What is a reasonable person briefly. View: Homo sapiens (lat

For a long time in the Anthropogen, biological factors and patterns were gradually replaced by social ones, which finally ensured the appearance in the Upper Paleolithic of a modern type of man - Homo sapiens, or Homo sapiens. In 1868, five human skeletons were discovered in a Cro-Magnon cave in France, along with stone tools and drilled shells, which is why Homo sapiens are often called Cro-Magnons. Before Homo sapiens appeared on the planet, there was another humanoid species called Neanderthals. They inhabited almost the entire Earth and were distinguished by their large size and serious physical strength. The volume of their brain was almost the same as that of a modern earthling - 1330 cm3.
Neanderthals lived in the era of the great glaciation, so they had to wear clothes made from animal skins and hide from the cold in the depths of the caves. Their only rival in natural conditions could only be a saber-toothed tiger. Our ancestors had highly developed brow ridges, they had a powerful protruding jaw with large teeth. The remains found in the Palestinian cave of Es-Skhul, on Mount Carmel, clearly indicate that Neanderthals are the ancestors of modern humans. These remains combine both ancient Neanderthal features and features that are already characteristic of modern man.
It is assumed that the transition from a Neanderthal to a human of the current type took place in the most climatically favorable regions of the globe, in particular, in the Mediterranean, Western and Central Asia, the Crimea and the Caucasus. Recent studies show that the Neanderthal lived for some time even at the same time as the Cro-Magnon man, the direct predecessor of modern man. Today, Neanderthals are considered to be a kind of side branch of the evolution of Homo sapiens.
Cro-Magnons appeared about 40 thousand years ago in East Africa. They populated Europe and within a very short period completely replaced the Neanderthals. Unlike their ancestors, the Cro-Magnons were distinguished by a large active brain, thanks to which they made an unprecedented step forward in a short period of time.
Since Homo sapiens lived in many regions of the planet with different natural and climatic conditions, this left a certain imprint on his appearance. Already in the era of the Upper Paleolithic, racial types of modern man began to develop: Negroid-Australoid, European-Asian and Asian-American, or Mongoloid. Representatives of different races differ in skin color, eye shape, hair color and type, skull length and shape, as well as body proportions.
The most important occupation for the Cro-Magnons was hunting. They learned how to make darts, tips and spears, invented bone needles, used them to sew the skins of foxes, arctic foxes and wolves, and also began to build dwellings from mammoth bones and other improvised materials.
For collective hunting, housing construction and the manufacture of tools, people began to live in tribal communities, consisting of several large families. Women were considered the core of the clan and were mistresses in common dwellings. The growth of the frontal lobes of a person contributed to the complication of his social life and the diversity of his labor activity, ensured the further evolution of physiological functions, motor skills and associative thinking.

Gradually, the technique of production of tools was improved, their assortment increased. Having learned to use the advantages of his developed intellect, a reasonable person became the sovereign master of all life on Earth. In addition to hunting mammoths, woolly rhinos, wild horses and bison, as well as gathering, Homo sapiens also mastered fishing. The way of life of people also changed - a gradual settling of individual groups of hunters and gatherers began in the forest-steppe regions abundant in vegetation and game. Man has learned to tame animals and domesticate some plants. This is how cattle breeding and agriculture appeared.
The sedentary lifestyle ensured the rapid development of production and culture, which led to the flourishing of housing and economic construction, the manufacture of various tools, the invention of spinning and weaving. A completely new type of management began to take shape, and people began to depend less on the vagaries of nature. This led to an increase in the birth rate and the spread of human civilization in new territories. The manufacture of more advanced tools became possible due to the development of gold, copper, silver, tin and lead around the 4th millennium BC. There was a social division of labor and specialization of individual tribes in production activities depending on certain natural and climatic conditions.
We draw conclusions: at the very beginning, human evolution took place at a very slow pace. It took several million years that have passed since the appearance of the most ancient ancestors for a person to reach the stage of his development, at which he learned to create the first rock paintings.
But with the advent of Homo sapiens on the planet, all his abilities began to develop rapidly, and in a relatively short period of time, man turned into the dominant form of life on Earth. Today, our civilization has already reached the mark of 7 billion people and continues to grow. At the same time, the mechanisms of natural selection and evolution still work, but these processes are slow and rarely amenable to direct observation. The emergence of Homo sapiens and the subsequent rapid development of human civilization led to the fact that nature gradually began to be used by people to satisfy their own needs. The impact of people on the biosphere of the planet has made significant changes in it - the species composition of the organic world in the environment and the nature of the Earth as a whole has changed.

In the light of already published and future videos, for the general development and systematization of knowledge, I propose a generalized overview of the genera of the hominid family from the later Sahelanthropes, who lived about 7 million years ago, to Homo sapiens, who appeared from 315 to 200 thousand years ago. This review will help not to fall into the trap of those who like to mislead and systematize their knowledge. Since the video is quite long, for convenience, in the comments there will be a table of contents with a time code, thanks to which you can start or continue watching the video, from the selected genus or species, if you click on the blue numbers in the list. 1. Sahelanthropus This genus is represented by only one species: 1.1. The Chadian Sahelanthropus (Sahelanthropus tchadensis) is an extinct species of hominin, about 7 million years old. His skull, named Tumaina, which means "hope for life", was found in the northwest of the Republic of Chad in 2001 by Michel Brunet. The volume of their brain, presumably 380 cubic cm, is approximately the same as that of modern chimpanzees. According to the characteristic location of the occipital foramen, scientists believe that this is the most ancient skull of an upright creature. Sahelanthropus may represent a common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees, but there are still a number of questions about his facial features that may cast doubt on the status of Australopithecus. By the way, the affiliation of sahelanthropes to the human pedigree is disputed by the discoverers of the next genus with the only species Ororin tugensis. 2. Genus Orrorin (Orrorin) includes one species: Orrorin tugensis (Orrorin tugenensis), or man of the millennium, this species was first found in 2000 in the Tugen mountains of Kenya. Its age is about 6 million years. Currently, 20 fossils have been found at 4 sites: these include two parts of the lower jaw; symphyses and several teeth; three fragments of a thigh; partial humerus; proximal phalanx; and the distal phalanx of the thumb. By the way, in Orrorins, the femurs with obvious signs of upright posture, in contrast to the indirect ones in Sahelanthropes. But the rest of the skeleton, except for the skull, indicates that he climbed trees. Orrorins were about 1m tall. 20 centimeters. In addition, related finds indicated that Orrorin did not live in the savannah, but in an evergreen forest environment. By the way, it is this species that is demonstrated by lovers of sensations in anthropology or supporters of ideas about the extraterrestrial origin of people, saying that 6 million years ago aliens visited us. As evidence, they note that in this species the femur is closer to a human than in a later species of Afar Australopithecus, named Lucy, 3 million years old, this is true, but understandable, which scientists did 5 years ago, describing the level of primitiveness of similarity and that it is similar to primates that lived 20 million years ago. But on top of that argument, the TV experts report that Orrorin's reconstructed face is flat and human-like. And then take a close look at the images of the finds and find the parts from which you can assemble the face. Don't you see? Me too, but they are there, according to the authors of the programs! At the same time, fragments of a video about completely different finds are shown. This is calculated on the fact that they are trusted by hundreds of thousands, or even millions of viewers, and they will not check. This is how, mixing truth and fiction, a sensation is obtained, but only in the minds of their adherents, and, unfortunately, there are not a few of them. And this is just one example. 3. Ardipithecus (Ardipithecus), an ancient genus of hominids that lived 5.6-4.4 million years ago. At the moment, only two species are described: 3.1. Ardipithecus kadabba (Ardipithecus kadabba) was found in Ethiopia in the valley of the Middle Awash River in 1997. And in 2000, to the north, a few more finds were found. The finds are represented mainly by teeth and fragments of skeletal bones, from several individuals, 5.6 million years old. The following species from the genus Ardipithecus is more qualitatively described. 3.2. Ardipithecus ramidus (Ardipithecus ramidus) or Ardi, which means earth or root. The remains of Ardi were first discovered near the Ethiopian village of Aramis in 1992 in the Afar depression in the Awash River valley. And in 1994, more fragments were obtained, which accounted for 45% of the total skeleton. This is a very significant find, which combines the features of both monkeys and humans. The age of the finds was determined based on their stratigraphic position between two volcanic layers and amounted to 4.4 Ma. And between 1999 and 2003, scientists discovered the bones and teeth of nine more individuals of the Ardipithecus ramidus species, on the northern bank of the Awash River in Ethiopia, west of Hadar. Ardipithecus is similar to most of the primitive previously recognized hominins, but unlike them, Ardipithecus ramidus had a big toe that retained its grasping ability, adapted for climbing trees. However, scientists argue that other features of its skeleton reflect an adaptation to upright posture. Like late hominins, Ardi had reduced fangs. Its brain was about the size of a modern chimpanzee and about 20% the size of a modern human brain. Their teeth say that they ate both fruits and leaves without preference, and this is already the path to omnivorousness. In terms of social behavior, slight sexual dimorphism may indicate a decrease in aggression and competition between males in a group. The legs of the ramidus are well suited for walking both in the forest and in the conditions of meadows, swamps and lakes. 4. Australopithecus (Australopithecus), here it should immediately be noted that there is also the concept of Australopithecus, which includes 5 more genera and is divided into 3 groups: a) early Australopithecus (7.0 - 3.9 million years ago); b) gracile australopithecines (3.9 - 1.8 million years ago); c) massive australopithecines (2.6 - 0.9 million years ago). But Australopithecus as a genus is a fossil higher primate with signs of upright walking and anthropoid features in the structure of the skull. Who lived in the period from 4.2 to 1.8 million years ago. Let's consider 6 types of Australopithecus: 4.1. The Australopithecus anamensis of Anamen is believed to be the ancestor of humans, who lived about four million years ago. Fossils have been found in Kenya and Ethiopia. The first find of the species was discovered in 1965 near Lake Turkana in Kenya, previously the lake was called Rudolf. Then, in 1989, teeth of this species were found on the northern coast of Turkana, but on the territory of modern Ethiopia. And already in 1994, about a hundred additional fragments from two dozen hominids were discovered, including one complete lower jaw, with teeth resembling human ones. And only in 1995, on the basis of the described finds, the species was identified as Anamsky Australopithecus, which is considered a descendant of the species Ardipithecus ramidus. And in 2006, a new find of the Anaman Australopithecus was announced, in northeastern Ethiopia, about 10 km. from the site of the finds of Ardipithecus ramidus. The age of the Anamese australopithecines is about 4-4.5 million years. Anamsky Australopithecus is considered the ancestor of the following species of Australopithecus. 4.2. The Afar Australopithecus (Australopithecus afarensis), or "Lucy", after the first find, is an extinct hominid that lived between 3.9 and 2.9 million years ago. The Afar Australopithecus was closely related to the genus Homo, either as a direct ancestor or close relative of an unknown common ancestor. Lucy herself, 3.2 million years old, was discovered in 1974 in the Afar Basin near the village of Hadar in Ethiopia on November 24. "Lucy" was represented by an almost complete skeleton. And the name "Lucy" was inspired by the Beatles song "Lucy in the sky with diamonds." Afar australopithecines have also been found in other localities such as Omo, Maka, Feige and Belohdeli in Ethiopia and Koobi Fore and Lotagam in Kenya. Representatives of the species had fangs and molars relatively larger than those of modern humans, and the brain was still small - from 380 to 430 cubic cm - the face was with protruding lips. The anatomy of the arms, legs, and shoulder joints suggests that the creatures were partially arboreal and not only terrestrial, although in general anatomy the pelvis is much more human-like. However, due to the anatomical structure, they could already walk with an upright gait. The upright posture of the Afar Australopithecus may just be due to climate change in Africa from the jungle to the savannah. In Tanzania, 20 km from the Sadiman volcano, in 1978 footprints of a family of upright hominids were discovered, preserved in volcanic ash south of Olduvai Gorge. Based on sexual dimorphism - the difference in body size between males and females - these creatures most likely lived in small family groups containing one dominant and larger male and several small breeding females. "Lucy" would live in a group culture that involves communication. In 2000, the skeletal remains of what is believed to be a 3-year-old child of Afar australopithecines, who lived 3.3 million years ago, were discovered in the Dikik area. These Australopithecus, according to archaeological finds, used stone tools for cutting meat from animal carcasses and crushing. But this is only the use, not the manufacture of them. 4.3. Australopithecus Bahr el Ghazal (Australopithecus bahrelghazali) or Abel is a fossil hominin, first discovered in 1993 in the Bahr el Ghazal Valley at the archaeological site of Koro Toro in Chad. Abel is approximately 3.6-3 million years old. The find consists of a mandibular fragment, the lower second incisor, both the lower canines and all four of its premolars. This australopithecine fell into a separate species thanks to its lower three root premolars. It is also the first australopithecine discovered north of the previous ones, which indicates their wide distribution. 4.4 The African Australopithecus (Australopithecus africanus) was an early hominid that lived 3.3 to 2.1 million years ago during the late Pliocene and early Pleistocene. Unlike the previous species, it had a larger brain and more human-like features. Many scientists believe that he is the ancestor of modern humans. The African Australopithecus has only been found at four sites in southern Africa - Taung in 1924, Sterkfontein in 1935, Makapansgat in 1948 and Gladysvale in 1992. The first find was a baby skull known as the "Taung Baby" and described by Raymond Dart, who named it Australopithecus africanus, meaning "southern monkey of Africa". He claimed that this species was intermediate between apes and humans. Further discoveries confirmed their separation into a new species. This australopithecine was a bipedal hominid with arms slightly longer than legs. Despite its somewhat more human-like cranial features, other more primitive features are present, including simian-like, curved climbing fingers. But the pelvis was more adapted to bipedalism than in the previous species. 4.5. Australopithecus garhi (Australopithecus garhi), 2.5 million years old, was discovered in Ethiopia in the Bowri deposits. "Garhi" means "surprise" in the local Afar language. For the first time, tools similar to the Aldovan culture of stone processing were found along with the remains. 4.6. Australopithecus sediba (Australopithecus sediba) is a species of australopithecines of the early Pleistocene, represented by fossils dating back to about 2 million years. This species is known from four incomplete skeletons found in South Africa in a place called the "cradle of mankind", 50 km northwest of Johannesburg, within the Malapa cave. The discovery was made thanks to the Google Earth service. "Sediba" means "spring" in the Sotho language. Australopithecus sediba, two adults, and one 18-month-old infant were found together. In total, more than 220 fragments have been excavated so far. Australopithecus sediba may have lived in the savannah, but the diet included fruits and other forest products. The height of the sediba was about 1.3 meters. The first specimen of Australopithecus sediba was discovered by 9-year-old Matthew, son of paleoanthropologist Lee Berger, on August 15, 2008. The mandible found was part of a young male whose skull was discovered later in March 2009 by Berger and his team. Also in the area of ​​the cave were found fossils of various animals, including saber-toothed cats, mongooses and antelopes. The volume of the brain of a sediba was about 420-450 cubic cm, which is about three times less than that of modern people. Australopithecus sediba had a remarkably modern hand whose precision of grip suggests the use and manufacture of a tool. Sediba probably belonged to a late South African branch of Australopithecus, which coexisted with members of the genus Homo already living at that time. Currently, some scientists are trying to clarify the dates and look for a connection between Australopithecus sediba and the genus Homo. 5. Paranthropus (Paranthropus) - a genus of fossil higher primates. They have been found in East and South Africa. They are also called massive australopithecines. Paranthropus finds are dated from 2.7 to 1 million years ago. 5.1. Ethiopian Paranthropus (Paranthropus aethiopicus or Australopithecus aethiopicus) The species was described from a 1985 find in the Turkana Lake area, Kenya, known as the "black skull" because of its dark color due to its manganese content. The skull has been dated to 2.5 million years. But later, part of the lower jaw, discovered in 1967 in the Omo River Valley, Ethiopia, was also attributed to this species. Anthropologists believe that the Ethiopian Paranthropus lived between 2.7 and 2.5 million years ago. They were quite primitive and share many features with the Afar Australopithecus, possibly being their direct descendants. Their special feature was strongly protruding jaws. This species is believed to diverge from the Homo lineage on the evolutionary branch of the hominid tree. 5.2. Boise's Paranthropus (Paranthropus boisei) aka Australopithecus boisei, aka "The Nutcracker" was an early hominin described as the largest of the Paranthropus genus. They lived in East Africa during the Pleistocene era from about 2.4 to 1.4 million years ago. The largest skull, found in Konso in Ethiopia, dates back to 1.4 million years. They were 1.2-1.5 m tall, and weighed from 40 to 90 kg. The well-preserved skull of the paranthropus bois was first discovered in Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania in 1959 and was given the name Nutcracker, due to its large teeth and thick enamel. It has been dated at 1.75 million. And 10 years later, in 1969, the son of the discoverer of the "Nutcracker" Mary Leakey Richard discovered another skull of paranthropus boyes in Koobi Fora near Lake Turkana in Kenya. Judging by the structure of the jaws, they ate massive plant foods, and lived in forests and shrouds. According to the structure of the skull, scientists believe that the brain of these Paranthropus was quite primitive, up to 550 cubic cm in volume. 5.3. Paranthropus massive (Paranthropus robustus). The first skull of this species was discovered at Kromdraai in South Africa in 1938 by a schoolboy who later traded it for chocolate to anthropologist Robert Broom. Paranthropus or Massive Australopithecus were bipedal hominids that probably evolved from graceful australopithecines. They are characterized by strong skullcaps, and gorilla-like cranial ridges that suggest strong chewing muscles. They lived between 2 and 1.2 million years ago. The remains of massive paranthropes have been found only within South Africa at Kromdraai, Swartkrans, Drimolen, Gondolin and Coopers. The remains of 130 individuals were found in a cave in Swartkrans. Dental studies have shown that massive paranthropes rarely lived to 17 years of age. The approximate height of the males was about 1.2 m, and their weight was about 54 kg. But the females were a little less than 1 meter tall and weighed about 40 kg, which indicates a rather large sexual dimorphism. Their brain size ranged from 410 to 530 cc. see. They ate rather massive food, such as tubers and nuts, possibly from open forests and savannahs. 6. Kenyanthropus (Kenyanthropus) a genus of hominids who lived from 3.5 to 3.2 million years ago in the Pliocene. This genus is represented by one species, Kenyanthropus flatface, but some scientists consider it a separate species of Australopithecus, like Australopithecus flatface, while others attribute it to the Afar Australopithecus. 6.1. The flat-faced Kenyanthropus (Kenyanthropus platyops) was found on the Kenyan side of Lake Turkana in 1999. These Kenyanthropes lived from 3.5 to 3.2 million years ago. This species remains a mystery, and suggests that 3.5 - 2 million years ago there were several humanoid species, each of which was well adapted to life in a certain environment. 7. The genus People or Homo includes both extinct species and Homo sapiens. Extinct species classified as ancestral, especially Homo erectus, or as closely related to modern humans. The earliest representatives of the genus, at the moment, date back to 2.5 million years. 7.1. Homo gautengensis is a hominin species that was isolated in 2010 after a fresh look at a skull found back in 1977 in the Sterkfontein Cave in Johannesburg, South Africa, Gotheng Province. This species is represented by South African fossil hominins, formerly referred to as Handy Man (Homo habilis), Working Man (Homo ergaster), or in some cases Australopithecus. But Australopithecus sediba, who lived at the same time as Homo Gautengensis, turned out to be much more primitive. Homo gautengensis has been identified from skull fragments, teeth and other parts found at various times in caves at a site called the Cradle of Humanity in South Africa. The oldest specimens are dated at 1.9-1.8 million years. The youngest specimens from Swartkrans date from about 1.0 million to 600 thousand years. According to the description, Homo Gautengensis had large teeth suitable for chewing plants and a small brain, most likely he consumed a predominantly plant food, in contrast to Homo erectus, Homo sapiens and, probably, Homo habilis. According to scientists, he produced and used stone tools, and judging by the burnt animal bones found with the remains of Homo Gautengensis, these hominins used fire. They were a little over 90 cm tall, and their weight was about 50 kg. Homo Gautengensis walked on two legs, but also spent considerable time in the trees, possibly feeding, sleeping, and sheltering from predators. 7.2. Rudolf man (Homo rudolfensis), a species of the genus Homo, who lived 1.7-2.5 million years ago, was first discovered in 1972 on Lake Turkana in Kenya. However, the remains were first described in 1978 by the Soviet anthropologist Valery Alekseev. Remains have also been found in Malawi in 1991 and in Koobi-fora, Kenya in 2012. Rudolf man coexisted in parallel with Homo habilis or skillful man and they could interact. Possibly ancestral to later Homo species. 7.3. Handyman (Homo habilis) is a species of fossil hominin that is considered to be representative of our ancestors. Lived from about 2.4 to 1.4 million years ago, during the Gelazian Pleistocene. The first finds were discovered in Tanzania in 1962-1964. Homo habilis was thought to be the earliest known species of the genus Homo, until the discovery of Homo Gautengensis in 2010. Homo habilis was short and had disproportionately long arms compared to modern humans, but with a flatter face than Australopithecus. The volume of his skull was less than half compared to modern humans. His finds are often accompanied by primitive stone tools from the Olduvai culture, hence the name "Handyman". And if it is easier to describe, then the body of the habilis resembles Australopithecus, with a more human-like face and smaller teeth. Whether Homo habilis was the first hominid to possess stone tool technology remains debatable, as Australopithecus garhi dated 2. 6 million years old, was found along with similar stone tools, and it is at least 100-200 thousand years older than Homo habilis. Homo habilis lived in parallel with other bipedal primates such as Paranthropus boisei. But Homo habilis, perhaps through the use of a tool and a more varied diet, appears to have been the forerunner of a whole line of new species by dental analysis, while the remains of Paranthropus boisei have not been found again. It is also possible that Homo habilis coexisted with Homo erectus around 500,000 years ago. 7.4. Homo ergaster is an extinct but one of the earliest species of Homo that lived in eastern and southern Africa during the early Pleistocene, 1.8 - 1.3 million years ago. Named for his advanced hand tool technology, he is sometimes referred to as the African Homo erectus. Some researchers consider the working man to be the ancestor of the Acheulian culture, while other scientists give the palm to the early erectus. There is also evidence of their use of fire. The remains were first discovered in 1949 in southern Africa. And the most complete skeleton was found in Kenya on the western shore of Lake Turkana, it belonged to a teenager and was called the "Boy from Turkana" or also "Nariokotome Boy", his age was 1.6 million years. Often this find is classified as Homo erectus. Homo ergaster is believed to have diverged from the Homo habilis lineage between 1.9 and 1.8 million years ago and existed for about half a million years in Africa. Scientists also believe that they quickly became sexually mature, even in their youth. Its distinguishing feature was also rather tall, about 180 cm. The worker also has less sexual dimorphism than Austropithecus, and this may mean more prosocial behavior. His brain was already larger, up to 900 cubic centimeters. Some scientists believe that they could use a proto-language based on the structure of the cervical vertebrae, but this is only speculation at the moment. 7.5. The Dmanisian hominid (Homo georgicus) or (Homo erectus georgicus) is the first member of the Homo genus to leave Africa. Finds dating back to 1.8 million years were discovered in Georgia in August 1991, described in different years also as Georgian Man (Homo georgicus), Homo erectus georgicus, Dmanisi hominid (Dmanisi) and as Working Man (Homo ergaster). But it was separated into a separate species and, together with erectus and ergaster, they are also often called archanthropes, or if we add here the Heidelberg man of Europe and Sinanthropus from China, we will already get Pithecanthropes. In 1991 by David Lordkipanidze. Along with ancient human remains, tools and animal bones were found. The brain volume of Dmanisian hominids is approximately 600-700 cubic centimeters - two times less than that of modern humans. This is the smallest hominid brain found outside of Africa, other than the Floresian man (Homo floresiensis). The Dmanisian hominid was bipedal and shorter than the abnormally tall ergaster, the average height of males was about 1.2m. Dental conditions indicate omnivory. But among the archaeological finds, evidence of the use of fire was not found. Possibly a descendant of Rudolf Man. 7.6. Homo erectus, or simply Erectus, is an extinct species of hominin that lived from the end of the Pliocene to the late Pleistocene, approximately 1.9 million to 300,000 years ago. About 2 million years ago, the climate in Africa just changed to drier. The long time of existence and migration could not but create many different views of scientists on this species. According to the available data and their interpretation, the species originated in Africa, then migrated to India, China and to the island of Java. In general, Homo erectus settled in the warm parts of Eurasia. But some scientists suggest that erectus appeared in Asia and only then migrated to Africa. Erectus have existed for over a million years, longer than other human species. The classification and lineage of Homo erectus is quite controversial. But there are some subspecies of erectus. 7.6.1 Pithecanthropus or "Javanese Man" - Homo erectus erectus 7.6.2 Yuanmou Man - Homo erectus yuanmouensis 7.6.3 Lantian Man - Homo erectus lantianensis 7.6.4 Nanjing Man - Homo erectus nankinensis 7.6.5 Sinanthropus or "Beijing Man" - Homo erectus pekinensis 7.6.6 Meganthrope - Homo erectus palaeojavanicus 7.6.7 Javanthrope or Soloyan man - Homo erectus soloensis 7.6.8 Man from Totavel - Homo erectus tautavelensis 7.6.9 Dmanisian hominid - Homo erectus georgicus 7.6.10 Man from Bilzingsleben - Homo erectus bilzingslebenensis 7.6.11 Atlantrope or Moorish man - Homo erectus mauritanicus 7.6.12 Cherpano man - Homo cepranensis, some scientists distinguish it, like many other subspecies, into a separate species, but the 1994 find in the vicinity of Rome is represented only by a skull, therefore little data for a more thorough analysis. Homo erectus got its name for a reason, its legs were adapted for both walking and running. Temperature metabolism was increased by thinner and shorter body hair. It is possible that erectus have already become hunters. Smaller teeth may indicate a change in diet, most likely due to fire treatment. And this is already a way to increase the brain, the volume of which in erectus varied from 850 to 1200 cubic cm. They were up to 178 cm tall. Erectus sexual dimorphism was less than that of its predecessors. They lived in hunter-gatherer groups and hunted together. They used fire both for warmth and cooking, and to scare away predators. They made tools, hand axes, flakes, and in general were carriers of the Acheulean culture. In 1998, there were suggestions that they were building rafts. 7.7. Homo antecessor is an extinct human species, between 1.2 million and 800,000 years old. Found in the Sierra de Atapuerca in 1994. The fossil of the upper jaw and part of the skull, 900 thousand years old, discovered in Spain, belonged to a boy of a maximum of 15 years. Many bones, both animal and human, were found nearby, bearing marks that could indicate cannibalism. Nearly all of those eaten were teenagers or children. At the same time, there was no evidence indicating a lack of food in the vicinity at that time. They were about 160-180 cm tall and weighed about 90 kg. The volume of the human brain of the previous (Homo antecessor) was about 1000-1150 cubic centimeters. Scientists suggest a rudimentary ability to speak. 7.8. Heidelberg man (Homo heidelbergensis) or protanthropus (Protanthropus heidelbergensis) is an extinct species of the genus Homo, which may be the direct ancestor of both the Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis), if we consider its development in Europe, and Homo sapiens, but only in Africa. The discovered remains were dated from 800 to 150 thousand years. The first records of this species were made in 1907 by Daniel Hartmann in the village of Mauer in southwestern Germany. After that, representatives of the species were found in France, Italy, Spain, Greece and China. Also in 1994, a discovery was made in England near the village of Boxgrove, hence the name "Man from Boxgrove" (Boxgrove Man). However, there is also the name of the area - "horse slaughterhouse", which involves butchering horse carcasses using stone tools. Heidelberg man used the tools of the Acheulean culture, sometimes with transitions to the Mousterian culture. They were on average 170 cm tall, and in South Africa there were finds of individuals 213 cm tall and dated from 500 to 300 thousand years. Heidelberg man may have been the first species to bury their dead, based on 28 remains found in Atapuerca, Spain. He may have used tongue and red ocher as decoration, as evidenced by finds at Terra Amata near Nice on the slopes of Mount Boron. Dental analysis suggests they were right-handed. Heidelberg man (Homo heidelbergensis) was an advanced hunter, judging by hunting tools such as spears from Schöningen in Germany. 7.8.1. Rhodesian man (Homo rhodesiensis) is an extinct subspecies of hominins that lived from 400 to 125 thousand years ago. The Kabwe fossil skull is a typical specimen of this species, found in the Broken Hill Caves in Northern Rhodesia, now Zambia, by the Swiss miner Tom Zwieglaar in 1921. Previously, it stood out as a separate species. The Rhodesian man was massive, with very large eyebrows and a broad face. He is sometimes called the "African Neanderthal", although he has intermediate features between sapiens and Neanderthals. 7.9. Florisbad (Homo helmei) is described as an "archaic" Homo sapiens that lived 260,000 years ago. Represented by a partially preserved skull that was discovered in 1932 by Professor Dreyer within the archaeological and paleontological site of Florisbad near Bloemfontein in South Africa. It may be an intermediate form between Heidelberg man (Homo heidelbergensis) and Homo sapiens. Florisbad was the same size as a modern human, but with a large brain volume of about 1400 cubic cm. 7.10 The Neanderthal (Homo neanderthalensis) is an extinct species or subspecies within the genus Homo, closely related to, and interbred with, modern humans. The term "Neanderthal" comes from the modern spelling of the Neander Valley in Germany, where the species was first discovered in the Feldhofer Cave. Neanderthals existed, according to genetic data, from 600 thousand years ago, and according to archaeological finds from 250 to 28 thousand years ago, with the last refuge in Gibraltar. The finds are currently being intensively studied and it makes no sense to describe in more detail, since I will return to this species again and possibly more than once. 7. 11. Homo Naledi Fossils were discovered in 2013 in Dinaledi Chamber, Rising Star Cave System, Gauteng Province in South Africa and were quickly recognized as the remains of a new species in 2015, and distinct from the remains found previously. In 2017, the finds are dated from 335 to 236 thousand years ago. The remains of fifteen individuals, both male and female, were recovered from the cave, among them were children. The new species has been named Homo naledi and has an unexpected combination of modern and primitive features, including a fairly small brain. The growth of "Naledi" was about one and a half meters, the volume of the brain was from 450 to 610 cubic meters. See The word "ice" means "star" in the Sotho-Tswana languages. 7.12. Floresian man (Homo floresiensis) or Hobbit is an extinct dwarf species of the genus Homo. The Floresian man lived from 100 to 60 thousand years ago. Archaeological remains were discovered by Mike Morewood in 2003 on the island of Flores in Indonesia. Incomplete skeletons of nine individuals have been recovered, including one complete skull, from Liang Bua Cave. A distinctive feature of hobbits, as the name implies, is their height, about 1 meter and a small brain, about 400 cm3. Stone tools were found along with skeletal remains. There is still debate about the Floresian man, whether he could make tools with such a brain. The theory was put forward that the found skull is a microcephalic. But most likely this species evolved from erectus or other species in isolation on the island. 7.13. Denisovans (Denisova hominin) are Paleolithic members of the genus Homo that may belong to a previously unknown human species. It is believed to be the third person from the Pleistocene who has demonstrated a level of adaptation previously thought to be unique to modern humans and Neanderthals. Denisovans occupied large territories, stretching from cold Siberia to the tropical rainforests of Indonesia. In 2008, Russian scientists, in the Denisova Cave or Ayu-Tash, in the Altai Mountains, discovered the distal phalanx of a girl's finger, from which mitochondrial DNA was later isolated. The mistress of the phalanx lived in a cave about 41 thousand years ago. This cave was also inhabited by Neanderthals and modern humans at different times. In general, there are not many finds, including teeth and part of the phalanx of the toe, as well as various tools and jewelry, including a bracelet not made of local material. Analysis of the mitochondrial DNA of the finger bone showed that Denisovans are genetically different from Neanderthals and modern humans. They may have split from the Neanderthal line after the split with the Homo sapiens line. Recent analyzes have also shown that they overlapped with our species, and even interbred multiple times, at different times. Up to 5-6% of the DNA of the Melanesians and Australian Aborigines contain Denisovan admixtures. And modern non-Africans have about 2-3% impurities. In 2017, in China, fragments of skulls were found, with a large brain volume, up to 1800 cubic cm and an age of 105-125 thousand years. Some scientists based on their description suggested that they could belong to the Denisovans, but these versions are currently controversial. 7.14. Idaltu (Homo sapiens idaltu) is an extinct subspecies of Homo sapiens that lived about 160 thousand years ago in Africa. "Idaltu" means "firstborn". Fossils of Homo sapiens idaltu were discovered in 1997 by Tim White at Kherto Buri in Ethiopia. Although the morphology of the skulls indicates archaic features not found in later Homo sapiens, they are still considered by scientists to be the direct ancestors of modern Homo sapiens sapiens. 7.15. Homo sapiens is a species of the hominin family from a large detachment of primates. And it is the only living species of this genus, that is, us. If someone is reading or listening to this is not of our kind, write in the comments ...). Representatives of the species first appeared in Africa about 200 or 315 thousand years ago, given the latest data from Jebel Irhud, but there are still many questions. Then they spread almost all over the planet. Although in a more modern form as Homo sapiens sapiens, well, a very intelligent person, appeared a little over 100 thousand years ago, according to some anthropologists. Also in early times, in parallel with people, other species and populations developed, such as Neanderthals and Denisovans, as well as the Soloy man or Javanthropus, the Ngandong man and the Callao Man, as well as others that do not fit into the species. A reasonable man, but according to dating, who lived at the same time. As for example: 7.15.1. The Red Deer Cave people are an extinct population of humans, the latest known to science, that does not fit within the variability of Homo sapiens. And possibly belongs to another species of the genus Homo. They were discovered in the south of China in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region in the Longlin cave in 1979. The age of the remains is from 11.5 to 14.3 thousand years. Although they may well be the results of cross-breeding between different populations that lived at that time. These issues will still be discussed on the channel, so a brief description is enough for now. And now, who watched the video from beginning to end, put the letter "P" in the comments, and if in parts then "H", only to be honest!

reasonable man ( Homo sapiens) is a species of the genus Homo, a family of hominids, a detachment of primates. It is considered the dominant animal species on the planet and the highest in terms of development.

Currently Homo sapiens is the only representative of the genus Homo. Several tens of thousands of years ago, the genus was represented by several species at once - Neanderthals, Cro-Magnons and others. It has been established for certain that the direct ancestor of Homo sapiens is (Homo erectus, 1.8 million years ago - 24 thousand years ago). For a long time it was believed that the closest human ancestor is, however, in the course of research it became clear that the Neanderthal is a subspecies, parallel, lateral or sister line of human evolution and does not belong to the ancestors of modern humans. Most scientists are inclined to the version that the direct ancestor of man became, which existed 40-10 thousand years ago. The term "Cro-Magnon" is defined by Homo sapiens, who lived up to 10 thousand years ago. The closest relatives of Homo sapiens of the primates that exist today are the common chimpanzee and the pygmy chimpanzee (bonobo).

The formation of Homo sapiens is divided into several stages: 1. The primitive community (from 2.5-2.4 million years ago, the Old Stone Age, Paleolithic); 2. The ancient world (in most cases determined by the major events of ancient Greece and Rome (the First Olympiad, the foundation of Rome), from 776-753 BC); 3. Middle Ages or Middle Ages (V-XVI centuries); 4. New time (XVII-1918); Modern times (1918 - our days).

Today Homo sapiens has populated the whole Earth. The latest estimate of the world's population is 7.5 billion people.

Video: The origins of mankind. Homo sapiens

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Image copyright Philipp Gunz/MPI EVA Leipzig Image caption Reconstruction of the skull of the earliest known member of Homo sapiens, made by scanning multiple remains from Jebel Irhud

The notion that modern humans originated in a single "cradle of humanity" in East Africa some 200,000 years ago is no longer valid, a new study says.

Fossils of five early modern humans found in northern Africa show that Homo sapiens (Homo sapiens) appeared at least 100,000 years earlier than previously thought.

A study published in the journal Nature says our species has evolved across the continent.

According to Professor Jean-Jacques Hublen of the Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology of the Max Planck Society in Leipzig, Germany, scientists' discovery could lead to rewriting of textbooks on the origin of our species.

“It cannot be said that everything developed rapidly in some paradise Eden somewhere in Africa. In our opinion, the development was more consistent, and it took place on the entire continent. So if there was a Garden of Eden, then all of Africa was it,” he adds.

• Scientists: our ancestors left Africa earlier than expected
• Mysterious Homo naledi - our ancestors or cousins?
• Primitive man turned out to be much younger than previously thought

Professor Hublen spoke at a press conference at the Collège de France in Paris, where he proudly showed reporters fragments of human fossils found at Jebel Irhoud in Morocco. These are skulls, teeth and tubular bones.

In the 1960s, at this one of the oldest sites of modern humans, remains were discovered that were estimated to be 40,000 years old. They were considered an African form of Neanderthals, close relatives of Homo sapiens.

However, Professor Hublen was always troubled by this interpretation, and when he began working at the Institute of Evolutionary Anthropology, he decided to reassess the fossils from Jebel Irhud. More than 10 years later, he tells a very different story.

Image copyright Shannon McPherron/MPI EVA Leipzig Image caption Jabal Irhud has been known for more than half a century due to fossils found there.

Using modern technology, he and his colleagues managed to determine that the age of the new finds ranges from 300,000 to 350,000 years. And the found skull in its shape is almost the same as that of a modern person.

A number of significant differences are seen in the slightly more prominent brow ridges and the smaller cerebral ventricles (cavities in the brain filled with cerebrospinal fluid).

Excavations have also revealed that these ancient people used stone tools and learned how to build and make fire. So not only did they look like Homo sapiens, they acted the same way.

So far, the earliest fossils of this species have been discovered at Omo Kibish in Ethiopia. Their age is about 195 thousand years.

"Now we need to reconsider our understanding of how the first modern humans appeared," says Professor Hublen.

Before the advent of Homo sapiens, there were many different primitive human species. Each of them was outwardly different from the others, and each of them had their own strengths and weaknesses. And each of these species, like animals, evolved and gradually changed their appearance. This has been happening for hundreds of thousands of years.

The previously accepted view was that Homo sapiens evolved unexpectedly from more primitive species in eastern Africa about 200,000 years ago. And by this moment, in the most general terms, modern man had formed. Moreover, only then the modern species, as it was believed, began to spread throughout Africa, and then throughout the planet.

However, the discoveries of Professor Hublen may dispel these ideas.

Image copyright Jean-Jacques Hublin/MPI-EVA, Leipzig Image caption Fragment of the lower jaw of Homo sapiens found in Jebel Irhud

The age of finds in many of the excavations in Africa dates back to 300 thousand years. Similar tools and evidence of the use of fire have been found in many places. But there are no fossil remains on them.

Since most experts based their studies on the assumption that our species appeared no earlier than 200,000 years ago, it was believed that these places were inhabited by older, other types of humans. However, the finds at Jebel Irhud suggest that it was Homo sapiens who actually left their mark there.

Image copyright Mohammed Kamal, MPI EVA Leipzig Image caption Stone tools found by Prof. Hublen's team

"This shows that across Africa there were many places where Homo sapiens appeared. We need to drop the assumption that there was one cradle of mankind," said Professor Chris Stringer of the Natural History Museum in London, who was not involved in the study.

According to him, there is a high probability that Homo sapiens could even exist at the same time outside of Africa: "We have fossils from Israel, probably the same age, and they have features similar to Homo sapiens."

Professor Stringer says it's possible that smaller-brained, larger-faced primitive humans with strong brow ridges - nonetheless Homo sapiens - could have existed in earlier times, perhaps even half a million years ago. This is an incredible change in the ideas that prevailed until recently about the origin of man,

"20 years ago I said that only those who look like us can be called Homo sapiens. There was an idea that Homo sapiens suddenly appeared in Africa at a certain time and he laid the foundation for our species. But now it seems that I was wrong ' Professor Stringer told the BBC.

Remark 1

Homo sapiens (lat. Homo sapiens) is the systematic name used in taxonomy (also known as binomial nomenclature) for anatomically modern humans, that is, the only surviving human species. This name was introduced in 1758 by Carl Linnaeus (who himself is also a type specimen).

Speciation

Extinct species of the genus Homo are classified as "archaic humans". This genus includes at least a single species of Homo erectus and possibly a number of other species (which are variously considered to be also subspecies of either H. sapiens or H. erectus. H. sapiens idaltu is a proposed extinct subspecies of H. sapiens.

The age of speciation of H. sapiens from ancestral H. erectus (or intermediate species such as Homo heidelbergensis) is thought to be between about 300,000-200,000 years ago. However, intermingling with archaic human species is believed to have continued over a period of time until about 30,000 years ago, the extinction point of any surviving archaic human species that appears to have been absorbed into the expansion of Homo sapiens beginning about 50,000 years ago.

Genus Homo

Definition 1

Homo is a genus that covers the extant species of Homo sapiens (modern humans) as well as several extinct species classified as its ancestors or closely related to modern humans.

The genus Homo is 2 to 3 million years old and is descended from the genus Australopithecus, which itself had previously split from the line of Pan, the chimpanzee. Taxonomically, Homo is the only genus assigned to the subtribes Hominina, which, with the subtropics Australopithecina and Panina, constitute the tribe Hominini. All species of the genus Homo, together with the species of Australopithecus that arose after the split from Pan, are called hominins. Species of the genus Homo:

1. Homo habilis (Handy man) 2.6-2.5 (million years ago) Range: Africa
2. Homo rudolfensis (Rudolf Man) 2-1.78 (million years ago) Range: Kenya
3. Homo erectus (Human erectus) 2-0.03 (million years ago) Range: Africa, Eurasia (Java, China, Caucasus)
4. Homo georgicus (Georgian Man) 1.8 (million years ago) Range: Georgia
5. Homo ergaster (Man working) 1.8-1.4 (million years ago) Range: South and East Africa
6. Homo antecessor (Man-predecessor) 1.2-0.8 (million years ago) Range: Spain
7. Homo cepranensis (Man from Ceprano) 0.9-0.8 (million years ago) Range: Italy
8. Homo heidelbergensis (Heidelberg man) 0.8-0.345 (million years ago) Range: Europe, Africa, China
9. Homo rhodesiensis (Rhodesian man) 0.3-0.12 (million years ago) Range: Zambia
10. Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthal) 0.35-0.040 (million years ago) Range: Europe, Western Asia
11. Homo sapiens sapiens (Homo sapiens) 0.2-B.C. in. Range: all over
12. Homo sapiens idaltu (Homo sapiens the oldest) 0.16-0.15 (million years ago) Range: Ethiopia
13. Homo floresiensis (Floresian man) 0.10-0.012 (million years ago) Range: Indonesia

Some of the most important species of the genus Homo are Homo erectus and Homo sapiens sapiens.

Homo erectus - appeared about two million years ago in East Africa (where it was called Homo ergaster), and in several early migrations it spread throughout Africa and Eurasia. Probably the first hominin lived in a hunter-gatherer society and controlled the fire.

The adaptive and successful Homo erectus species persisted for almost 2 million years before suddenly becoming extinct around 70,000 years ago (0.07 million years), possibly victims of the ultrafast Toba catastrophe.

Homo sapiens sapiens - anatomically comparable to modern humans, appeared about 200,000 years ago (0.2 million years ago) in East Africa Modern humans migrated out of Africa as early as 60,000 years ago. During the Upper Paleolithic, they spread throughout Africa, Eurasia, Oceania, and America, and they encountered archaic people along the way during these migrations. Homo sapiens sapiens is the only surviving species and subspecies of the genus Homo.

Origin of Homo sapiens

Remark 2

Traditionally in paleoanthropology, there are two competing views on the origin of H. sapiens: a recent African origin and a multiregional origin.

Recent genetic studies have also resulted in an intermediate position, characterized mainly by recent African ancestry with the addition of limited admixture (introgression) from archaic humans.

The recent African origin of modern humans is the main model that describes the origin and early distribution of anatomically modern humans. The theory is called the (recent) Out-of-Africa model, and also the Academically Recent Single Origin Hypothesis (RSOH), instead of the Recent African Origin Hypothesis and Model (RAO). The hypothesis that humans have a single origin (monogenesis) was published in The Descent of Man by Charles Darwin (1871). This concept was speculative until the 1980s, when it was confirmed by the study of modern mitochondrial DNA, combined with evidence based on the physical anthropology of archaic specimens. According to genetic and fossil evidence, archaic Homo sapiens evolved to anatomically modern humans in Africa approximately 200,000 years ago, when members of one branch of the species left Africa 60,000 years ago and eventually replaced earlier human populations such as Neanderthals and Homo erectus. A very recent (2017) study of fossils found in Jebel Irud (Morocco) suggests that Homo sapiens may have evolved as early as 315,000 years ago. Some other evidence also suggests that Homo sapiens may have migrated out of Africa as early as 270,000 years ago.

Remark 3

The recent single origin of modern humans in East Africa was a near-consensus position held in the scientific community until 2010. However, in 2010 significant archaic human admixture with modern humans was found.

The multi-regional origin model proposed by Milford H. Wolpoff in 1988 provides a different explanation for the pattern of human evolution. The multi-regional origin suggests that the evolution of mankind originates from the Pleistocene of 2.5 million years and up to the present time represents one continuous human species.