and the tension in relations with France was constantly intensifying, the reform plan proposed by Speransky was perceived as anti-state. Speransky himself received his resignation in March 1812.

The year 1812 became the most difficult for Russia. But, the victory over Bonaparte significantly increased the authority of the emperor. Planned phased elimination of serfdom in the country. Already by the end of 1820, a draft of the ʼʼState charter of the Russian Empireʼʼ was prepared. The emperor approved it. But the commissioning of the project was, due to many factors, impossible.

In domestic politics, it is worth noting such features as military settlements under Alexander 1. They are better known under the name of ʼʼArakcheevskyʼʼ. The settlements of Arakcheev caused discontent of almost the entire population of the country. Also, a ban on any secret societies was introduced. It began operating in 1822.

(2) Foreign policy in 1801-1812.

Russia's participation in the third anti-French coalition.

Shortly before his death, Paul I broke off all relations with England and entered into an alliance with the ruler of France, Napoleon Bonaparte, who waged war with a coalition (union) of European states led by Great Britain. Alexander resumed trade with England. The Cossack units sent on a campaign against British possessions in India were immediately recalled.

June 5, 1801 ᴦ. Russia and England concluded a convention "On Mutual Friendship" directed against Bonaparte.

Russia in the Caucasus.

Russia pursued an active policy in the Caucasus. Back in 1801 ᴦ. Eastern Georgia voluntarily joined it. In 1803 ᴦ. Mingrelia was conquered. On the next year Imereti, Guria and Ganja became Russian possessions. In 1805 ᴦ. during the Russian-Iranian wars Karabakh and Shirvan were conquered. The annexation of the Ossetian lands was completed. Such a rapid penetration of Russia into the Transcaucasus worried not only Turkey and Iran, but also the European powers.

Russia in the wars of 1806-1807.

In 1806 ᴦ. war in Europe broke out with renewed vigor. The fourth anti-French coalition was created as part of England, Russia, Prussia and Sweden. Napoleon's response was an announcement in 1806 ᴦ. "Continental blockade" of England - a ban on all communications between it and the countries of the European continent, which was supposed to undermine the British economy.

Russia waged war on three fronts. From 1804 ᴦ. she was forced to have significant forces in the Eastern Caucasus to fight Iran. And in December 1806 ᴦ. Napoleon managed to push Turkey to war with Russia, which was promised not only the support of France, but also the return of the lost Crimea and Georgia. In 1807 ᴦ. Russian troops repelled the offensive of the Turks in the Western Caucasus and the Balkans. The Russian fleet under the command of Admiral D.N. Senyavin won major victories in the Dardanelles and Athos sea battles.

Peace of Tilsit 1807 ᴦ. and its consequences.

The meeting of Emperors Alexander I and Napoleon I took place on June 25, 1807 ᴦ. on a raft on the Neman River near the Prussian city of Tilsit. It led to the conclusion of a peace treaty between the two countries. According to this document, Russia recognized all the conquests of Napoleon. She entered into an alliance with France and pledged to go to war with England in the event that she pursues her former course.

Despite a number of clauses of the treaty favorable for Russia, the conditions of the Tilsit peace suited Napoleon more. French dominance in Europe was strengthened. Alexander's accession to the "continental blockade" hurt not only England, but also Russia itself, which suffered great economic damage.

War with Sweden 1808-1809.

Hostilities began on February 9, 1808 ᴦ. Russian troops captured most of Finland and the Aland Islands within a month. March 16, 1808 ᴦ. Emperor Alexander announced the accession of Finland to Russia. In March 1809 ᴦ. a detachment led by General M. B. Barclay de Tolly made an unprecedented transition across the ice of the Baltic Sea and occupied the city of Umeå in Sweden, and a detachment of General P. I. Bagration was sent to the Aland Islands for a subsequent attack on Stockholm.

The defeat of Sweden led to the overthrow of the king there and requests for an end to the war. At the same time, Alexander did not immediately go to the world.
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He convened a meeting of the Diet in the city of Borgo in Finland. The Seimas announced the accession of the Grand Duchy of Finland to Russia. The Principality received broad rights of self-government on the basis of laws operating in this country under the Swedes.

Only then did negotiations begin with Sweden. As signed September 5, 1809 ᴦ. peace treaty, the entire territory of Finland was transferred to Russia, Sweden joined the ʼʼcontinental blockadeʼʼ.

Russo-Turkish War 1806-1812 gᴦ.

At the first stage of this war (1806-1807), Turkey fought against Russia in alliance with France. The war took on a protracted character.
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Even after the Peace of Tilsit, the Russian army did not manage to change the situation for a long time. The turning point came in 1811, after the appointment of M. I. Kutuzov as commander-in-chief of the Russian troops.

War with Iran 1804-1813.

This war began at the initiative of Iran. His army numbered 140,000 cavalry and 60,000 infantry, but it was poorly armed and equipped. The Russian Caucasian army was initially led by General I.V. Gudovich. In a short time, his troops managed to conquer the Ganja, Sheki, Karabakh, Shirvan, Quba and Baku khanates. Moreover, after the unsuccessful assault on the city of Erivan (Yerevan) in 1808 ᴦ. General A.P. Tormasov was appointed commander. He won several more victories.

In 1810 ᴦ. Persians and Turks made an alliance against Russia, which, however, did not help them much. In 1812 ᴦ. Russian troops of General P. S. Kotlyarevsky, consisting of 2 thousand people, attacked the 10 thousandth Persian army led by Crown Prince Abbas Mirza and put it to flight, after which they occupied Arkevan and Lankaran. October 24, 1813 ᴦ. Gulistan peace treaty was signed.
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The Shah of Iran recognized the territories of Georgia, Dagestan, Shirvan, Mingrelia, Imeretia, Abkhazia and Guria for Russia. He was forced to conclude a military alliance with Russia and grant her the right to free navigation in the Caspian. The result of the war was a serious expansion and strengthening of the southern borders of Russia.

Rupture of the Russian-French alliance.

Alexander unsuccessfully demanded that Napoleon refuse to support the intentions of the Poles to annex the lands of Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine to the Duchy of Warsaw. Finally in February 1811 ᴦ. Napoleon dealt another blow to his "dear ally" - he annexed the Duchy of Oldenburg in Germany to France, the crown prince of which was married to Alexander's sister Ekaterina. In April 1811 ᴦ. the Franco-Russian alliance was broken. Both countries began intensive preparations for an inevitable war.

(3) Patriotic War of 1812 (briefly)

The cause of the war was the violation by Russia and France of the terms of the Tilsit Treaty. Russia actually abandoned the blockade of England, accepting ships with English goods under neutral flags in its ports. France annexed the Duchy of Oldenburg, and Napoleon considered Alexander's demand for the withdrawal of French troops from Prussia and the Duchy of Warsaw insulting. A military clash between the two great powers was becoming inevitable.

June 12, 1812 ᴦ. Napoleon at the head of a 600,000-strong army, crossing the river.
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Neman, invaded Russia. With an army of about 240 thousand people, the Russian troops were forced to retreat before the French armada. On August 3, the 1st and 2nd Russian armies joined forces near Smolensk, and a battle was fought. Napoleon failed to win a complete victory. In August, M.I. Kutuzov was appointed commander-in-chief. Kutuzov decided to give battle near the village of Borodino. A good position was chosen for the troops. The right flank was defended by the Koloch River, the left was defended by earthen fortifications - flushes, they were defended by the troops of P.I.Bagration. In the center stood the troops of General N.N. Raevsky and artillery. Their positions were closed by Shevardinsky redoubt.

Napoleon intended to break through the Russian formation from the left flank, and then direct all efforts to the center and press Kutuzov's army to the river. He directed the fire of 400 guns at Bagration's flashes. The French launched 8 attacks, which began at 5 o'clock in the morning, suffering huge losses in them. Only by 4 o'clock in the afternoon did the French manage to advance in the center, temporarily capturing Raevsky's batteries. In the midst of the battle, a desperate raid into the rear of the French was made by the uhlans of the 1st cavalry corps of F.P. Uvarov and the Cossacks of Ataman M.I. Platov. This held back the attacking impulse of the French.

The battle ended late in the evening. The troops suffered huge losses: the French - 58 thousand people, the Russians - 44 thousand.

September 1, 1812 ᴦ. At a meeting in Fili, Kutuzov decides to leave Moscow. The retreat was extremely important for the preservation of the army and the further struggle for the independence of the Fatherland.

Napoleon entered Moscow on September 2 and stayed there until October 7, 1812, waiting for peace proposals. During this time, most of the city was destroyed by fires. Bonaparte's attempts to make peace with Alexander I were unsuccessful.

Leaving Moscow in October, Napoleon tried to go to Kaluga and spend the winter in a province not devastated by the war. On October 12, near Maloyaroslavets, Napoleon's army was defeated and began to retreat along the devastated Smolensk road, driven by frost and hunger. Pursuing the retreating French, the Russian troops destroyed their formations in parts. The final defeat of Napoleon's army took place in the battle near the river.
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Berezina November 14-16. Only 30 thousand French soldiers were able to leave Russia. On December 25, Alexander I issued a manifesto on the victorious end of the Patriotic War.

(4) Nicholas I

Emperor Nicholas 1 was born on June 25 (July 6), 1796 ᴦ. He was the third son of Paul 1 and Maria Feodorovna. He received a good education, but did not recognize the humanities. He was versed in the art of war and fortification. He was good at engineering. At the same time, despite this, the king was not loved in the army. Cruel corporal punishment and coldness led to the fact that the nickname of Nicholas 1, Nikolai Palkin, was fixed among the soldiers.

Alexandra Fedorovna - the wife of Nicholas 1, who has amazing beauty - became the mother of the future Emperor Alexander 2.

Nicholas 1 ascended the throne after the death of his elder brother Alexander 1. Constantine, the second pretender to the throne, renounced his rights during the life of his elder brother. Nicholas 1 did not know about this and at first swore allegiance to Constantine. This short period would later be called the Interregnum. Although the manifesto on the accession to the throne of Nicholas 1 was issued on December 13 (25), 1825, legally the reign of Nicholas 1 began on November 19 (December 1). And the very first day was overshadowed by the Decembrist uprising on Senate Square, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ was suppressed, and the leaders were executed in 1826 ᴦ. But Tsar Nicholas 1 saw the extreme importance of reforming the social system. He decided to give the country clear laws, while relying on bureaucracy, since trust in the nobility was undermined.

The domestic policy of Nicholas 1 was characterized by extreme conservatism. The slightest manifestations of free thought were suppressed. He defended the autocracy with all his might. The secret office under the leadership of Benckendorff was engaged in political investigation.

The reforms of Nicholas 1 were limited. Legislation has been streamlined. Under the leadership of Speransky, the publication of the Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire began. Kiselev carried out a reform of the management of state peasants. Peasants were allotted land when they moved to uninhabited areas, first-aid posts were built in the villages, and innovations in agricultural technology were introduced. In 1839 - 1843. a financial reform was also carried out, which established the ratio between the silver ruble and banknotes. But the question of serfdom remained unresolved.

The foreign policy of Nicholas 1 pursued the same goals as the domestic policy. During the reign of Nicholas 1, Russia fought the revolution not only within the country, but also outside it.

Nicholas 1 died March 2 (February 18), 1855 ᴦ. in St. Petersburg, and his son, Alexander 2, ascended the throne.

(5) Brief biography of Alexander 2

The domestic policy of Alexander 2 was strikingly different from the policy of Nicholas 1 and was marked by many reforms. The most important of these was the peasant reform of Alexander 2, according to which serfdom was abolished on February 19, 1861. This reform aroused the urgency of the further change of many Russian institutions and entailed the introduction of bourgeois reforms by Alexander II.

In 1864 ᴦ. Zemstvo reform was carried out by decree of Alexander II. Its goal was to create a system of local self-government, for which the institute of the county zemstvo was established.

In 1870 ᴦ. the city reform was carried out, which had a positive effect on the development of industry and cities. City dumas and councils were established, which were representative bodies of power.

The judicial reform of Alexander 2, carried out in 1864 ᴦ., was marked by the introduction of European legal norms, but some features of the previously existing judicial system were retained, for example, a special court for officials.

The military reform of Alexander 2. Its result is universal military service, as well as army organization close to European standards.

In the course of the financial reform of Alexander II, the State Bank was created, and official accounting was born.

The foreign policy of Alexander 2 was very successful. During his reign, Russia regained its military power, which had been shaken under Nicholas 1.

The great reforms of Alexander II were interrupted by his death. March 1, 1881 ᴦ. On that day, Tsar Alexander 2 intended to sign Loris-Melikov's large-scale economic and administrative reform project. The assassination attempt on Alexander 2, committed by the People's Will Grinevitsky, led to his severe injury and the death of the emperor.

(6) Alexander 3 - the policy of counter-reforms (briefly)

April 29, 1881 - Manifesto, in which the emperor declared his will to preserve the foundations of autocracy and thereby eliminated the hopes of the democrats to transform the regime into a constitutional monarchy.

Alexander III replaced liberal figures in the government with hardliners. The concept of counter-reforms was developed by its main ideologist KN Pobedonostsev.

To strengthen the autocratic system, the system of zemstvo self-government was subjected to changes. In the hands of the zemstvo chiefs, the judicial and administrative powers were combined. Οʜᴎ had unlimited power over the peasants.

Published in 1890 ᴦ. The ʼʼRegulations on zemstvo institutionsʼʼ strengthened the role of the nobility in zemstvo institutions and the administration's control over them. The representation of landowners in zemstvos increased significantly by introducing a high property qualification.

In 1881 ᴦ. ʼʼRegulations on Measures to Preserve State Security and Public Peaceʼʼ, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ granted numerous repressive rights to the local administration (declare a state of emergency, deport without trial, commit a military court, close educational institutions). This law was used until the reforms of 1917 ᴦ. and became a tool for fighting the revolutionary and liberal movement.

In 1892 ᴦ. a new ʼʼCity regulationʼʼ was issued, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ infringed on the independence of city governments. The government included them in the general system of state institutions, thereby putting them under control.

Alexander 3 by law 1893 ᴦ. banned the sale and pledge of peasant lands, nullifying all the successes of previous years.

In 1884 ᴦ. Alexander undertook a university counter-reform, the purpose of which was to educate an intelligentsia obedient to the authorities. The new university charter severely limited the autonomy of universities, placing them under the control of trustees.

Under Alexander 3, the development of factory legislation began, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ held back the initiative of the owners of the enterprise and excluded the possibility of workers fighting for their rights.

The results of the counter-reforms of Alexander 3 are contradictory: the country managed to achieve an industrial boom, refrain from participating in wars, but at the same time social unrest and tension intensified.

(7) Emperor Nicholas 2 (Nikolai Alexandrovich Romanov)

Nicholas 2 (May 18, 1868 ᴦ. - July 17, 1918ᴦ.) - the last Russian emperor, son of Alexander 3.

May 26, 1896 ᴦ. The coronation of Nicholas II and his wife took place. On holidays, a terrible event takes place, called ʼʼKhodynkiʼʼ, as a result of which 1282 people died in a stampede.

During the reign of Nicholas 2, Russia experienced a rapid economic recovery. The agricultural sector is strengthening - the country becomes the main exporter of agricultural products in Europe, a stable gold currency is introduced. The industry was actively developing: cities grew, enterprises and railways were built. Nicholas 2 was a reformer, he introduced a standardized day for workers, provided them with insurance, and carried out reforms in the army and navy. The emperor supported the development of culture and science in Russia.

But, despite significant improvements in the country, there were popular unrest. In January 1905 ᴦ. the first Russian revolution took place, the impetus for which was ʼʼBloody Sundayʼʼ. As a result, October 17, 1905 ᴦ. The manifesto "On the Improvement of State Order" was adopted. It talked about civil liberties. A parliament was created, which included the State Duma and the State Council. 3 (16) June 1907 ᴦ. the ʼʼJune coupʼʼ took place, which changed the rules for elections to the Duma.

In 1914 ᴦ. The First World War began, due to which the situation inside the country worsened. Failures in battles undermined the authority of Tsar Nicholas 2. In February 1917 ᴦ. An uprising broke out in Petrograd, reaching grandiose proportions. March 2, 1917 ᴦ. fearing mass bloodshed, Nicholas 2 signed an act of abdication.

On March 9, 1917, the provisional government arrested the entire Romanov family and sent them to Tsarskoye Selo. In August they are transported to Tobolsk, and in April 1918 ᴦ. to the last destination - Yekaterinburgᴦ. On the night of July 16-17, the Romanovs were taken to the basement, the death sentence was read out and the execution was carried out. After a thorough investigation, it was determined that none of the royal family managed to escape.

(8) Russia in World War I

The First World War was the result of contradictions that arose between the states of the Triple Alliance (Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary) and the Entente (Russia, England, France). At the root of these contradictions was the conflict between England and Germany, including economic, naval and colonial claims. There were disputes between France and Germany over the regions of Alsace and Lorraine that were taken away from France, as well as Germany's claims to French colonies in Africa.

The reason for the start of the war was the murder in ᴦ. Sarajevo June 25, 1914 ᴦ. Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife. August 19, 1914 ᴦ. Germany declared war on Russia.

Military operations in Europe were divided into two fronts: Western (in France and Belgium) and Eastern - Russian. Russian troops operated on the North-Western Front (East Prussia, the Baltic states, Poland) and the South-Western (Western Ukraine, Transcarpathia). Russia entered the war without having had time to complete the rearmament of its troops.

Successful operations were carried out against German troops near Warsaw and Lodz.

In the autumn of 1914 ᴦ. Turkey took the side of the Triple Alliance. The opening of the Caucasian front greatly complicated the position of Russia. The troops began to experience an acute need for ammunition, the situation was complicated by the helplessness of the allies.

In 1915 ᴦ. Germany, having concentrated the main forces on the Eastern Front, carried out a spring-summer offensive, as a result of which Russia lost all the gains of 1914 ᴦ. and partly the territory of Poland, the Baltic States, Ukraine and Western Belarus.

Germany transferred its main forces to the Western Front, where it began active fighting near the fortress of Verdun.

Two offensive attempts - in Galicia and Belarus ended in defeat. The Germans managed to capture ᴦ. Riga and the Moonsund Archipelago.

October 26, 1917 ᴦ. The 2nd All-Russian Congress of Soviets adopted the Decree on Peace, in which all the belligerents were invited to start peace negotiations. On November 14, Germany agreed to conduct negotiations, which began on November 20, 1917 ᴦ. in Brest-Litovsk.

A truce was concluded, Germany put forward demands that the delegation, headed by L. Trotsky, rejected and left Brest-Litovsk. The German troops responded to this with an offensive along the entire front. On February 18, the new Soviet delegation signed a peace treaty with Germany on even more difficult terms.

Russia lost Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, part of Belarus. The military presence of Soviet troops in the Baltic states, Finland, and Ukraine was excluded.

Russia undertook to demobilize the army, transfer the ships of the Black Sea Fleet to Germany and pay a monetary contribution.

The difficult economic situation pushed the government to involve the bourgeoisie in managing the economy. Numerous committees and bourgeois unions appeared, the purpose of which was to provide assistance to the victims of the war. Military-industrial committees dealt with issues of defense, fuel, transport, food, etc.

At the beginning of 1917 ᴦ. the level of the strike movement has reached a critical point. In January-February 1917 ᴦ. 676 thousand workers went on strike, presenting mainly (95% of the strikes) political demands. The growth of the workers' and peasants' movement showed ʼʼthe unwillingness of the lower classes to live in the old wayʼʼ.

On February 14, 1917, a demonstration took place near the Tauride Palace demanding that the deputies of the State Duma create an ʼʼgovernment of people's salvationʼʼ. At the same time, the Bolsheviks, calling on the workers to a one-day general strike, brought 90,000 people to the streets of Petrograd. The revolutionary explosion was facilitated by the introduction of bread cards, which caused its rise in price and panic among the population. On February 22, Nicholas II left for Mogilev, where his Headquarters was located. On February 23, the Vyborg and Petrograd sides went on strike, pogroms of bakeries and bakeries began in the city.

The success of the revolution began to depend on which side the Petrograd garrison would take. On the morning of February 26, the soldiers of the Volynsky, Preobrazhensky and Lithuanian regiments joined the rebels, they captured the armory and arsenal.

Political prisoners held in the ʼʼKrestyʼʼ prison were released. By the end of the day, most of the units of the Petrograd garrison went over to the side of the rebels.

The corps under the command of N.I. Ivanov, sent to suppress the demonstrators, was disarmed on the outskirts of the city. Without waiting for support and realizing the futility of resistance, on February 28, all the rest of the troops, led by the commander of the military district, General S.S. Khabalov, surrendered.

The rebels have established control over the most important objects in the city.

On the morning of February 27, members of the "working group" at the Central Military Industrial Committee announced the creation of the "Provisional Executive Committee of Soviets of Workers' Deputies" and called for the election of representatives to the Council.

Nicholas II from Headquarters tried to break through to Tsarskoye Selo. In a situation of a developing revolutionary crisis, the emperor was forced to sign a manifesto on abdication for himself and his young son Alexei in favor of his brother, Mikhail Alekseevich Romanov. At the same time, Michael renounced the throne, declaring that the issue of power should be decided by the Constituent Assembly.

The Great October Socialist Revolution took place on October 25-26, 1917 ᴦ .. This is one of the greatest events in the history of Russia, as a result of which there were cardinal changes in the position of all classes of society.

The October Revolution began as a result of a number of good reasons:

• In 1914-1918 he. Russia was involved in the First World War, the situation at the front was not the best, there was no sensible leader, the army suffered heavy losses. In industry, the growth of military products prevailed over consumer products, which led to an increase in prices and caused discontent among the masses. The soldiers and peasants wanted peace, and the bourgeoisie, who profited from the supply of military equipment, longed for the continuation of hostilities.
• national conflicts.
• The intensity of the class struggle. The peasants, who for centuries dreamed of getting rid of the oppression of the landowners and kulaks and taking possession of the land, were ready for decisive action.
• The fall of the authority of the Provisional Government, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ was unable to solve the problems of society.
• The Bolsheviks had a strong authoritative leader V.I. Lenin, who promised the people to solve all social problems.
• The prevalence of socialist ideas in society.

The Bolshevik Party achieved tremendous influence over the masses. In October, there were already 400,000 people on their side. October 16, 1917 ᴦ. The Military Revolutionary Committee was created, which began preparations for an armed uprising. During the revolution by October 25, 1917 ᴦ. all key points in the city were occupied by the Bolsheviks, led by V.I. Lenin. Οʜᴎ capture the Winter Palace and arrest the provisional government.

On October 26, the Decree on Peace and Land was adopted. At the congress, a Soviet government was formed, called the ʼʼCouncil of People's Commissarsʼʼ, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ included: Lenin himself (chairman), L.D. Trotsky (People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs), I.V. Stalin (People's Commissar for National Affairs). The ʼʼDeclaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russiaʼʼ was introduced, which stated that all people have equal rights to freedom and development, there is no longer a nation of masters and a nation of the oppressed.

As a result of the October Revolution, the Bolsheviks won, and the dictatorship of the proletariat was established. The class society was liquidated, the landlords' land was transferred into the hands of the peasants, and industrial facilities: factories, factories, mines - into the hands of the workers.

(10) Civil war and intervention (briefly)

The civil war began in October 1917 ᴦ. and ended with the defeat of the white army in the Far East in the autumn of 1922 ᴦ. During this time, on the territory of Russia, various social classes and groups used armed methods to resolve the contradictions that arose between them.

The main reasons for the start of the civil war include:

The discrepancy between the goals of the transformation of society and the methods for achieving them,

Refusal to create a coalition government,

dispersal of the Constituent Assembly,

Nationalization of land and industry,

liquidation of commodity-money relations,

Establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat͵

Creation of a one-party system

The danger of the revolution spreading to other countries,

· Economic losses of the Western powers during regime change in Russia.

In the spring of 1918 ᴦ. English, American and French troops landed in Murmansk and Arkhangelsk. The Japanese invaded the Far East, the British and Americans landed in Vladivostok - intervention began.

On May 25, there was an uprising of the 45,000th Czechoslovak corps, which was transferred to Vladivostok for further shipment to France. A well-armed and well-equipped corps stretched from the Volga to the Urals. In the conditions of the decayed Russian army, he became the only real force at that time.

In November-December 1918 ᴦ. English troops landed in Batumi and Novorossiysk, the French occupied Odessa. In these critical conditions, the Bolsheviks managed to create a combat-ready army by mobilizing people and resources and attracting military specialists from the tsarist army.

By the autumn of 1918 ᴦ. The Red Army liberated the cities of Samara, Simbirsk, Kazan and Tsaritsyn.

The revolution in Germany had a great influence on the course of the civil war. Recognizing its defeat in the First World War, Germany agreed to annul the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and withdrew its troops from the territory of Ukraine, Belarus and the Baltic states.

The Entente began to withdraw its troops, providing only material assistance to the Whites.

By April 1919 ᴦ. The Red Army managed to stop the troops of General A.V. Kolchak. Driven into the depths of Siberia, they were defeated by the beginning of 1920.

In the summer of 1919 ᴦ. General Denikin, having captured Ukraine, moved to Moscow and approached Tula. The troops of the first cavalry army under the command of M.V. Frunze and the Latvian riflemen concentrated on the Southern Front. Spring 1920 ᴦ. near Novorossiysk, the Reds defeated the White Guards.

In the north of the country, the troops of General N.N. Yudenich fought against the Soviets. In the spring and autumn of 1919 ᴦ. they made two unsuccessful attempts to capture Petrograd.

In April 1920 ᴦ. the conflict between Soviet Russia and Poland began. In May 1920 ᴦ. The Poles captured Kyiv. The troops of the Western and Southwestern fronts launched an offensive, but failed to achieve a final victory.

Realizing the impossibility of continuing the war, in March 1921 ᴦ. The parties signed a peace treaty.

The war ended with the defeat of General P.N. Wrangel, who led the remnants of Denikin's troops in the Crimea. In 1920 ᴦ. the Far Eastern Republic was formed, by 1922 ᴦ. she was finally liberated from the Japanese.

(11) Formation of the USSR (briefly)

In 1918 ᴦ. ʼʼDeclaration of the Rights of the Working and Exploited Peopleʼʼ was adopted, proclaiming the principle of the future structure of the country. In its federal base as a free union of republics, the right of nations to self-determination was assumed. Following this, the Soviet government recognized the independence of Finland and the statehood of Poland.

The collapse of the Russian Empire and the imperialist war led to the establishment of Soviet power throughout Russia.

Proclaimed in 1918 ᴦ. The RSFSR occupied 92% of the entire territory and was the largest of all Soviet republics, where more than 100 peoples and nationalities lived. It partly included the territories of Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan. In fact, until 1922 ᴦ. the Far Eastern Republic functioned in its likeness.

From 1920 to 1921. units of the Red Army occupied these states without visible resistance and established the laws of the RSFSR there. The Sovietization of Belarus passed easily.

In Ukraine, it was not without a struggle with the pro-Kiev course. The process of establishing Soviet power in the Central Asian Soviet People's Republics - Bukhara and Khorezm - was going on heavily. Detachments of the local armed opposition continued to resist there.

Most of the communist leaders of the republics were worried about the existence of "Great Russian chauvinism", so that the unification of the republics into a single whole would not become the creation of a new empire. This problem was perceived especially painfully in Georgia and Ukraine.

Powerful factors in the unification of the republics were the unity and rigidity of the repressive bodies.

The commission of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee was engaged in the development of the principles of the national state structure. Autonomous, federal and confederal options for building a single state were considered.

The plan for the declared autonomous entry of the Soviet republics into the RSFSR was proposed by the People's Commissar for Nationalities, Stalin. At the same time, the commission adopted the version of the union federal state proposed by Lenin. He gave future republics formal sovereignty.

Lenin clearly understood that a single party and a single repressive system were a sure guarantee of the integrity of the state. Lenin's project could attract other peoples to the union, and not scare them away, as Stalin's version.

December 30, 1922 ᴦ. At the First Congress of Soviets, the formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was proclaimed. The Congress adopted the Declaration and the Treaty.

The Central Executive Committee (CEC) was elected as the supreme legislative body, which consisted of two chambers: the Union Council and the Council of Nationalities.

January 31, 1924 ᴦ. The II All-Union Congress of Soviets adopted the first Constitution of the USSR, which stipulated the principles of the Declaration and the Treaty.

(12) Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)

The foreign policy of the USSR was quite active. Progress has been made in relations with the countries of the capitalist camp. An agreement on economic cooperation was signed with France (1966 ᴦ.). The Treaty on the Limitation of Strategic Nuclear Arms (SALT-1) is concluded. The 1975 Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) played an important role in relieving international tension. The USSR maintained and strengthened ties with developing countries.

The 1980s were a time of radical change and restructuring in the USSR. It led to problems in the social sphere and social production, the impending crisis in the economy of the USSR, caused by a devastating arms race for the country. The course towards the democratization of public life and publicity was announced by M.S. Gorbachev.

But perestroika could not prevent the collapse of the USSR.

Among the main reasons for the collapse of the USSR are the following:

• The actual destruction of the philosophy of communism, the spirit of which was lost first by the ruling elite of the country, and then by all its citizens.
• Distortion in the development of industry in the USSR - as in the pre-war years, the main attention was paid to heavy industry, as well as defense and energy. The development of light industry and the level of production of consumer goods were clearly insufficient.
• The ideological failure also played its role. Life behind the Iron Curtain seemed to most Soviet people beautiful and free. And such benefits as free education and medicine, housing and social guarantees were taken for granted, people did not know how to appreciate them.
• Prices in the USSR, relatively low, were artificially ʼʼfrozenʼʼ, but there was a problem of shortage of many goods, often also artificial.
• The Soviet man was completely controlled by the system.
• Many experts say that one of the reasons for the fall of the USSR was a sharp drop in oil prices and the prohibition of religions.

The Baltic republics (Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia) were the first to secede from the USSR.

After the collapse of the USSR, Russia declared itself the heir to a great empire. The 90s turned into a severe crisis for the country in all areas. The production crisis led to the actual destruction of many industries, the contradictions between the legislative and executive authorities - to a crisis situation in the political sphere.

(13) GREAT

The policy of Alexander 1 in brief - the concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Politics of Alexander 1 briefly" 2017, 2018.