Learning as a process and result of acquiring individual experience. Acquisition of new skills, abilities
§ 2. Skill in the process of assimilation
Definition skill , his formation
As many researchers note, the development of a knowledge system, combined with the acquisition of appropriate skills, is considered as “the main content and the most important task of learning” (S.L. Rubinshtein). However, the problem of skill itself is still interpreted ambiguously - from its fetishization (behaviorism, neobehaviorism) to practical ignoring (cognitive psychology). At the same time, it is obvious that the skill occupies one of the central places in the process of assimilation.
The definition of skill is approached in different ways: as an ability, a synonym for skill, an automated action. The most common is the definition of a skill as strengthened, brought as a result of repeated, purposeful exercises to the perfection of the performance of an action. It is characterized by the absence of directed mind control, optimal execution time, and quality. The most complete and adequate interpretation of a skill as a complex multi-level motor system was proposed by N.A. Bernstein: “this is an active psychomotor activity that forms both the external design and the very essence of a motor exercise ... The development of a motor skill is a semantic chain action, in which it is also impossible to release individual semantic links or mix their order ... The motor skill itself- a very complex structure: it always contains leading and background levels, leading auxiliary links, backgrounds in the proper sense of the word, automatisms and recodings of different ranks, etc. No less saturated with purely qualitative structural complexity is the process of its formation..
Skill formation, according to N.A. Bernstein, is a complex process of its construction, it includes all sensorimotor level systems. Recall that all of them (A, B, C, D, E and so on) are constantly becoming more complex systems of coordinating control of any skill (walking, cursive writing, speech, cycling, mowing, etc.). Thus, level A during writing provides a general tonic background of the writing limb (hand) and a working posture; level B - smooth roundness of movements and a temporary pattern; level C - descriptive side, handwriting; levels D and E carry out the semantic side of the letter.
ON THE. Bernstein distinguishes two periods in the construction of any skill. First period - skill establishment- includes four phases: 1) establishment of the leading level; 2) determination of the motor composition of movements, which can be at the level of observation and analysis of the movements of another person; 3) identification of adequate corrections as "self-perception of these movements - from the inside." This phase comes, as it were, immediately, abruptly, and often persists for life (if you learn to swim, then this is forever), although it does not apply to all skills; 4) switching of background corrections to lower levels, i.e. automation process. It is important that the development of a skill takes time, it must ensure the accuracy and standardity of all movements.
Second period - skill stabilization also breaks down into phases: the first is the operation of different levels together (synergistic); the second is standardization and the third is stabilization, which provides resistance to various kinds of interference, i.e. "invincibility". Essential for the formation of any skill is the concept of switching levels, the transition from the leading level to automatism, to background automatism, as well as the fixation of concepts: deautomatization of a skill as a result of either external influences (lack of exercise in other activities, etc.) or internal ones (fatigue , illness, etc.) and re-automation as the restoration of a de-automated skill. All these concepts are extremely important for educational activities and their organization, as they relate to any skills - writing, counting, working with a computer, solving problems, translating, etc.
According to N.A. Bernshtein, “the dialectic of skill development lies precisely in the fact that where there is development, there, then, each subsequent performance is better than the previous one, i.e. does not repeat his. Therefore, the exercise is in essence repetition without repetition. The key to this seeming paradox is that the exercise is not a repetition and not beaten movement, and his construction. Correctly performed exercise is repeated over and over again not a tool used to solve this motor task, and the process of solving this problem, from time to time changing and improving the means.
If we compare the considered periods of building a skill, proposed by N.A. Bernstein, and the stages of skill development according to L.B. Itelson, then attention is drawn to the generality of the approach to the formation of a skill as the construction of a complex motor system, although Itelson considered the actual psychological side of this construction (in terms of purpose, action, method, control, and also in terms of the inner side of this activity, i.e. mental, analytical and synthetic operations by which it is implemented). It is significant that the stages of skill development, according to L.B. Itelson, the essence is the projection of the general scheme of assimilation. This illustrates the generality of the process of assimilation of knowledge and the development of actions [see. also 158].
Skill development, according to L.B. Itelson
|
Stage of skill development |
The nature of the skill |
Skill Goal |
Peculiarities perform an action |
|
Introductory |
Thinking about actions and presenting them |
Familiarization with the methods of performing actions |
A clear understanding of the goal, but vague - ways to achieve it; very gross errors |
|
Preparatory (analytical) |
Conscious but inept execution |
Mastery separate elements actions; analysis of ways to implement them |
A clear understanding of how to perform an action, but inaccurate and unstable performance: a lot of unnecessary movements, very tense attention; focus on your actions; poor control |
|
Standardizing (synthetic) |
Action Element Automation |
Combination and association elementary movements into a single action |
Improving the quality of movements, merging them, eliminating unnecessary ones, shifting attention to the result; improved control, transition to muscle control |
|
Variable (situational) |
Plastic adaptability to the situation |
Mastering arbitrary regulation of the nature of the action |
Flexible expedient execution of actions; control based on special sensory syntheses; intellectual syntheses (intuition) |
Factors , influencing on the formation skill
The effectiveness of learning or, more precisely, the development of a skill as a result of exercises is determined by many factors, including: the correct distribution of exercises over time, understanding, understanding by the student of the principle, the main plan for performing actions, knowledge of the results of the performed action, the influence of previously acquired knowledge and skills developed at the moment learning, a rational ratio of reproduction and productivity. Naturally, the effectiveness of learning is determined by the combined action of all these factors taken together, but each of them also has an autonomous effect. D. Walfl cites several other, but very close to the named factors. It looks at each of the following five factors in some detail:
1) knowledge of the results, the delay in the communication of which to the student is inversely proportional to the effectiveness of the training;
2) prevention of interference, based largely on the illegality of creating a similar stimulating situation;
3) a variety of training conditions, which is revealed in the necessary variation in the volume, order, conditions for presenting the training material;
4) knowledge of the method or method used in training. According to D. Wolf, "motor" mechanical learning is one and a half to two times less effective than verbal;
5) the need to understand the principles, the general system of actions. A "direct" explanation of the principle, according to D. Wolf, gives better results than the independent search for this principle by the student through trial and error. D. Wohlfl also notes the influence of the nature of the instruction and the presentation of time on the result of learning.
In the work of K. Hovland, the number of factors increases somewhat due to, for example, the distribution of exercises, holistic or in parts of learning. Speaking about the importance of the distribution of exercises in time, K. Hovland emphasizes the dependence of their concentration or distribution on the material itself. Among the factors conducive to concentrated learning, K. Hovland names: a) the need to get together, get to work, b) "great flexibility shown in the performance of the task", which is necessary when performing difficult tasks. The factors favoring distributed learning are also identified: a) a kind of additional training that takes place in the form of actual or imaginary repetitions during the rest period, b) the alternation of work with rest and the possibility of disappearance during the rest period of those interfering phenomena that occur during exercises.
The second factor influencing the effectiveness of learning is related to the answer to the question of what kind of learning is better - holistic or in parts. The author comes to the conclusion that "in practicalycConditions such factors as fatigue, interest, etc., can play an important role in the comparative assessment of the advantages of methods of holistic learning or learning in parts. But if these factors remain sufficiently constant, then we can safely recommend memorization in the largest units that have semantic unity and are accessible to the student. The more his returns, the greater his intellectual abilities, the richer his practical experience, the greater the units he is able to work with.. The same idea was expressed earlier by domestic psychologists L.V. Zankov, A.A. Smirnov and others. Speaking about the material itself, K. Hovland emphasizes the dependence of the effectiveness and speed of learning (or skill development) on the length, meaningfulness, difficulty of the material and other factors.
patterns formation skill
Learning is characterized as a progressive, progressive quantitative and qualitative change in the knowledge acquired by a person, skills formed and creative skills of their use in different situations. This also applies to skill development, which is graphically defined by the learning curve, or exercise curve. At the same time, all exercise curves can be divided into two types: a) curves with negative acceleration (at first, the formation of a skill goes quickly, and then it slows down more and more, approaching a certain limit level of speed, the number of errors, etc.), b) curves with positive acceleration (at first, mastering the action is slow, and then faster and faster) [see. more details 151, p.111].
In the process of developing a skill, sometimes a relative stabilization of progress occurs: the student does not progress, does not regress - he “stands still”. Such a stop, fixed in the form of an unchanged line parallel to the abscissa, is called a "plateau". This phenomenon indicates that either the content, or teaching methods, or forms of work, or all of this taken together, have exhausted themselves. Here it is important to note what M.S. Schechter, the idea that the formation of skills, i.e. the automation of an action and, at the same time, its freedom in the described situation of a plateau, cannot be achieved if for this purpose the students do not use another, new orienting basis of actions.
Skills influence each other - the positive influence of the previously developed on the subsequent one is called transfer (transfer), the negative one is interference. We also note that the transfer, which is an internal learning mechanism (based on generalization), implies a more purposeful work of the teacher on each of the three main generalization plans, i.e. over the principle, program and methods of action, as well as over the selection of educational, training material.
Considering the distribution of exercises over time as a pattern of skill formation, we can say that the greatest number of exercises should be given at the beginning of training (as opposed to the G. Ebbinghaus forgetting curve). Then, as the training time increases, the interval between such actions should also increase. Training can be done in very small volumes, but it must be purposefully maintained until the end of the training. Therefore, the student's system of exercises should be built taking into account these patterns.
On the basis of theoretical provisions on the patterns of skill development and the analysis of textbooks, it is possible to propose some speculative scheme for the distribution of exercises in time that meets three requirements: 1) the exercise never “fades to naught”, 2) the interval between exercises increases with training, and 3) the development program one skill is combined with a program to develop others. At the same time, at the beginning of the workout, there should be a maximum of exercises.
When considering patterns of skills, it is also important to note the relationship between the success of its formation and the level of motivation of the student. This relationship is described by two laws of Yerkes-Dodson: the first relates the maximum success of learning to the optimum motivation, the second - the complexity of the activity (skill) and the level of motivation (the more difficult the activity, the lower the level of motivation).
It should be noted that in general, in the process of learning, the general structure of knowledge, skills, abilities changes along the line of their increasing generalization, curtailment and less control by consciousness of their actualization and functioning. The structure of the action as a result of the exercises changes according to the methods of their execution, its control and the nature of the regulation of the execution of the movements included in the action. These changes are characterized by the merging of individual movements into a more complex single act with elimination, i.e. reduction of redundant, superfluous, intermediate movements, as well as the combination of several
movements in time, which is fixed by the general program for constructing an arbitrary movement (according to N.A. Bernshtein). The pace accelerates and the quality of their performance improves, the nature of control over the action changes - from external visual to internal muscular, kinesthetic, to "internal muscular feeling", as well as the nature of the central regulation of action. Attention is freed from the perception of modes of action and is transferred mainly to the conditions for its implementation.
We can say that the change in the action itself in the process of learning also reflects the qualitative progressive change in all activity as a whole. That is why the development of each subject, control and evaluation action as a skill in all plans learning activities is always in the center of attention of the teacher, who takes into account in general all the patterns and features of the formation of a skill. These are a) purposefulness, b) internal motivation and external instruction that creates an attitude, c) the correct distribution of exercises during training, d) the inclusion of the phenomenon being trained in a learning situation that has significance for the student, e) the need for constant knowledge of the results of the action for the student, f ) his understanding of the general principle, the scheme of action, which includes the trained action, g) the teacher takes into account the influence of the transfer and interference of previously developed skills.
Criteria formation skill
The following are the objective indicators of the formed skill or its maturity: the correctness and quality of the formalization skills (the absence of errors), the speed of performing individual operations or their sequence (external criteria); the absence of a focus of consciousness on the form of the action, the absence of tension and fatigue, the loss of intermediate operations, i.e. reduced action (internal criteria).
All of the above shows that the student's learning activity is a complex dynamic heterogeneous control object. It is a personally conditioned active interaction of a pupil (student) with other pupils (students), with a teacher (teacher) - an interaction that should be controlled by the latter in all its links with a different degree of flexibility.
Assimilation, representing a complex heterogeneous process, includes interdependent stages and is characterized by a number of features that are most clearly manifested in the formation and development of skills.
Questions for self-examination
1. What distinguishes learning activity from assimilation, and assimilation - from the formation of skills?
2. Why is the term “building” a skill more accurately reflecting this process than “development”?
3. What are the main factors that influence learning?
Literature
Ilyasov I.I. The structure of the learning process. M., 1986.
Lingart J. The process and structure of human learning. M., 1970.
Talyzina N.F. Pedagogical psychology. M., 1998. Ch. 6.
Yakunin V.A. Psychology of educational activity of students. M., 1994.
Learning is the process and result of acquiring individual experience. As already emphasized above, in domestic psychology (at least in Soviet period its development), the concept of learning was used in relation to animals. Yu.M. Orlov, attaching great importance to this concept in science, emphasizes that "in psychology, there is perhaps no other concept that is of such great importance for understanding a person as learning. Learning is a concept denoting the process of the formation of new species behavior. It takes place wherever there is behavior. At the same time, this concept is one of those that is little used by people in understanding themselves and others. I was struck by the fact that the so-called Soviet psychology, to which I myself belong, inasmuch as academic degree Doctor of Psychology, this psychology generally managed without this concept. The word "learning" was excluded from textbooks and books on psychology. Where it was impossible to do without it, the word "learning" was replaced by " assimilation", a concept that has a completely different meaning. When we say "assimilation", it is assumed that there is some ready-made behavior that is acquired. Learning, on the other hand, implies becoming new types of behaviour. In the works on pedagogy, the concept of learning was only assumed, hiding behind the words "formation", "training", " upbringing"(Orlov Yu.M., 1997. P. 3).
The term "learning" is used primarily in the psychology of behavior. Unlike pedagogical concepts training, education and upbringing, it covers a wide range of processes for the formation of individual experience (addiction, imprinting, the formation of the simplest conditioned reflexes, complex motor and speech skills, sensory discrimination reactions, etc.).
In psychological science, there are a number of different interpretations of learning (see Fig. 3). For example, L.B. Itelson believes that "all the main changes in the behavior and activities of the child in the process of his "turning into a person" are facts. learning" (Itelson L.B., 2000. S. 203). The scholar goes on to point out that learning acts as a leading factor in development, with the help of which human forms of behavior and reflection of reality are formed in a cub of the "homo sapiens" species, a process of transformation of a biological individual into a subject of a human relationship to the world takes place" (Ibid., p. 203).
V.D. Shadrikov to the limit general form learning is defined as "a systematic modification of behavior when a situation is repeated and (or) under the influence of past experience based on the formation of connections, the preservation of traces and their reorganization" (Shadrikov V.D., 1996. P. 117; abstract) (see Chrest. 3.1 ).
R.S. interprets this concept differently. Nemov. He considers it through the concept of learning: “When they want to emphasize the result of learning, they use the concept of learning. It characterizes the fact that a person acquires new psychological qualities and properties in educational activity. Etymologically, this concept comes from the word “learn” and includes everything that is really an individual can learn as a result of learning and learning. Note that learning and learning, learning activities as a whole may not have a visible result, acting in the form of learning. This is another reason for breeding the discussed concepts and their parallel use "(Nemov R.S. , 1994. S. 234; abstract).
Learning is different from learning as acquisition experience in activities directed by cognitive motives or motives and goals. Through learning, any experience can be acquired - knowledge, skills, skills(in humans) and new forms of behavior (in animals).
Like any acquisition of experience, learning includes an unconscious understanding of the content of the material and its consolidation (involuntary memorization). In animals, learning is the main form of acquiring experience. Directed learning in animals exists only in a rudimentary form (examination of a new situation, imitation).
The ability to learn is possessed mainly by species that are far advanced in evolutionary development. If instinctive behavior is effective in the environment and usual circumstances for an animal, then only individuals of those species in which the ability to learn and develop skills predominate can cope with new situations and unusual situations, form new behavioral acts.
The beginnings of the possibility of learning are already found in earthworms. To an average degree, it manifests itself in fish, amphibians, reptiles. This ability develops as you move up the evolutionary ladder. The most advanced forms - chimpanzees and humans - have almost no forms of behavior that allow them to adequately adapt to the environment from the moment of birth without training. In man, almost the only forms of behavior that he should not learn are innate reflexes that make it possible to survive after birth: the sucking, swallowing, sneezing, blinking reflex, etc. In humans, the role and significance of learning change in the course of ontogenesis. AT preschool age learning is the main way of gaining experience, then it is relegated to the background, giving way to teaching - educational activities, although it does not completely lose its value. The most important factor in learning is the place of the acquired material in the corresponding activity. A person learns better the material that takes the place of the goal of activity.
Theories of learning
There are many theories of learning. In each of them, one can single out some separate aspect of the phenomenon under study (see animation) (http://www.voppsy.ru/journals_all/issues/1996/965/965030.htm; see the article by L.F. Two paradigms in research child development").
According to some theories, in the process of teaching and learning there is a single learning mechanism (both in humans and animals); other theories consider teaching and learning as different mechanisms.
· To the first group relate theories foreign psychology :
about theory behaviorism(J. Watson), where learning is interpreted as a process of random, blind association not related to the psyche and cognition incentives and responses based on readiness, exercise, reinforcement, or contiguity in time. Such theories contradict the later established facts, which speak of the possibility of learning without reinforcement, without exercises, etc.;
o theory, where learning is seen as a process of changing the mental reflection of the conditions of activity and behavior on the principle of passively establishing new connections (associationism), restructuring the initially holistic experience in the form of samples ( Gestalt psychology) or plans ( neobehaviorism). This also includes to a large extent the theory of J. Piaget ( Geneva School) and theories of some representatives of the informational approach and cognitive psychology. Cognitive psychologists are interested in what psychological structures formed during learning. Many of them try to model the learning process in the form computer programs(http://www.voppsy.ru/journals_all/issues/1999/996/996048.htm; see the article by L.M. Fridman "Another look at the Piaget phenomenon").
To the second group relate theories domestic psychologists
and a number of foreign authors. In man learning and doctrine are considered by them as a cognitive process of assimilation of social experience of practical and theoretical activity. In animals, learning is interpreted as a process of changing the innate species experience and adapting it to specific conditions.
R.G. Averkin, having analyzed the whole variety of learning theories, singled out general provisions, with which, in his opinion, most researchers agree:
1. Learning is gradual or abrupt change behavior. There are two types of temporal flow of the learning process. Forms of learning such as classical or operant conditioning are gradual, while forms of learning such as imprinting or insight are instantaneous.
2. Learning is a change in behavior that is not a direct consequence of the maturation of the organism, although development is always accompanied by learning. Problem learning is closely related to the problem development and maturation. Sometimes in young body it is difficult to distinguish the result of learning from the result of maturation, so learning is preferred to study in adults.
3. Learning is not a change in behavior when tired or as a result of the use of psychoactive substances.
4. Exercise improves the learning process.
5. The species affiliation of an organism determines the possibilities of its learning (Psychology…, 2001).
Essence of learning
3.1.1. The system of activities as a result of which a person gains experience
There are several concepts related to human acquisition life experience in the form of knowledge, skills, abilities, abilities. It is learning, learning, teaching.
Most general concept is learning. Intuitively, each of us imagines what learning is. Learning is said to be in the case when a person began to know and (or) be able to do something that he did not know and (or) did not know how to do before. These new knowledge, skills and abilities may be the result of activities aimed at acquiring them, or act as a side effect of behavior that realizes goals that are not related to this knowledge and skills.
Learning refers to the process and result of acquiring individual experience by a biological system (from protozoa to humans as higher form its organization under the conditions of the Earth). Such familiar and widespread concepts as evolution, development, survival, adaptation, selection, improvement, have some commonality, which is most fully expressed in the concept of learning, which resides in them either explicitly or by default. The concept of development, or evolution, is impossible without the assumption that all these processes occur as a result of a change in the behavior of living beings. And currently the only scientific concept fully encompassing these changes is the concept of learning. Living beings learn new behaviors that enable them to survive more effectively. Everything that exists, adapts, survives, acquires new properties, and this happens according to the laws of learning. So, survival basically depends on the ability to learn.
In foreign psychology, the concept of "learning" is often used as an equivalent of "learning". In domestic psychology (at least in the Soviet period of its development) it is customary to use it in relation to animals. However, recently a number of scientists (I.A. Zimnyaya, V.N. Druzhinin, Yu.M. Orlov and others) use this term in relation to a person.
For a better understanding of the differences between learning, teaching and learning, we will use the classification of activities, as a result of which a person gains experience (Gabai T.V., 1995; abstract). All activities in which a person gains experience can be divided into two large groups: activities in which the cognitive effect is a side (additional) product and activities in which the cognitive effect is its direct product (see Fig. 1).
Learning includes the acquisition of experience in all activities, regardless of its nature. In addition, the acquisition of experience as a by-product, depending on the regularity, can be stable, more or less constant in certain types of activity, as well as random, episodic.
The acquisition of experience as a stable by-product can occur in the process of spontaneous communication, in the game (if it is not organized by an adult specifically for the purpose of assimilation by the child of some kind of experience).
In all these activities (play, work, communication, intentional cognition), experience can also be acquired as an accidental by-product.
The second large group of activities in which a person acquires experience are those types that are consciously or unconsciously carried out for the sake of experience itself.
Let us first consider activities in which the acquisition of experience is carried out without setting an appropriate goal. Among them are the following types: didactic games, spontaneous communication and some other activities. All of them are characterized by the fact that, although the subject of acquiring experience does not set himself the goal of mastering this experience, he naturally and steadily receives it at the end of their process. At the same time, the cognitive result is the only rational justification for the expenditure of time and effort of the subject. At the same time, the really acting motive is shifted to the process of activity: a person communicates with others or plays because he enjoys the very process of communication or play.
Apart from didactic game and spontaneous communication, the acquisition of experience as a direct product, but without a conscious purpose, is also achieved in free observation, in the course of reading fiction watching movies, plays, etc.
Discovery or assimilation becomes one of the most significant criteria for classifying the types of cognition. In turn, assimilation also involves two options:
- when the experience is given in finished form, but the subject of assimilation must independently prepare all or some of the conditions that ensure the process of assimilation;
- when he performs only the cognitive components of this activity, and the conditions for assimilation are prepared by other people.
The last option is of the greatest interest to us, since it reflects the essential features of the phenomenon that takes place in any human being and consists in the transfer of the older generation to the younger generation of the experience that society has. This kind of activity is teaching.
3.1.2. Correlation between the concepts of "learning", "teaching" and "teaching"
Teaching is defined as the learning of a person as a result of purposeful, conscious appropriation by him of the transmitted (translated) socio-cultural (socio-historical) experience and the individual experience formed on this basis. Therefore, teaching is considered as a kind of learning.
Education in the most common sense of this term means a purposeful, consistent transfer (transmission) of socio-cultural (socio-historical) experience to another person in specially created conditions. From a psychological and pedagogical point of view, learning is seen as managing the process of accumulating knowledge, forming cognitive structures, as organizing and stimulating the student's educational and cognitive activity (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l-ps-not.html; see - laboratory of psychological foundations of new educational technologies).
In addition, the concept of "learning" and "teaching" is equally applicable to humans and animals, in contrast to the concept of "teaching". In foreign psychology, the concept of "learning" is used as an equivalent of "learning". If "teaching" and "teaching" denote the process of acquiring individual experience, then the term "learning" describes both the process itself and its result.
Scientists interpret this triad of concepts in different ways. For example, the points of view of A.K. Markova and N.F. Talyzina are as follows (see Fig. 2).
- A.K. Markov:
- considers learning as the acquisition of individual experience, but first of all pays attention to the automated level of skills;
- interprets learning from a generally accepted point of view - as a joint activity of a teacher and a student, ensuring the assimilation of knowledge by schoolchildren and mastering the methods of acquiring knowledge;
- the teaching is presented as the student's activity in acquiring new knowledge and mastering the ways of acquiring knowledge (Markova A.K., 1990; abstract).
N.F. Talyzina adheres to the interpretation of the concept of "learning" that existed in the Soviet period - the application of the concept under consideration exclusively to animals; learning is considered by her only as an activity of a teacher in organizing pedagogical process, and teaching - as the activity of a student included in educational process(Talyzina N.F., 1998; abstract) (http://www.psy.msu.ru/about/kaf/pedo.html; see the Department of Pedagogy and educational psychology Faculty of Psychology, Moscow State University).
Thus, the psychological concepts of "learning", "teaching", "teaching" cover a wide range of phenomena associated with the acquisition of experience, knowledge, skills, abilities in the process of active interaction of the subject with the subject and social world- in behavior, activity, communication.
The acquisition of experience, knowledge and skills occurs throughout the life of an individual, although this process proceeds most intensively during the period of reaching maturity. Consequently, the learning processes coincide in time with the development, maturation, mastery of the forms of group behavior of the object of study, and in humans - with socialization, the development of cultural norms and values, and the formation of personality.
So, learning/education/teaching is the process of acquisition by the subject of new ways of carrying out behavior and activities, their fixation and/or modification. The most general concept denoting the process and result of the acquisition of individual experience by a biological system (from the simplest to man as the highest form of its organization in the conditions of the Earth) is "learning". Teaching a person as a result of purposeful, conscious appropriation of the socio-historical experience transmitted to him and the individual experience formed on this basis is defined as teaching.
Learning as a process and result of acquiring individual experience
Learning is the process and result of acquiring individual experience. As already emphasized above, in domestic psychology (at least in the Soviet period of its development), the concept of learning was usually used in relation to animals. Yu.M. Orlov, attaching great importance to this concept in science, emphasizes that "in psychology, perhaps there is no other concept that is of such great importance for understanding a person as learning. Learning is a concept that denotes the process of the formation of new types of behavior. It takes place wherever there is behavior "At the same time, this concept is one of those that are little used by people in understanding themselves and others. I was struck by the fact that the so-called Soviet psychology, to which I myself belong, since I was awarded the degree of Doctor of Psychology, this psychology in general did without this concept. The word "learning" was excluded from textbooks and books on psychology. Where it was impossible to do without it, the word "learning" was replaced by "assimilation", a concept that has a completely different meaning. When we say "assimilation" , then it is assumed that there is some ready-made behavior that is assimilated.Learning involves the formation of new types of behavior. pedagogy, the concept of learning was only assumed, hiding behind the words "formation", "training", "education" (Orlov Yu.M., 1997, p. 3).
The term "learning" is used primarily in the psychology of behavior. In contrast to the pedagogical concepts of training, education and upbringing, it covers a wide range of processes for the formation of individual experience (addiction, imprinting, the formation of simple conditioned reflexes, complex motor and speech skills, sensory discrimination reactions, etc.).
In psychological science, there are a number of different interpretations of learning (see Fig. 3). For example, L.B. Itelson believes that "all the main changes in the behavior and activities of the child in the process of his "turning into a person" are facts of learning" (Itelson LB, 2000, p. 203). Further, the scientist emphasizes that "learning acts as a leading factor in development, with the help of which human forms of behavior and reflection of reality are formed in a cub of the Homo sapiens species, a process of transformation of a biological individual into a subject of a human relationship to the world takes place" (Ibid., p. 203 ).
V.D. Shadrikov defines learning in an extremely general form as "a systematic modification of behavior when a situation is repeated and (or) under the influence of past experience based on the formation of connections, the preservation of traces and their reorganization" (Shadrikov V.D., 1996. P. 117; abstract) ( see Cross 3.1).
R.S. interprets this concept differently. Nemov. He considers it through the concept of learning: “When they want to emphasize the result of learning, they use the concept of learning. It characterizes the fact that a person acquires new psychological qualities and properties in educational activity. Etymologically, this concept comes from the word “learn” and includes everything that is really an individual can learn as a result of learning and learning. Note that learning and learning, learning activities as a whole may not have a visible result, acting in the form of learning. This is another reason for breeding the discussed concepts and their parallel use "(Nemov R.S. , 1994. S. 234; abstract).
Learning differs from learning as the acquisition of experience in activities guided by cognitive motives or motives and goals. Through learning, any experience can be acquired - knowledge, skills, skills (in humans) and new forms of behavior (in animals).
Like any acquisition of experience, learning includes an unconscious understanding of the content of the material and its consolidation (involuntary memorization). In animals, learning is the main form of acquiring experience. Directed learning in animals exists only in a rudimentary form (examination of a new situation, imitation).
The ability to learn is possessed mainly by species that are far advanced in evolutionary development. If instinctive behavior is effective in the environment and usual circumstances for an animal, then only individuals of those species in which the ability to learn and develop skills predominate can cope with new situations and unusual situations, form new behavioral acts.
The beginnings of the possibility of learning are already found in earthworms. To an average degree, it manifests itself in fish, amphibians, reptiles. This ability develops as you move up the evolutionary ladder. The most advanced forms - chimpanzees and humans - have almost no forms of behavior that allow them to adequately adapt to the environment from the moment of birth without training. In humans, almost the only forms of behavior that he should not learn are innate reflexes that make it possible to survive after birth: the sucking, swallowing, sneezing, blinking reflex, etc. In humans, the role and meaning of learning change in the course of ontogenesis. At preschool age, learning is the main way of gaining experience, then it is relegated to the background, giving way to learning - learning activity, although it does not lose its significance completely. The most important factor in learning is the place of the acquired material in the corresponding activity. A person learns better the material that takes the place of the goal of activity.
Theories of learning
There are many theories of learning. In each of them, one can single out some separate aspect of the phenomenon under study (see animation) (http://www.voppsy.ru/journals_all/issues/1996/965/965030.htm; see the article by L.F. Two paradigms in child development research.
According to some theories, in the process of teaching and learning there is a single learning mechanism (both in humans and animals); other theories consider teaching and learning as different mechanisms.
- The first group includes theories of foreign psychology:
- the theory of behaviorism (J. Watson), where learning is interpreted as a process of random, blind association of stimuli and reactions not related to the psyche and cognition based on readiness, exercise, reinforcement, or contiguity in time. Such theories contradict the later established facts, which speak of the possibility of learning without reinforcement, without exercises, etc.;
- theory, where learning is seen as a process of changing the mental reflection of the conditions of activity and behavior on the principle of passively establishing new connections (associationism), restructuring the initially holistic experience in the form of samples (Gestalt psychology) or plans (neobehaviorism). This also includes to a large extent the theory of J. Piaget (Geneva School) and the theories of some representatives of the informational approach and cognitive psychology. Cognitive psychologists are interested in what psychological structures are formed during learning. Many of them are trying to model the learning process in the form of computer programs (http://www.voppsy.ru/journals_all/issues/1999/996/996048.htm; see the article by Fridman L.M. "Another look at the Piaget phenomenon" ).
The second group includes the theories of domestic psychologists and a number of foreign authors. In humans, learning and teaching are considered by them as a cognitive process of assimilation of social experience of practical and theoretical activity. In animals, learning is interpreted as a process of changing the innate species experience and adapting it to specific conditions.
R.G. Averkin, having analyzed the whole variety of learning theories, identified general provisions with which, in his opinion, most researchers agree:
1. Learning is a gradual or abrupt change in behavior. There are two types of temporal flow of the learning process. Forms of learning such as classical or operant conditioning are gradual, while forms of learning such as imprinting or insight are instantaneous.
2. Learning is a change in behavior that is not a direct consequence of the maturation of the organism, although development is always accompanied by learning. The problem of learning is closely related to the problem of development and maturation. Sometimes in a young organism it is difficult to distinguish the result of learning from the result of maturation, therefore learning is preferred to be studied in adults.
3. Learning is not a change in behavior when tired or as a result of the use of psychoactive substances.
4. Exercise improves the learning process.
5. The species affiliation of an organism determines the possibilities of its learning (Psychology…, 2001).
Problems in learning theory
- As noted above, the concept of "learning" has only recently begun to be used in psychology as the broadest concept that reflects the process and result of a person's acquisition of individual experience. Therefore, there are a number actual problems requiring further study (see Fig. 5).
- First of all, the problem of correlation and delimitation of the concepts "learning" / "teaching" / "training".
- Secondly, the problem of correlation and differentiation of the effects of learning and maturation/development. After all, not everything that is connected with development can be called learning. For example, it does not include the processes and results that characterize the biological maturation of the organism, unfold and proceed according to biological, in particular, genetic laws, although the processes of maturation are, of course, closely related to the acquisition by the body of new and change in existing experience. On the one hand, learning almost always relies on certain levels of biological maturity of the organism, on the other hand, learning and learning to a certain extent affect the maturation of the organism.
- Thirdly, the problem of identifying general laws and patterns of learning is relevant. Indeed, on their basis, one can consider more particular laws of the formation of educational skills and abilities.
- And finally, of no less interest both in theoretical and applied terms is the problem of identifying types, mechanisms and conditions for effective learning. We will dwell on this aspect in more detail.
Types of learning
- 3.2.1. Types of learning
- 3.2.2. Levels of Learning
- 3.2.3. Varieties of associative learning
- 3.2.4. Varieties of intellectual learning
In psychological science, various types of learning have been studied in sufficient detail. Based on the works of L.B. Itelson developed a classification of different types of learning, presented by V.D. Shadrikov (see Fig. 6) (Shadrikov V.D., 1996; abstract).
Types of learning
All types of learning can be divided into two types: associative and intellectual.
Characteristic of associative learning is the formation of links between certain elements of reality, behavior, physiological processes or mental activity based on the contiguity of these elements (physical, mental or functional).
From the time of Aristotle to the present day, the basic principle of learning - association by contiguity - is formulated in a similar way. When two events are repeated at short intervals (temporal adjacency), they are associated with each other in such a way that the occurrence of one calls up the memory of the other. Russian physiologist I.P. Pavlov (1849-1936) was the first to study in the laboratory the properties of associative learning. He found that although the sound of the bell did not initially affect the behavior of the dog, however, after a regular call at the time of feeding, after a while the dog developed a conditioned reflex: the ring itself began to cause salivation in it. Pavlov measured the degree of learning by the amount of saliva released during a call that was not accompanied by feeding. The method of developing conditioned reflexes is based on the use of an already existing connection between a specific form of behavior (salivation) and a certain event (the appearance of food) that causes this form of behavior. When forming conditioned reflex this chain includes a neutral event (call), which is associated with the "natural" event (appearance of food) to such an extent that it fulfills its function.
Psychologists have studied associative learning in detail by the method of so-called paired associations: verbal units (words or syllables) are learned in pairs; the presentation subsequently of one member of the couple evokes a recollection of the other. This type of learning takes place when mastering foreign language: an unfamiliar word forms a pair with its equivalent in the native language, and this pair is memorized until, when presented with a foreign word, the meaning conveyed by the word in the native language is perceived.
In intellectual learning, the subject of reflection and assimilation are essential connections, structures and relations of objective reality.
Levels of Learning
- Each type of learning can be divided into two subtypes:
- reflex;
- cognitive.
When learning is expressed in the assimilation of certain stimuli and reactions, it is referred to as a reflex; when acquiring certain knowledge and certain actions, one speaks of cognitive learning.
Learning happens all the time, in a variety of situations and activities. Depending on the way in which learning is achieved, it is divided into two different levels - reflex and cognitive.
At the reflex level, the learning process is unconscious, automatic. In this way, the child learns, for example, to distinguish colors, the sound of speech, to walk, to get and move objects. The reflex level of learning is also preserved in an adult, when he inadvertently memorizes distinctive features objects, learns new types of movements.
But for a person, the highest, cognitive level of learning is much more characteristic, which is based on the assimilation of new knowledge and new ways of acting through conscious observation, experimentation, reflection and reasoning, exercise and self-control. It is the presence of a cognitive level that distinguishes human learning from animal learning. However, not only the reflex, but also the cognitive level of learning does not turn into learning if it is controlled by any other goal than the goal of acquiring certain knowledge and actions.
As studies by a number of psychologists have shown, in some cases spontaneous, unintentional learning can be very effective. So, for example, a child remembers better what is connected with his vigorous activity and is necessary for its implementation than what he memorizes specifically. However, in general, the advantage is undoubtedly on the side of a conscious purposeful teaching, since only it can provide systematic and deep knowledge.
The process of acquiring toilet habits by a child is a process of growing up and maturation, characterized by the physical and psychological development of the child, in which he can independently and voluntarily control the functions of his intestines and Bladder. A child usually reaches this developmental stage around 18 months of age. Until this age, the nervous system and sphincter muscles are not fully formed, so the process of acquiring toilet habits may take longer. long time and acquired skills are unstable. In turn, these phenomena can cause negative stress and frustration for both the child and the mother.
Traditionally, the pediatrician has played a key role in determining the age at which toilet training should begin. Many mothers start potty training their babies as early as 10 months of age, and 40% of mothers begin this process when their baby is 6-8 months old. Studies conducted in Russia show that 95% of mothers begin to toilet train their children too early, incorrectly determining the baby's readiness for learning.
The child may already be sufficiently developed physically, but his emotional readiness needs to be carefully assessed. Parents are in these cases the most reliable judges who can determine the psychological readiness of the child for learning. By teaching toilet skills to the child, the mother gets the opportunity to get to know her child more closely, understand how the process of his learning goes, and participate in this process together with the child to achieve a common goal.
The child's learning process
The process of a child's learning is defined as the acquisition of knowledge, skills, forms of behavior, etc. In young children, this process occurs to a large extent due to physical development and education. Training can be done on different levels complexity and efficiency.
Types of training
Least complex view learning is considered the acquisition of reflexes and habituation. In the classical acquisition of reflexes, one unconditioned stimulus is attached to another, initially neutral stimulus. As a result of the combination of stimuli, the unconditioned stimulus itself produces an effect. A classic example is the experiments of Academician Pavlov on dogs, when a bell was turned on during feeding, which caused salivation in dogs. As a result, salivation was caused by just turning on the bell. Habituation is a non-cognitive or reflex learning process and therefore does not involve awareness or reflection on behavior and is not an appropriate method for potty training a child.
Cognitive connections and the use of the neocortex. Humans have a deeper involvement of the central nervous system(CNS) enables more difficult learning at very early stages of ontogeny. Cognition reflects the processing of information in order to apply acquired knowledge and respond to various changes. One of early forms associative learning in infants is a game that is seen as an improvement in adaptability to similar situations in the future.
One type of learning by observation is imitation, which also develops quite early in humans. Children tend to copy information from their environment, mainly from parents, brothers, sisters or friends, which increases the speed and quality of tasks.
Imitation is more of an informal type of learning driven by the motivation of the learner, while instructor/teacher-led learning is a more formal process. Ideally educational process should consist of a set of formal and informal approaches.
Areas of study. In psychology, there are usually three different areas learning: cognitive, psychomotor and affective. The cognitive sphere is associated with the skills of analysis and problem solving. The psychomotor domain covers skills that require a complex interaction of intellectual and motor skills, for example: driving a car, learning sports, playing a musical instrument. The affective realm of learning includes reciprocal relationships such as affection, love/hate, or worship.
Self-development (self-improvement) of neural networks. All learning processes require at least a simple neural network. The more complex the learning skills, the higher the need for the capabilities of neural networks. An important feature of complex networks are self-improvement processes that allow for continuous development and improvement in learning processes.
Plasticity of neurons. To keep working even if part of the neural network is damaged or disrupted, complex networks must be strong and flexible. Therefore, some parts of the neural network must be able to take on the functions of others. This neuronal plasticity can be observed in stroke patients when temporarily lost abilities, such as reading or speaking skills, are restored over time.
The ability to remember. The ability to remember acquired knowledge and reapply it when needed is key to effective and sustainable infant learning.
Application of acquired knowledge. In order to preserve the acquired knowledge, that is, not to forget the acquired skills, it is necessary to constantly train and apply them. Therefore, it is important to give infants the opportunity to independently perform and determine actions in everyday life, that is, to use a child-centered approach to learning.
Experience: trial and error. Learning is a lifelong, never-ending process, and the application of acquired knowledge results in constant change. These changes are the result of positive and negative experiences. It is important that babies get their own experience. Just as much as adults any process of learning new skills relies on trial and error, babies need enough freedom to explore their world and get to know their own bodies.
Pattern recognition. This is an indispensable task associated with effective learning processes. Our brains are able to detect deep patterns in tasks that allow us to acquire knowledge faster. For example, the recognition pattern plays a key role in improving memorization and is used extremely actively. Pattern recognition is also used in the development artificial intelligence to create complex machines.
Repetition versus forgetting. To maximize our ability to learn, it is necessary to combine all of the above points. Meanwhile, it is important that the learning process continues throughout life, since it is obvious that constant learning, repetition and improvement are indispensable for our cognitive development processes.
Dream. Important factor for children, because it allows you to reflect external impressions and cognitive processes during the day and more effectively combine this information into a single whole, continuously improving your skills. Since active sleep is very important for this process, children should have enough time for restful sleep.
Considering non-cognitive learning, it should be noted that the reflexes of newborns and children of the first months of life form the constituent elements of future development. From reflexes, they soon turn into purposeful cognitive and physical actions. The touch of a finger, pacifier, or nipple against the infant's palate causes instinctive sucking. At the age of 2-3 months, sucking is already the result of a conscious effort, and not a reflex.
When some parents claim that their older children learned to use the potty by their first birthday, it means that they have simply developed a potty or toilet reflex. Problems arise when, at the age of two, the child discovers a lack of control of this reflex and an unwillingness to obey it. You cannot teach a child to use the potty until he declares this need and sits on it himself.
psychomotor development
Psychomotor development and learning require muscles to work in certain patterns. In this case, a complex interaction of cognitive functions occurs, that is, the development of the motor zone of the cerebral cortex and the corresponding (target) part of the body. There are three stages of psychomotor development: 1) a slow cognitive stage that allows you to control the skill; 2) the associative stage, at which the motor action is gradually deposited in the brain, and 3) the independent (automatic) stage, at which some improvements occur, but there is no need to remember the skill as such.
The development of the child's ability to control the functions of the intestines and bladder cannot be accelerated by the beginning of education at an earlier age and the greater intensification of this process. Studies show that children of mothers who started training their children early acquired toilet skills at about the same age as children who were potty trained later in life when they reached the required physical maturity (Fig. ). The average length of schooling for a child who has reached the age of 18 months is only seven months, compared to 12-15 months for children whose education began before the age of 8 months.
The Union of Pediatricians of Russia recommends that parents start teaching toilet skills to a child after a reliable determination of signs of readiness for learning, such as motor skills and the ability to control the sphincter muscles. According to authorities, these signs usually become apparent around the age of 18 months. By this age, the social and emotional readiness of the child becomes pronounced. Conscious control of your body, movements and behavior is determined by the following features:
The child understands simple commands and is able to follow them.
The child can speak and pronounce at least two or three related words.
The child can take the object and put it in the right place.
However, the pediatrician can determine the presence of some other signs of a child's maturity, thus more accurately determining the time to start his education.
Some important signs of a child's ability to control bowel movements and urination include the following:
Defecation occurs regularly and at roughly predictable intervals;
Defecation does not occur at night;
The child remains dry after a short sleep or at least two hours;
Facial expression, the child making characteristic sounds, or squatting down indicate that the child feels the need to defecate or urinate;
The child must be able to take off his clothes and speak well enough to express his desire to use the potty.
Usually a child reaches physical readiness for learning toilet skills at the age of about 18 months, but psychological and psycho-emotional readiness can come at a later age. Girls usually mature earlier than boys. During toilet training, boys and girls should be willing to cooperate with their parents or other caregivers. So, for example, learning is more difficult if the child is at the stage when he automatically answers “no” to all requests.
The child shows emotional readiness to learn toilet skills different ways. So, children of different sexes can have the following skills:
Reporting that their diaper is wet or dirty and asking to change it;
Try to please parents and fulfill their simple requests;
Express the desire of the child to go to the toilet or wear underwear (“how big”) instead of a diaper;
Express a desire to appear clean and tidy; many children go through a period where they want to be clean and organized;
Express interest in what other family members are doing in the toilet, and try to imitate their behavior.
Conclusion
Beginning toilet training at an age when the child has not reached the required degree of physical or psychological readiness leads to a lengthy learning process. If you start teaching a child under the age of 8 months, this process will drag on for 12-15 months. A child's readiness to learn toilet skills usually occurs around 18 months of age, but the learning process itself can be reduced to about 7 months. By waiting for the child to be ready for learning, we will make the learning process faster and easier for both the mother and the child.
For years, leading pediatricians around the world have been advocating toilet training for children at an age when they can consciously control their bodily functions. The Union of Pediatricians of Russia recommends potty training a child no earlier than 18 months of age.
To inform parents, the Union of Pediatricians of Russia is undertaking an educational campaign in support of a progressive approach to this. milestone child development. The new guidelines are designed to encourage parents and caregivers to adopt an intuitive parenting approach that is based on the child's abilities and abilities. ЃЎ
Literature
American Academy of Pediatrics. Guide to Toilet Training.1st ed. 2003. 224pp.
Brazelton T. B. A child-oriented approach to toilet training // Pediatrics. 1962 Vol. 29. P. 121-128.
E. R. Christophersen, Toileting problems in children, Pediatr. Ann. 1991 Vol. 20. P. 240-244.
Stadtler A. C., Gorski P. A., Brazelton T. B. Toilet training methods, clinical interventions, and clinical interventions. American Academy of Pediatrics // Pediatrics. 1999 Vol. 103. P. 1359-1368.
Brazelton T. B., Christophersen A. R., Frauman A. C., Gorski P. A.et al. Instructions, timelines, and medical influences affecting toilet train-ing //Pediatrics. 1999 Vol. 103. P. 1353-1358.
Stadtler A. C., Gorski P. A., Brazelton T. B. Toilet training methods, clinical interventions, and clinical interventions. American Academy of Pediatrics // Pediatrics. 1999 Vol. 103. P. 1353-1358.
Community Pediatrics Committee CPS. Toilet learning: anticipa-tory guidance with a child-oriented approach // J. Paediatr. child health. 2000 Vol. 5. P. 333-335.
Foxx R. M., Azrin N. H, Dry pants: a rapid method of toilet training children, Behav. Res. Ther. 1973 Vol. 11. P. 435-442.
Shaum T. R., McAuliffe T. L., Simms M. D., Walter J. A. et al. Factors associated with toilet training in the 1990s // Ambul. Pediatr. 2001 Vol. 1. P. 79-86.
Russell K. Among healthy children, what toilet-training strategy is most effective and prevents fewer adverse events (stool withholding and dysfunctional voiding)? Part A: Evidence-based answer and sum-mary // Paediatr. child health. 2008 Vol. 13. P. 201-202.
Lang M. E. Among healthy children, what toilet-training strategy is most effective and prevents fewer adverse events (stool withholding and dysfunctional voiding)? Part B: Clinical commentary // Paediatr. child health. 2008 Vol. 13. P. 203-204
V. M. Studenikin, doctor of medical sciences, professor
Yu. S. Akoev, doctor of medical sciences, professor
NTsZD RAMS, Moscow
There are several concepts related to the acquisition of life experience by a person in the form knowledge, skills, abilities, abilities. This is - teaching, teaching, learning.
The most general concept is learning. Intuitively, each of us imagines what learning is. Learning is said to be in the case when a person began to know and (or) be able to do something that he did not know and (or) did not know how to do before. These new knowledge, skills and abilities may be the result of activities aimed at acquiring them, or act as a side effect of behavior that realizes goals that are not related to this knowledge and skills.
Learning
denotes the process and result of the acquisition of individual experience by a biological system (from the simplest to man as the highest form of its organization in the conditions of the Earth). Such familiar and widespread concepts as evolution, development, survival, adaptation, selection, improvement, have some commonality, which is most fully expressed in the concept of learning, which resides in them either explicitly or by default. The concept of development, or evolution, is impossible without the assumption that all these processes occur as a result of a change in the behavior of living beings. And at present, the only scientific concept that fully embraces these changes is the concept of learning. Living beings learn new behaviors that enable them to survive more effectively. Everything that exists, adapts, survives, acquires new properties, and this happens according to the laws of learning. So, survival basically depends on the ability to learn.
In foreign psychology, the concept of "learning" is often used as an equivalent of "learning". In domestic psychology (at least in the Soviet period of its development) it is customary to use it in relation to animals. However, recently a number of scientists (I.A. Zimnyaya, V.N. Druzhinin, Yu.M. Orlov and others) use this term in relation to a person.
For a better understanding of the differences between learning, teaching and learning, we will use the classification of activities, as a result of which a person gains experience (Gabai T.V., 1995; abstract). All activities in which a person gains experience can be divided into two large groups: activities in which the cognitive effect is a side (additional) product and activities in which the cognitive effect is its direct product (see Fig. 1).
Learning includes the acquisition of experience in all activities, regardless of its nature. In addition, the acquisition of experience as a by-product, depending on the regularity, can be stable, more or less constant in certain types of activity, as well as random, episodic.
The acquisition of experience as a stable by-product can occur in the process of spontaneous communication, in the game (if it is not organized by an adult specifically for the purpose of assimilation by the child of some kind of experience).
In all these activities (play, work, communication, intentional cognition), experience can also be acquired as an accidental by-product.
The second large group of activities in which a person acquires experience are those types that are consciously or unconsciously carried out for the sake of experience itself.
Let us first consider activities in which the acquisition of experience is carried out without setting an appropriate goal. Among them are the following types: didactic games, spontaneous communication and some other activities. All of them are characterized by the fact that, although the subject of acquiring experience does not set himself the goal of mastering this experience, he naturally and steadily receives it at the end of their process. At the same time, the cognitive result is the only rational justification for the expenditure of time and effort of the subject. At the same time, the really acting motive is shifted to the process of activity: a person communicates with others or plays because he enjoys the very process of communication or play.
In addition to didactic play and spontaneous communication, the acquisition of experience as a direct product, but without a conscious goal, is also achieved in free observation, in the course of reading fiction, watching movies, plays, etc.
Discovery or assimilation becomes one of the most significant criteria for classifying the types of cognition. In turn, assimilation also involves two options:
- when the experience is given in finished form, but the subject of assimilation must independently prepare all or some of the conditions that ensure the process of assimilation;
- when he performs only the cognitive components of this activity, and the conditions for assimilation are prepared by other people.
The last option is of the greatest interest to us, since it reflects the essential features of the phenomenon that takes place in any human being and consists in the transfer of the older generation to the younger generation of the experience that society has. This kind of activity is teaching.
3.1.2. Correlation between the concepts of "learning", "teaching" and "teaching"
Doctrineis defined as the learning of a person as a result of a purposeful, conscious appropriation by him of the transmitted (translated) socio-cultural (socio-historical) experience and the individual experience formed on this basis. Therefore, teaching is considered as a kind of learning.
Education
in the most common sense of this term, it means a purposeful, consistent transfer (transmission) of socio-cultural (socio-historical) experience to another person in specially created conditions. From a psychological and pedagogical point of view, learning is seen as managing the process of accumulating knowledge, forming cognitive structures, as organizing and stimulating the student's educational and cognitive activity (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l-ps-not.html; see - laboratory of psychological foundations of new educational technologies).
In addition, the concept of "learning" and "teaching" is equally applicable to humans and animals, in contrast to the concept of "teaching". In foreign psychology, the concept of "learning" is used as an equivalent of "learning". If "teaching" and "teaching" denote the process of acquiring individual experience, then the term "learning" describes both the process itself and its result.
Scientists interpret this triad of concepts in different ways. For example, the points of view of A.K. Markova and N.F. Talyzina are as follows (see Fig. 2).
- A.K. Markov:
- considers learning as the acquisition of individual experience, but first of all pays attention to the automated level of skills;
- interprets learning from a generally accepted point of view - as a joint activity of a teacher and a student, ensuring the assimilation of knowledge by schoolchildren and mastering the methods of acquiring knowledge;
- the teaching is presented as the student's activity in acquiring new knowledge and mastering the ways of acquiring knowledge (Markova A.K., 1990; abstract).
N.F. Talyzina adheres to the interpretation of the concept of "learning" that existed in the Soviet period - the application of the concept under consideration exclusively to animals; she considers learning only as an activity of a teacher in organizing the pedagogical process, and teaching - as an activity of a student included in the educational process (Talyzina N.F., 1998; abstract) (http://www.psy.msu.ru/about/kaf /pedo.html; see the Department of Pedagogy and Educational Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Moscow State University).
Thus, the psychological concepts of "learning", "training", "teaching" cover a wide range of phenomena associated with the acquisition of experience, knowledge, skills, abilities in the process of active interaction of the subject with the objective and social world - in behavior, activity, communication.
The acquisition of experience, knowledge and skills occurs throughout the life of an individual, although this process proceeds most intensively during the period of reaching maturity. Consequently, the learning processes coincide in time with the development, maturation, mastery of the forms of group behavior of the object of study, and in humans - with socialization, the development of cultural norms and values, and the formation of personality.
So, learning/teaching/teaching
- this is the process of acquiring by the subject of new ways of carrying out behavior and activities, their fixation and / or modification. The most general concept denoting the process and result of the acquisition of individual experience by a biological system (from the simplest to man as the highest form of its organization in the conditions of the Earth) is "learning". Teaching a person as a result of purposeful, conscious appropriation of the socio-historical experience transmitted to him and the individual experience formed on this basis is defined as teaching.
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