plant breeding

Breeding is the science of creating new and improving existing breeds of animals, plant varieties, strains of microorganisms.

Selection is based on methods such as hybridization and selection. Theoretical basis breeding is genetics.

Breeds, varieties, strains are populations of organisms artificially created by man with hereditarily fixed features: productivity, morphological, physiological characteristics.

Development pioneer scientific foundations breeding work was N. I. Vavilov and his students. N. I. Vavilov believed that selection is based on the right choice for the work of the original individuals, their genetic diversity and influence environment on the manifestation of hereditary traits during hybridization of these individuals.

For successful work, the breeder needs a varietal diversity of the source material; for this purpose, N.I. Vavilov collected a collection of varieties cultivated plants and their wild ancestors from all over the globe. By 1940, the All-Union Institute of Plant Growing had 300,000 specimens.

In search of starting material for obtaining new plant hybrids, N. I. Vavilov organized in the 20-30s. 20th century dozens of expeditions around the world. During these expeditions, N. I. Vavilov and his students collected more than 1,500 species of cultivated plants and a huge number of their varieties. Analyzing the collected material, N. I. Vavilov noticed that in some areas there is a very large variety of varieties of certain types of cultivated plants, while in other areas there is no such diversity.

Centers of origin of cultivated plants

N. I. Vavilov suggested that the region of the greatest genetic diversity of any kind of cultivated plant is the center of its origin and domestication. In total, N. I. Vavilov established 8 centers of ancient agriculture, where people first began to grow wild plant species.

1. The Indian (South Asian) center includes the Indian subcontinent, South China, and Southeast Asia. This center is home to rice, citrus fruits, cucumbers, eggplants, sugar cane and many other types of cultivated plants.

2. The Chinese (East Asian) center includes Central and Eastern China, Korea, and Japan. Millet, soybeans, buckwheat, radishes, cherries, plums, and apple trees were cultivated in this center.

3. The Southwest Asian center covers the countries of Asia Minor, Central Asia, Iran, Afghanistan, Northwest India. This is the birthplace of soft varieties of wheat, rye, legumes (peas, beans), flax, hemp, garlic, grapes.

5. The Mediterranean Center includes European, African and Asian countries located along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. Here is the birthplace of cabbage, olives, parsley, sugar beet, clover.

6. The Abyssinian center is located in a relatively small area of ​​modern Ethiopia and on the southern coast of the Arabian Peninsula. This center is the birthplace of durum wheat, sorghum, bananas, and coffee. Apparently, of all the centers of ancient agriculture, the Abyssinian center is the most ancient.

7. The Central American center is Mexico, the islands of the Caribbean Sea and part of the countries of Central America. Here is the birthplace of corn, pumpkin, cotton, tobacco, red pepper.

8. The South American center covers the western coast of South America. This is the birthplace of potatoes, pineapple, cinchona, tomatoes, beans.

All these centers coincide with the places of existence of the great civilizations of antiquity - ancient egypt, China, Japan, Ancient Greece, Rome, Mayan and Aztec states.

Centers of origin of cultivated plants

Centers of origin	Location	cultivated plants
1. South Asian tropical 2. East Asian 3. Southwest Asian 4. Mediterranean 5. Abyssinian 6. Central American 7. South American	Tropical India, Indochina, islands of Southeast Asia Central and Eastern China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan Asia Minor, Central Asia, Iran, Afghanistan, Southwest India Countries along the shores of the Mediterranean Abyssinian highlands of africa Southern Mexico West coast of South America	Rice , sugarcane, citrus, eggplant, etc. (50% of cultivated plants) Soybean, millet, buckwheat, fruit and vegetable crops - plum, cherry, etc. (20% of cultivated plants) Wheat, rye, legumes, flax, hemp, turnip, garlic, grapes, etc. (14% of cultivated plants) Cabbage, sugar beets, olives, clover (11% of cultivated plants) Durum wheat, barley, coffee tree, bananas, sorghum Corn, cocoa, pumpkin, tobacco, cotton Potatoes, tomatoes, pineapple, cinchona.

9. Basic plant breeding methods

1. Mass selection for cross-pollinated plants (rye, corn, sunflower). Selection results are unstable due to random cross-pollination.

2. Individual selection for self-pollinating plants (wheat, barley, peas). The offspring from one individual is homozygous and is called a pure line.

3. Inbreeding (closely related crossing) is used for self-pollination of cross-pollinated plants (for example, to obtain corn lines). Inbreeding leads to "depression" as recessive unfavorable genes become homozygous!

Aa x Aa, AA + 2Aa + aa

4. Heterosis ("life force") - a phenomenon in which hybrid individuals significantly exceed parental forms in their characteristics (yield increase up to 30%).

Stages of obtaining heterotic plants

1. Selection of plants that give the maximum effect of heterosis;

2. Preservation of lines by inbreeding;

3. Obtaining seeds as a result of crossing two inbred lines.

Two main hypotheses explain the effect of heterosis:

Dominance hypothesis - heterosis depends on the number of dominant genes in the homozygous or heterozygous state: the more pairs of genes will have dominant genes, the greater the effect of heterosis.

Overdominance hypothesis - a heterozygous state for one or more pairs of genes gives the hybrid superiority over parental forms (overdominance).

Cross-pollination of self-pollinators is used to produce new varieties.

Cross-pollination of self-pollinators makes it possible to combine the properties of different varieties.

6. Polyploidy. Polyploids are plants that have an increase in the chromosome set, a multiple of the haploid one. In plants, polyploids have a larger mass of vegetative organs, larger fruits and seeds.

Natural polyploids - wheat, potatoes, etc., varieties of polyploid buckwheat, sugar beet have been bred.

The classic method for obtaining polyploids is the treatment of seedlings with colchicine. Colchicine destroys the spindle and the number of chromosomes in the cell doubles.

7. Experimental mutagenesis is based on the discovery of the effects of various radiations to produce mutations and on the use of chemical mutagens.

8. Remote hybridization - crossing plants belonging to different species. But distant hybrids are usually sterile, since they have impaired meiosis.

In 1924, the Soviet scientist G.D. Karpechenko received a prolific intergeneric hybrid. He crossed radish (2n = 18 rare chromosomes) and cabbage (2n = 18 cabbage chromosomes). The hybrid has 2n = 18 chromosomes: 9 rare and 9 cabbage, but it is sterile, does not form seeds.

With the help of colchicine, G.D. Karpechenko obtained a polyploid containing 36 chromosomes; during meiosis, rare (9 + 9) chromosomes were conjugated with rare, cabbage (9 + 9) with cabbage. Fertility has been restored.

In this way, wheat-rye hybrids (triticale), wheat-couch grass hybrids, etc. were subsequently obtained.

9. Use of somatic mutations.

By vegetative propagation, a beneficial somatic mutation can be maintained. In addition, only with the help of vegetative propagation, the properties of many varieties of fruit and berry crops are preserved.

10 . Technological scheme for obtaining potato concentrate

Scientists from the Republican Unitary Enterprise "Scientific and Practical Center of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus for Food" simplified the technological scheme for obtaining potato concentrate, reduced energy costs and labor intensity of its production (patent of the Republic of Belarus for invention No. 15570, IPC (2006.01): A23L2 / 385; authors of the invention : Z.Lovkis, V.Litvyak, T.Tananaiko, D.Khlimankov, A.Pushkar, L.Sergeenko; applicant and patent holder: the above-mentioned RUP). The invention is intended to provide a potato concentrate used in the formulations of non-alcoholic, low-alcohol and alcoholic beverages with improved organoleptic characteristics.

The proposed method for obtaining potato concentrate includes several stages: preparation of potato raw materials, which are fresh potatoes and (or) good-quality dry and mashed potato waste; its thermal and subsequent two-stage treatment with amylolytic enzymes; separating the resulting precipitate by filtration; concentration of the filtrate by evaporation; acidifying it with one or more organic acids; subsequent thermostating.

After thermostating, water and (or) water-alcohol infusions of aromatic plants are added to the resulting concentrate in a certain amount until the final dry matter content is 70 ± 2%. The range of these plants is wide: cumin, purple echinacea, hyssop officinalis, coriander, sweet clover, oregano, immortelle, balsamic tansy, peppermint, tarragon tarragon and others.

Practical work No. 3

cultivated plants. Centers of origin of cultivated plants

Theoretical part

Main centers of origin of cultivated plants

(according to N. I. Vavilov)

Sino-Japanese. World crop production owes East Asia the origin of many cultivated species. Among them are rice, multi-row and naked barley, millet, chumiza, naked oats, beans, soybeans, radish, many types of apple trees, pears and onions, apricots, very valuable types of plums, oriental persimmon, possibly orange, mulberry tree, sugar cane Chinese, tea tree, short staple cotton.

Indonesian-Indochinese. This is the center of many cultivated plants - some varieties of rice, bananas, breadfruit, coconut and sugar palms, sugar cane, yams, manila hemp, the largest and tallest species of bamboo, etc.

Australian. Australia's flora has given the world the fastest growing woody plants - eucalyptus and acacia. 9 wild-growing species of cotton, 21 species of wild-growing tobacco and several species of rice have also been identified here. In general, the flora of this continent is poor in wild edible plants, especially with juicy fruits. At present, crop production in Australia is almost entirely based on foreign-origin cultivated plants.

Hindustani. The Hindustan Peninsula was of great importance in the development of crop production in ancient Egypt, Sumer and Assyria. This is the birthplace of spherical wheat, the Indian subspecies of rice, some varieties of beans, eggplant, cucumber, jute, sugar cane, Indian hemp, etc. In the mountain forests of the Himalayas, wild species of apple, tea tree and banana are common. The Indo-Gangetic Plain is a huge plantation of cultivated plants of world importance - rice, sugar cane, jute, peanut, tobacco, tea, coffee, banana, pineapple, coconut palm, oil flax, etc. The Deccan Plateau is known for the culture of orange and lemon.

Central Asian. On the territory of the center - from the Persian Gulf, the Hindustan peninsula and the Himalayas in the south to the Caspian and Aral Seas, o.ch. Balkhash in the north, including the Turan lowland, fruit trees are of particular importance. Since ancient times, apricots have been cultivated here, Walnut, pistachio, sucker, almond, pomegranate, fig, peach, grapes, wild types of apple trees. Some varieties of wheat, onion, primary types of carrots and small-seeded forms of legumes (peas, lentils, horse beans) also arose here. The ancient inhabitants of Sogdiana (modern Tajikistan) developed high-sugar varieties of apricots and grapes. The wild apricot still grows in abundance in the mountains of Central Asia. Varieties of melons bred in Central Asia are the best in the world, especially the Chardjou melons, which remain suspended throughout the year.

The origin of cultivated plants according to Zhukovsky

Anterior Asian. The center includes Transcaucasia, Asia Minor (except for the coast), the historical region of Western Asia, Palestine and the Arabian Peninsula. Wheat, two-row barley, oats, the primary crop of peas, cultivated forms of flax and leeks, some types of alfalfa and melons originate from here. This is the primary center of the date palm, the birthplace of quince, cherry plum, plum, cherry and dogwood. Nowhere in the world is there such an abundance of wild wheat species. In Transcaucasia, the process of the origin of cultivated rye from field weeds, which still clog wheat crops, has been completed. As wheat moved north, winter rye, as a more winter-hardy and unpretentious plant, became a pure crop.

Mediterranean. This center includes the territory of Spain, Italy, Yugoslavia, Greece and the entire northern coast of Africa. Western and Eastern Mediterranean - the birthplace of wild grapes and the primary center of its culture. Wheat, legumes, flax, and oats evolved here (in the wild in Spain, on sandy soils, Avena strigosa oats with strong immunity to fungal diseases have been preserved). In the Mediterranean, the cultivation of lupine, flax, and clover began. A typical element of the flora is olive Tree, which became a culture in ancient Palestine and Egypt.

African. It is characterized by a variety of natural conditions from moist evergreen forests to savannahs and deserts. In crop production, at first only native species, and then already brought from America and Asia. Africa is the birthplace of all types of watermelon, the center for the cultivation of rice and millet, yams, some types of coffee, oil and date palms, cotton and other cultivated plants. The origin of the kulebasy gourd, cultivated everywhere in Africa, but unknown in the wild, raises a question. A special role in the evolution of wheat, barley and other cereal plants belongs to Ethiopia, on the territory of which their wild ancestors did not exist. All of them were borrowed by farmers already cultivated from other centers.

European-Siberian. It covers the territory of all of Europe, except for the Iberian Peninsula, the British Isles and the tundra zone, in Asia it reaches the lake. Baikal. It is associated with the emergence of sugar beet crops, red and white clovers, northern alfalfa, yellow and blue. The main significance of the center lies in the fact that European and Siberian apple trees, pear, cherry, forest grapes, blackberries, strawberries, currants and gooseberries were cultivated here, wild relatives of which are still common in local forests.

Central American. He occupies the territory North America, bounded by the northern borders of Mexico, California and the Isthmus of Panama. In ancient Mexico, intensive crop production developed with the main food crop being corn and some types of beans. Pumpkin, sweet potato, cocoa, pepper, sunflower, Jerusalem artichoke, shag and agave were also cultivated here. Nowadays, wild types of potatoes are found in the center.

South American. Its main territory is concentrated in the Andes mountain system with rich volcanic soils. Andes - the birthplace of ancient Indian types of potatoes and various kinds tomatoes, peanut crops, melon tree, cinchona, pineapple, hevea rubber, Chilean strawberries, etc. Potato (Solarium tuberosum) was cultivated in ancient Araucania, which probably comes from the island of Chiloe. Neither Peruvian nor Chilean potatoes are known in the wild and their origin is unknown. AT South America A long-staple cotton crop emerged. There are many wild types of tobacco here.

North American. Its territory coincides with the territory of the United States. It is of particular interest primarily as a center a large number wild grape species, many of which are resistant to phylloxera and fungal diseases. More than 50 wild-growing herbaceous species of sunflower and the same number of lupine species, about 15 plum species live in the center, large-fruited cranberries and tall blueberries have been cultivated, the first plantations of which have recently appeared in Belarus.

The problem of the origin of cultivated plants is quite complicated, since sometimes it is impossible to establish their homeland and wild ancestors. Often a cultivated plant takes large areas and is of great importance in crop production not in the center of cultivation, but far beyond its borders. In this case, one speaks of secondary centers of cultivated plants. For rye from the Caucasus and Chilean potatoes, this is the temperate zone of Eurasia. Peanuts from Northern Argentina are now bred in Tropical Africa. Manchurian soybean in the USA covers an area of ​​about 20 million hectares. Peruvian long-staple cotton has taken a leading place in crop production in Egypt.

As noted by A. I. Kuptsov (1975), cultivated plants are a young group of species that have significantly pressed wild flora on Earth. Among them are the three "main breads of mankind" (rice, wheat and corn) and minor cereal plants (barley, oats, rye, millet, sorghum). Large areas are occupied by starch plants (potatoes in countries with temperate climate, sweet potato, yam, taro, etc. in more southern areas).

Leguminous crops (beans, peas, lentils, etc.) and sugar-bearing crops (sugar beet and sugar cane) are widespread. Fibrous plants (cotton, flax, hemp, jute, kenaf, etc.) provide a person with clothing and technical fabrics. The modern human diet is inconceivable without dishes prepared from fruit, berry, aromatic and tonic plants, which are also widespread. The role of plant sources of rubber, drugs, tannins, cork, etc. in everyday life and industry is great. Modern animal husbandry is based on the cultivation of fodder plants.

Cultivated plants develop under the control of man, whose breeding work leads to the emergence of new varieties.

N. I. Vavilov’s research on the centers of origin of cultivated plants had great importance to establish the places of domestication of the first animals. According to S. N. Bogolyubsky (1959), the domestication of domestic animals probably took place in different ways: the natural rapprochement of man with animals, the forced domestication of young, and then adults.

The time and place of domestication of the first animals are judged mainly by the excavations of the settlements of primitive man. In the Mesolithic era, a dog was domesticated, in the Neolithic era - a pig, a sheep, a goat and cattle, and later - a horse. The hypothetical centers of origin of domestic animals are determined by the ranges of their likely wild relatives. However, the question of the wild ancestors of domestic animals is not completely clear. It is assumed that the wild ancestors of cattle were tours, sheep - wild sheep common on the islands of Corsica and Sardinia, in Western, Central and Central Asia, goats - markhorn and bezoar goats, horses - the Przewalski horse and tarpan, domestic camel (Bactrian) - wild camel (haptagai), llamas and alpacas - guanaco, domestic goose - gray goose, etc.

It is easy to establish the places of origin and domestication of those animals whose ancestral ranges were small, for example, the yak. For animals such as dogs, pigs and cattle, whose wild ancestors were widely distributed in Eurasia and Africa, it is difficult to establish the alleged centers of origin. Probably, the first centers of origin of domestic animals were the Near and Near East, and then the areas of ancient cultures in the basins of the river. Nile, Tigris, Euphrates, Ganges, Indus, Amu Darya, Huang He, in the upper reaches of the Yenisei, where agriculture first arose.

The process of domestication of wild animals is not over yet. At present, spotted deer, arctic foxes, sables, foxes, nutrias, red deer, elk, etc. are in the transitional stage from wild to domestic animals. In this case, it is not difficult to establish the centers of their domestication: the domestication of these animals is usually carried out , in the areas of their modern distribution.

Practical part

1. On the contour map, plot the centers of origin of cultivated plants according to Vavilov and Zhukovsky) (see figures.).

2. Analytics: give a brief comparative characteristic centers - arbitrarily .

3. Describe two cultivated plants (see plan).

Primary centers according to Zhukovsky:

1 - Sino-Japanese 7 - Mediterranean

2 - Indonesian- 8 - African

Indochinese 9 - Euro-Siberian

3 - Australian 10 - Central American

4 - Hindustani 11 - South American

5 - Central Asian 12 - North American

6 - Western Asian

Similar information.

The centers of origin of cultivated plants are those regions of the Earth where certain types of plants useful to humans arose or were cultivated and where their greatest genetic diversity is concentrated. Almost all currently known cultivated plants appeared hundreds and thousands of years before our era. Only sugar beet, rubber-bearing hevea and cinchona have become cultivated plants relatively recently.

The theory of centers of origin of cultivated plants was developed by the Soviet scientist Academician N. I. Vavilov. He believed that the total number of cultivated plant species is approximately 1500-1600. Different cultures have their own centers of diversity, which are usually the centers of their origin, coinciding with the ancient centers of agriculture. The concept of the center of origin of cultivated plants was finally formulated by N. I. Vavilov in 1935, when he singled out eight of the most important such centers: , cinnamon, tea, mulberry); 2) Indian and Indo-Malay (rice, eggplant, cucumber, mango, lemon, orange, sugar cane, cotton tree, sesame, yam, banana, coconut palm, breadfruit, black pepper, nutmeg); 3) Central Asian (peas, lentils, carrots, onion, garlic, spinach, hemp, apricot, peach, apple tree, pear, almond, grape, walnut); 4) Western Asian (wheat, rye, barley, oats, flax, poppy, rose, melon, pumpkin, carrot, cabbage, fig, pomegranate, apple tree, pear, cherry plum, cherry, cherry, almond, chestnut, grape, apricot, persimmon) ; 5) Mediterranean (wheat, oats, peas, flax, mustard, olive, beets, cabbage, parsley, turnip, swede, radish, onion, celery, dill, cumin, lavender, mint); 6) Abyssinian (wheat, barley, sorghum, peas, sesame, castor bean, coffee tree, mustard, onion); 7) Southern Mexican (corn, beans, pumpkin, sweet potato, capsicum, cotton, sunflower, melon tree, avocado, tomato, cocoa); 8) South American, Chilean and Brazilian-Paraguayan (potato, tomato, pumpkin, cotton, tobacco, pineapple, cassava, peanut, garden strawberry, cocoa, rubber tree).

Although over the past seven decades this theory has been subjected to some changes and additions (now it is customary to single out 7 main centers - Tropical, East Asian, South-West Asian, Mediterranean, Abyssinian, Central American and Andean), nevertheless its basic principles have not been revised.

During the Age of Discovery there was a migration of cultivated plants. At the same time, one part of the cultivated plants migrated from the Old to the New World, and the other part - in the opposite direction.

Among the crops "borrowed" by the New World from the Old include wheat, sugar cane and coffee.

Archaeological studies show that wheat was known in the countries of Western Asia for six to five millennia BC, in Egypt - for more than four, in China - for three, in the Balkans - for three or two millennia. After the Great geographical discoveries, it first came to South America (1528), then to North America (1602), and at the end of the 18th century. and to Australia.

Sugarcane, whose homeland is considered to be Bengal, after the Great geographical discoveries also migrated to the New World: the Portuguese began to cultivate it in the northeast of Brazil, the British and French - in the West Indies, later it became a de facto monoculture in Cuba and Puerto Rico.

The birthplace of coffee is the highlands of Ethiopia, where this culture began to be cultivated about a thousand years ago. It is believed that it received its name from the Ethiopian province of Kafa. In the XI century. coffee ended up in Yemen, where it was exported through the port of Mocha; that's why in Europe coffee was called "mocha" for a long time. During the late Middle Ages, it began to be used in Italy, France, the Netherlands, England, and other European countries. To meet the growing demand, coffee began to be grown on special plantations; The first of them was founded in the 17th century. Dutch on about. Java. At the beginning of the XVIII century. a few coffee beans, by chance, ended up in French Guiana, and from there to Brazil, where this culture found its second home.

An even greater number of crops migrated from the New World to the Old World after the Great Geographical Discoveries. Among them are corn, potatoes, sunflower, tobacco, hevea, cocoa.

Central America is considered the homeland of corn (maize). Columbus brought it to Europe. Then from Spain it spread to other countries of the Mediterranean, and later came to Russia, Africa, East Asia. Potato, the culture of the Andean countries, also first came from there to Spain, and then to the Netherlands (which then belonged to Spain), France, Germany, and other European countries. It appeared in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century. under Peter I. Sunflower, which, according to N. I. Vavilov, was cultivated in Mexico and in general in the south-west of North America, appeared in Europe in the 16th century. At first, like the potato, it was considered an ornamental plant, and only later its seeds began to be used. In Russia, this culture was also cultivated in the era of Peter I.

N. I. Vavilov considered the Mexican Highlands to be the birthplace of cocoa. At the beginning of the XVI century. this plant and the chocolate obtained from it became known first in Spain, then in other European countries. The main plantations of this crop were laid by Europeans on the Guinean coast of Africa. Tobacco also came to Europe in the 16th century. - first to the Mediterranean countries, and then to other European countries, to Asia, Oceania. Hevea seedlings were exported from Brazil to Malaysia, the Netherlands Indies, on about. Ceylon, where the plantations of this rubber plant originated.

Brief biographical note

An outstanding Russian encyclopedic scientist Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov was born in Moscow, $25$ November $1887$. Higher education he received at the Moscow Agricultural Institute, from which he graduated in $1911$. While still studying at the institute, Nikolai Ivanovich studied the issues of agriculture and selection. From the beginning of the twenties he headed various research institutions in the field of genetics. In fact, Vavilov headed the domestic genetics.

Thanks to the perseverance and enthusiasm of Nikolai Ivanovich, from $1920$ to $1940$, it was possible to equip numerous expeditions to study plant resources characteristic of Central Asia, the Mediterranean and other regions.

The collection of cultivated plants, which was collected during these numerous expeditions and is preserved in the VIR (All-Union Institute of Plant Growing), consists of more than $300,000 specimens.

Based on the analysis of the collected material, Vavilov put forward a number of scientific theories in the field of genetics and breeding, and made a huge contribution to the significant development of biological science. About $300 of scientific papers on breeding, agriculture, geography, and organization of agriculture were published under his name. Nikolai Ivanovich paid considerable attention to the peculiarities of the organization of agriculture and the introduction of scientific achievements into it.

In $1926, Vavilov, for fruitful research work in the field of breeding, establishing the centers of origin of cultivated plants, as well as for the discovery of the law of homological series, was presented with the Lenin Prize. In $1940, he was awarded the N. M. Przhevalsky gold medal for research on plant geography in Afghanistan, and in the same year - the Great Gold Medal of the All-Union Agricultural Exhibition for successful work in the field of breeding and seed production.

Then Vavilov actively continued to work for the benefit of science. From $1929$ he was an academician of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and an academician of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR, was elected president ($1929-1935$), later vice-president of VASKhNIL ($1935-1940$).

Unfortunately, the prominent scientist was undeservedly arrested in $1940$ and died in the dungeons of the NKVD in $1943$. And domestic genetics not only suffered a heavy loss, but also long years was banned.

Centers of origin of cultivated plants

During numerous expeditions to various parts of the globe, Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov managed to study the world's plant resources and establish that the greatest diversity of species forms is concentrated in the areas of direct origin of this species.

Remark 1

Based on the study of materials collected during the expeditions, using the biogeographic method, he singled out eight main centers of origin of cultivated plants and gave a description of the most important agricultural crops that first appeared in the selected areas. N. I. Vavilov managed to establish not only the primary centers of origin of cultivated plants, which are associated with the ancient centers of civilization and the place of primary cultivation of these plants, but also to identify secondary centers that are directly related to subsequent periods of agricultural culture.

What centers did N.I. Vavilov? He indicated roughly the territories of the eight most important centers of plant origin.

• The Chinese center is the birthplace of soybeans, buckwheat, kaoliang, radish, millet, cherries, and plums.
• Indian center - recognized as the birthplace of rice, sugar cane, citrus fruits, eggplant, black pepper, cucumber.
• The Central Asian center gave the world varieties of soft wheat, beans, peas, hemp, turnips, garlic, carrots, pears, apricots.
• The Western Asian center has become the birthplace of various types of wheat, rye, barley, figs, and roses.
• The Mediterranean center is the area of ​​origin of sugar beet, cabbage, parsley, olives.
• The Abyssinian center in Africa is the birthplace of durum wheat, sorghum, coffee and bananas.
• From the territories of Northern Mexico and the central regions of North America, species of corn, cotton, tobacco, and pumpkin came to us.
• The South American center is home to potatoes and pineapple.

The value of the scientific heritage of N.I. Vavilov

From expeditions, Vavilov brought valuable samples of plants that were collected in the centers of their origin. Hundreds of thousands of these specimens are annually propagated in the collections of the Institute of Plant Growing, which today bears the name of N.I. Vavilov. They are actively used by breeders as a starting material for creating new varieties. The only continent (except Antarctica) on which agriculture has not developed for a long time is Australia. Therefore, its territory was not studied in detail and was not included in the system of world centers of plant origin. Only in last years scientists are beginning to use acacia and eucalyptus trees in other regions of the world in their work.

The largest Russian scientist - geneticist N.I. Vavilov made a huge contribution to plant breeding. He established that all cultivated plants grown today in different regions of the world, have certain geographic

centers of origin. These centers are located in tropical and subtropical zones, i.e., where cultivated agriculture originated. N.I. Vavilov singled out 8 such centers, i.e. 8 independent areas of introduction to the culture of various plants.

The variety of cultivated plants in the centers of their origin is usually represented by a huge number of botanical varieties and many hereditary variants.

The law of homologous series of hereditary variability.

1. Species and genera that are genetically close are characterized by similar series of hereditary variability with such regularity that, knowing the number of forms within one species, one can foresee the occurrence of parallel forms in other species and genera. The closer species and genera are genetically located in the general system, the more complete is the similarity in the series of their variability.

2. Whole families of plants, in general, are characterized by a certain cycle of variability, passing through all the genera and species that make up the family.

This law was introduced by N.I. Vavilov based on the study of a huge number of genetically related species and genera. The closer the relationship between these taxonomic groups and within them, the greater the genetic similarity they have. Comparing different types and genera of cereals, N.I. Vavilov and his collaborators found that all cereals have similar characteristics, such as branching and density of the ear, pubescence of scales, etc. Knowing this, N.I. Vavilov suggested that such groups have similar hereditary variability: "if you can find a awnless form of wheat, you can also find a awnless form of rye." Knowing the possible nature of changes in representatives of a certain species, genus, family, a breeder can purposefully search, create new forms and either weed out or save individuals with the necessary genetic changes.

EXAMPLES OF TASKS

Part A

A1. The domestication of animals and plants is based on

1) artificial selection 3) taming

2) natural selection 4) methodological selection

A2. In the Mediterranean center of cultivated plants,

1) rice, mulberry 3) potatoes, tomatoes

2) breadfruit, peanuts 4) cabbage, olive, swede

A3. An example of genomic variation is

1) sickle cell anemia

2) polyploid form of potato

3) albinism

3) color blindness

A4. Roses that are similar in appearance and genetically, artificially

bred by breeders form

1) breed 2) variety 3) species 4) variety

A5. The benefits of heterosis are

1) the appearance of clean lines

2) overcoming the non-crossing of hybrids

3) increase in productivity

4) increasing the fertility of hybrids

A6. As a result of polyploidy

1) fertility occurs in interspecific hybrids

2) fertility disappears in interspecific hybrids

3) a clean line is maintained

4) the viability of hybrids is inhibited

A7. Inbreeding in breeding is used for

1) strengthening hybrid properties

2) drawing clean lines

3) increase the fertility of offspring

4) increasing the heterozygosity of organisms

A8. The law of homologous series of hereditary variability allowed breeders with greater reliability

1) display polyploid forms

2) overcome the non-crossing of different species

3) increase the number of random mutations

4) predict the acquisition of the desired traits in plants

A9. Inbreeding increases

1) population heterozygosity

2) frequency of dominant mutations

3) homozygosity of the population

4) frequency of recessive mutations

Part B

IN 1. Establish a correspondence between the features of the selection method and its name.

Part C

C1. Compare the results from the use of such selection methods as inbreeding, polyploidy. Explain these results.

3.9. Biotechnology, cell and genetic engineering, cloning. The role of cell theory in the formation and development of biotechnology. The importance of biotechnology for the development of breeding, agriculture, the microbiological industry, and the preservation of the planet's gene pool. Ethical aspects of the development of some research in biotechnology (human cloning, directed changes in the genome)

The main terms and concepts tested in the examination paper: biotechnology, genetic engineering, cell engineering.

Centers of origin of plants

Groups of cultivated plants by origin

Among the flora of the globe, there is a significant group of plants (more than 2500) species cultivated by man and called cultivated. Cultivated plants and agrophytocenoses formed by them have replaced meadow and forest communities. They are the result of human agricultural activity, which began 7-10 thousand years ago. In passing into culture wild plants inevitably reflects a new stage in their lives. The branch of biogeography that studies the distribution of cultivated plants, their adaptation to soil and climatic conditions in various regions of the globe and includes elements of the economics of agriculture is called the geography of cultivated plants.

According to their origin, cultivated plants are divided into three groups: the youngest group, field weed species and the most ancient group.

1. The youngest group of cultivated plants comes from species that still live in the wild. For plants of this group, establishing the center of the beginning of their cultivation does not constitute special work. These include fruit crops(apple, pear, plum, cherry, gooseberry, currant, raspberry, strawberry), all gourds, part of the root crops (beetroot, swede, radish, turnip).

2. Field weed plant species became objects of culture where the main crop, due to unfavorable natural conditions, gave low yields. So, with the advancement of agriculture to the north, winter rye replaced wheat; widespread in Western Siberia oilseed camelina, used to obtain vegetable oil, is a weed in flax crops.

3. For the most ancient cultivated plants, it is impossible to establish the time of the beginning of their cultivation, since their wild ancestors have not been preserved. These include sorghum, millet, peas, beans, beans, lentils.

The need for source material for breeding and improving varieties of cultivated plants led to the creation of the doctrine of the centers of their origin. The doctrine was based on the idea of ​​Charles Darwin about the existence of geographical centers of origin of biological species. For the first time, the geographical areas of origin of the most important cultivated plants were described in 1880 by the Swiss botanist A. Decandol. According to his ideas, they covered quite vast territories, including entire continents. Key Research in this direction, half a century later, were carried out by the remarkable Russian geneticist and botanical geographer N. I. Vavilov (1887–1943), who studied the centers of origin of cultivated plants on a scientific basis.

Differentiated method of N. I. Vavilov

N. I. Vavilov proposed a new method, which he called differentiated, of establishing the initial center of origin of cultivated plants, which consists in the following. The collection of the plant of interest collected from all places of cultivation is studied using morphological, physiological and genetic methods. Thus, the area of ​​concentration of the maximum diversity of forms, features and varieties of a given species is determined. Ultimately, it is possible to establish the centers of the introduction of a particular species into the culture, which may not coincide with the territory of its wide cultivation, but are located at significant (several thousand kilometers) distances from it. Moreover, the centers of the emergence of cultivated plants currently cultivated on the plains of temperate latitudes sometimes turn out to be in mountainous regions.

In an effort to put genetics and selection at the service of the national economy of the country, N. I. Vavilov and his associates during numerous expeditions in 1926–1939. collected a collection of about 250 thousand samples of cultivated plants. As the scientist emphasized, he was mainly interested in the plants of temperate zones, since, unfortunately, the huge plant wealth of South Asia, Tropical Africa, Central America and Brazil can only be used in our country on a limited scale.

Geographical centers of origin of cultivated plants

For the emergence of a large center of origin of cultivated plants

N. I. Vavilov considered necessary condition, in addition to the wealth of wild flora species suitable for cultivation, the presence of an ancient agricultural civilization. The scientist came to the conclusion that the vast majority of cultivated plants are associated 7 the main geographical centers of their origin: South Asian tropical, East Asian, Southwest Asian, Mediterranean, Ethiopian, Central American and Andean.

Outside these centers, there was a significant territory that required further study in order to identify new centers of domestication of the most valuable representatives of wild flora. The followers of N. I. Vavilov - A. I. Kuptsov and A. M. Zhukovsky continued their research on the study of the centers of cultivated plants. Ultimately, the number of centers and the territory covered by them increased significantly, there were 12 of them.

Brief characteristics of the centers

1. Sino-Japanese. World crop production owes East Asia the origin of many cultivated species. Among them are rice, multi-row and naked barley, millet, chumiza, naked oats, beans, soybeans, radish, many types of apple trees, pears and onions, apricots, very valuable types of plums, oriental persimmon, possibly orange, mulberry tree, sugar cane Chinese, tea tree, short staple cotton.

2. Indonesian-Indochinese. This is the center of many cultivated plants - some varieties of rice, bananas, breadfruit, coconut and sugar palms, sugar cane, yams, manila hemp, the largest and tallest species of bamboo.

3.Australian. Australia's flora has given the world the fastest growing woody plants - eucalyptus and acacia. 9 wild-growing species of cotton, 21 species of wild-growing tobacco and several species of rice have also been identified here. In general, the flora of this continent is poor in wild edible plants, especially those with juicy fruits. At present, crop production in Australia is almost entirely based on foreign-origin cultivated plants.

4. Hindustani. The Hindustan Peninsula was of great importance in the development of crop production in ancient Egypt, Sumer and Assyria. This is the birthplace of spherical wheat, the Indian subspecies of rice, some varieties of beans, eggplant, cucumber, jute, sugar cane, Indian hemp. In the mountain forests of the Himalayas, wild species of apple, tea tree and banana are common. The Indo-Gangetic Plain is a huge plantation of cultivated plants of world importance - rice, sugar cane, jute, peanuts, tobacco, tea, coffee, banana, pineapple, coconut palm, oil flax. The Deccan Plateau is famous for its orange and lemon culture.

5. Central Asian. On the territory of the center - from the Persian Gulf, the Hindustan peninsula and the Himalayas in the south to the Caspian and Aral Seas, Lake. Balkhash in the north, including the Turan lowland, fruit trees are of particular importance. Since ancient times, apricot, walnut, pistachio, sucker, almond, pomegranate, fig, peach, grapes, wild types of apple trees have been cultivated here. Some varieties of wheat, onion, primary types of carrots and small-seeded forms of legumes (peas, lentils, horse beans) also arose here. The ancient inhabitants of Sogdiana (modern Tajikistan) developed high-sugar varieties of apricots and grapes. The wild apricot still grows in abundance in the mountains of Central Asia. Varieties of melons bred in Central Asia are the best in the world, especially the Chardjou melons, which remain suspended throughout the year.

6. Western Asian. The center includes Transcaucasia, Asia Minor (except for the coast), the historical region of Western Asia, Palestine and the Arabian Peninsula. Wheat, two-row barley, oats, the primary crop of peas, cultivated forms of flax and leeks, some types of alfalfa and melons originate from here. This is the primary center of the date palm, the birthplace of quince, cherry plum, plum, cherry and dogwood. Nowhere in the world is there such an abundance of wild wheat species. In Transcaucasia, the process of the origin of cultivated rye from field weeds, which still clog wheat crops, has been completed. As wheat moved north, winter rye, as a more winter-hardy and unpretentious plant, became a pure crop.

7. Mediterranean. This center includes the territory of Spain, Italy, Yugoslavia, Greece and the entire northern coast of Africa. Western and Eastern Mediterranean - the birthplace of wild grapes and the primary center of its culture. Wheat, legumes, flax, and oats evolved here (in the wild in Spain, on sandy soils, oats with strong immunity to fungal diseases have been preserved). In the Mediterranean, the cultivation of lupine, flax, and clover began. A typical element of the flora was the olive tree, which became a culture in ancient Palestine and Egypt.

8. African. It is characterized by a variety of natural conditions from moist evergreen forests to savannahs and deserts. In crop production, at first only local species were used, and then those already introduced from America and Asia. Africa is the birthplace of all types of watermelon, the center for the cultivation of rice and millet, yams, some types of coffee, oil and date palms, cotton and other cultivated plants. The origin of the kulebasy gourd, cultivated everywhere in Africa, but unknown in the wild, raises a question. A special role in the evolution of wheat, barley and other cereal plants belongs to Ethiopia, on the territory of which there were no their wild ancestors. All of them were borrowed by farmers already cultivated from other centers.

9. European-Siberian. It covers the territory of all of Europe, except for the Iberian Peninsula, the British Isles and the tundra zone, in Asia it reaches the lake. Baikal. It is associated with the emergence of sugar beet crops, red and white clovers, northern alfalfa, yellow and blue. The main significance of the center lies in the fact that European and Siberian apple trees, pear, cherry, forest grapes, blackberries, strawberries, currants and gooseberries were cultivated here, wild relatives of which are still common in local forests.

10. Central American. It occupies the territory of North America, bounded by the northern borders of Mexico, California and the Isthmus of Panama. In ancient Mexico, intensive crop production developed with the main food crop being corn and some types of beans. Pumpkin, sweet potato, cocoa, pepper, sunflower, Jerusalem artichoke, shag and agave were also cultivated here. Nowadays, wild types of potatoes are found in the center.

11. South American. Its main territory is concentrated in the Andes mountain system with rich volcanic soils. The Andes is the birthplace of ancient Indian potato species and various types of tomatoes, peanut crops, melon tree, cinchona, pineapple, hevea rubber, Chilean strawberries. In South America, a culture of long-staple cotton arose. There are many wild types of tobacco here.

Teaching n. I. Vavilova about the centers of origin of cultivated plants

North American. Its territory coincides with the territory of the United States. It is of particular interest primarily as the center of a large number of wild grape species, many of which are resistant to phylloxera and fungal diseases. More than 50 wild-growing herbaceous species of sunflower and the same number of lupine species, about 15 plum species live in the center, large-fruited cranberries and tall blueberries were cultivated, the first plantations of which have recently appeared in Belarus.

Secondary centers of origin of plants

The problem of the origin of cultivated plants is quite complicated, since sometimes it is impossible to establish their homeland and wild ancestors. Often a cultivated plant occupies large areas and is of great importance in crop production not in the center of cultivation, but far beyond its borders. In this case, one speaks of secondary centers of cultivated plants. Let us give examples of secondary centers.

1. For rye from the Caucasus and Chilean potatoes, this is the temperate zone of Eurasia.

2. Peanuts from Northern Argentina are Africa.

3. Manchurian soybean is the USA, where it covers an area of ​​about 20 million hectares.

4. Peruvian long-staple cotton is Egypt.

Many scientists believe that cherry as a culture has been known for more than 2 thousand years. Her homeland is Asia Minor (Eastern and Central China) and the Caucasus. Cherry pits were found during excavations of piled buildings of primitive people in Switzerland, southern Germany and Italy. Ancient Greece (4th century BC)

Centers of origin of cultivated plants and modern growing areas

BC) it was first mentioned by the father of botany Theophrastus. The first more or less precise distinction between cherries and cherries was made in the botanical work Herbarius, published in 1491.

In the steppe and forest-steppe zones of the European part of Russia, a wild-growing species is widespread - steppe cherry, growing in the form of a low shrub. This cherry has a high winter hardiness, there are often specimens with large fruits, but their taste is too sour, often with astringency and bitterness, so they are of little use for fresh consumption. The best specimens of wild steppe cherries, transferred to gardens, served as the basis for cultivars of cherries in ancient Russian gardens.

In the XI-XIII centuries in the southern regions Ancient Russia, primarily to Kyiv, southern varieties of common sour cherries were brought from Byzantium. With the transfer of the grand-ducal capital from Kyiv to Vladimir, the common cherry came to the Vladimir lands. During the joint cultivation of southern varieties of common cherries and local varieties of steppe cherries, they were cross-pollinated, random seedlings grew from hybrid seeds, more or less successfully combining high quality fruits with good winter hardiness.

The common steppe cherry differs from the common cherry in the larger size of the tree and much tastier and sweeter fruits. But in terms of winter hardiness, it is significantly inferior to steppe cherry varieties.

The first suburban cherry orchards It was also laid by Yuri Dolgoruky, having transferred seedlings from Suzdal. Developed with great detail and expertise practical advice in the "Domostroy" of the 16th century regarding the preparation for the future (drying, urination, pickles) of various berries, including cherries. The first accurate information about the Vladimir cherry as a variety became known in 1657. This cherry, due to the high taste of the fruit, was very popular in the 19th century, when large industrial orchards were planted with it. It is this garden that is depicted by A.P. Chekhov in his famous play.

But low productivity and small-fruitedness are significant disadvantages of this variety.

At the end of the 19th century, in the gardens of the southern part of the former Kursk province (now the Belgorod region), the local variety Lyubskaya was discovered. It was distinguished by high and regular yields, large beautiful fruits, but their taste was very mediocre, excessively sour and astringent, so that they were suitable only for jam and compotes.

These two varieties - Vladimirskaya and Lyubskaya for many years became the main ones in the cherry orchards of central Russia.

For the first time, breeding work with cherries in our country at the end of the 19th century was started by I.V. Michurin. But breeding work with this crop in Russia acquired a special scope in the 30–80s of the 20th century. Many new varieties have been created.

In 2007, the only cherry museum in Russia was opened in the village of Bolshiye Bakaldy, Nizhny Novgorod Region. The history of the Bakalda gardens begins in the 17th century, when the land was owned by the boyar Boris Ivanovich Morozov. Already at that time, the first in the region was laid in Bakaldy industrial production, the so-called cooking room, where juices, marinades, liqueurs were prepared from cherries. The brewhouse has survived to the present time, having turned into the Bolshebakalda cannery. Bakalda gardens are mentioned in the Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron, "Geographical and Statistical Dictionary Russian Empire» P.P. Semenov, published since 1863: “In terms of gardening, the villages of Bakaldy, Ketros and Polyana are remarkable. Bakalda cherries are not much inferior to Vladimir ones and have gained fame in the Volga provinces; they come true at Lyskovskaya pier”, and in other works.

Cherry - origin

Chinese (East Asian) Center

The Chinese center covers the mountainous regions of the central and Western China with adjacent low-lying areas. The basis of this focus is the temperate zone along the Yellow River. Has a relatively high temperature regime, a very high degree of moisture, a moderate growing season.

• Rice - Japanese variety
• Zinke or Zinke (Tibetan barley) - naked variety
• Millet
• Chumiza
• Kaoliang
• Paisa (Echinochloa frumentacea) - Japanese millet, wild millet, bread barnyard, annual plant cereal families.
• Adzuki or Angular Beans (Vigna angularis)
• Oats - naked variety
• Radish - Daikon and Loba
• Chinese cabbage (Brassica pekinensis)
• Chinese cabbage (Brassica chinensis)
• Asparagus lettuce (Lactuca asparagus)
• Bow-batun
• Allium fragrant
• Short-staple cotton (tree form) - debatable
• Perilla
• Actinidia - primary focus
• Walnut
• Hazel
• Mandarin
• Kinkan
• Persimmon
• Lemongrass
• Chinese bitter gourd
• Unabi
• Tea tree
• tung tree
• White Mulberry (Mulberry)
• camphor laurel
• Bamboo - some species
• Ginseng
• Chinese artichoke
• Sugarcane - local varieties
• Japanese loquat (Lokva)
• cable car
• Raspberry purple
• Voskovnitsa red

Also, the center is the primary focus of the formation of the subfamilies Apple and Plum and the genera of their components, including:

• Apple Pear Apricot Cherry Plum Almond Peach Hawthorn

Indo-Malay (Southeast Asian) center

The Indo-Malay Center complements the Indian Crop Origin Center, including the entire Malay Archipelago, the Philippines and Indo-China. Very high humidity and temperature, year-round vegetation. Experienced some influence of the Chinese and Hindustan centers

• Rice is the primary focus
• Breadfruit
• Banana
• Coconut palm
• sugar palm
• sago palm
• Areca
• Sugarcane - jointly with the Hindustan Center
• Shaddock
• durian
• manila hemp
• Sweet potato
• pak choi
• wax gourd
• China - debatable
• Lemon - secondary focus
• pomelo
• Bergamot
• Pomeranian
• Betel
• Cardamom
• Mangosteen
• Allspice
• Black pepper
• Nutmeg
• Longan
• Trichozant

Indian (Hindostan) Center

The Indian (Hindostan) center covers the Hindustan peninsula, excluding the northwestern states of India, as well as Burma and the Indian state of Assam. It is characterized by sufficiently high humidity and high temperatures, as well as a long growing season. Experienced some Indo-Malay center influence (rice, sugarcane, citrus)

• Eggplant
• Cucumber
• Orange - possibly a secondary focus

• Lemon - primary focus
• Citron
• Rice - Indian variety
• Dagussa
• golden beans
• Dolichos
• luffa
• Sugarcane - in association with the Indo-Malayan Center
• Kenaf
• Spherical wheat
• Mango
• Coconut palm - secondary focus
• Endive
• Escariol
• Basil
• gray mustard
• poppy opium
• Buckwheat
• Sugar palm - in association with the Indo-Malay Center
• Short staple cotton - debatable

Central Asian center

The Central Asian center includes the northwestern part of India (Punjab), the northern part of Pakistan, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and the Western Tien Shan. Very low moisture (often by groundwater), rather high temperatures with strong daily and seasonal fluctuations, moderate vegetation period (rainy season). This center experienced a very strong influence from the Chinese and Western Asian. So, for almost all fruit crops that have occurred here, it is secondary.

• Wheat - some hexaploid species ( Triticum compactum, Triticum inflatum)
• Lentils - fine-grained variety
• Lucerne - jointly with the Near East Center
• Apricot - secondary focus
• Grapes - one of the centers
• Almonds - secondary focus
• Pistachio - secondary focus
• Apple tree - secondary focus
• Pear - secondary focus
• Cherry - secondary focus
• Plum - secondary focus
• Walnut - secondary focus
• Pomegranate - secondary focus
• Figs - secondary focus
• Onion
• Slime Bow
• chives
• Aflatun onion
• Tiered onion
• Garlic - the main (possibly primary) focus
• Golden beans - secondary focus
• Chickpea - secondary focus
• Hemp

Asiatic Center

The Western Asian center is concentrated in Western Asia, including inner Asia Minor, all of Transcaucasia, Iran and mountainous Turkmenistan.

Vavilov's doctrine of the centers of origin of cultivated plants

Very low humidity, high temperatures (unlike the Central Asian and Mediterranean centers are rare negative temperatures), long dry periods. Experienced the influence of the Mediterranean and Central Asian center. It is practically impossible to determine the boundaries of these three centers, since they overlap so much.

• Wheat - most species (including T. aestivum, T. durum, T. turgidum, T. polonicum)
• Spelled - all types and varieties
• Barley - double row
• Oats - secondary focus
• Peas
• Flax - oil forms
• Lallemancy
• Lucerne - jointly with the Central Asian Center
• Plum - the primary focus
• Hazelnut
• Dogwood
• Apple tree - secondary focus
• Pear - one of the main foci
• Cherry - secondary focus
• cherry plum
• Figs - the primary focus
• German medlar - in cooperation with the Mediterranean Center.
• Walnut - secondary focus
• Chestnut
• Grapes - one of the centers
• Bird cherry - the main focus
• Pistachio
• Persimmon - secondary focus
• Hawthorn - secondary focus
• Apricot - secondary focus
• Sweet cherry - secondary focus
• Date palm
• Leek
• Melon - secondary center
• Pasternak - primary center
• Spinach
• Salad - in collaboration with the Mediterranean Center.
• Watercress
• Tarragon - debatable
• Savory - jointly with the Mediterranean Center.
• Marjoram - jointly with the Mediterranean Center.
• lovage
• Aegilops
• Sainfoin
• Vika Mogar - controversial Barberry

mediterranean center

Mediterranean center - Balkans, Greece, Italy and most of the Mediterranean coast. It is characterized by a not very long growing season (especially its northern parts), sufficient moisture and moderate temperatures. Experienced the influence of the Near East center.

• Oats - the primary focus
• Lupine
• China - debatable
• Linen - spinning forms
• Clover - primary focus
• Olive Tree
• Carob
• Laurel noble
• Grapes - the main focus
• Cork oak
• Mustard white
• White cabbage
• red cabbage
• Kohlrabi
• Broccoli
• Brussels sprouts
• savoy cabbage
• Kale
• Rape - debatable (possibly in western Europe)
• Peas - in cooperation with the Near East Center
• bean garden
• Zucchini (and some other varieties of pumpkin) - secondary focus
• Carrot
• Parsley - primary focus
• Parsnip
• Celery
• Beet
• Chard
• radish
• Radish
• Turnip - secondary focus
• Swede
• Turnip
• spanish scorzonera
• goat's beard
• Chicory
• Salad - in cooperation with the Near East Center
• Sorrel sour
• Rhubarb
• Asparagus
• Artichoke
• Katran
• Melissa officinalis
• Hyssop Serpentine Mint Anise Coriander Fennel Cumin
• Cucumber Grass Horseradish Safflower Dill

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At the dawn of mankind, people had to be content only with what surrounding nature. Our ancestors collected the fruits of different trees, berries, grains of wild cereals and seeds leguminous plants, dug tubers and bulbs. The transition from gathering to plant cultivation was a long one. Archaeologists believe that agriculture has existed for at least 10 thousand years, and attempts to cultivate plants began at least 40-50 thousand years ago. Even then, protecting the wild useful plants, women weeded the grass around them, loosened the soil.

Plants were introduced into culture in different ways. wild seeds fruit trees and berry bushes fell into the soil near the dwelling of a person and germinated here. People often spilled the grains of cereal plants near their homes on the ground containing a lot of decomposed garbage. Plants from such seeds developed much better than in the steppe or in the forest. This could lead our ancestors to the idea of ​​growing them near their homes, instead of looking in the forests and steppes.

Primitive man collected plants that surrounded him: on the mainland of Eurasia - some species, in Africa - others, in America - still others. Therefore, many different species were cultivated on different continents. Most cultures come from Europe, Asia and Africa. Of the 640 most important cultivated plants of the globe, more than 530 come from these parts of the world, with about 400 from South Asia. Approximately 50 cultivated species have appeared in Africa, North and South America are the birthplace of more than 100 of them. There were no cultivated plants in Australia before the arrival of Europeans.

The doctrine of the centers of origin of cultivated plants was created by the outstanding Soviet scientist N. I. Vavilov. He established 7 main centers of their origin: 5 - in the Old World and 2 - in the New.

The most ancient of modern grain cereals are wheat, barley, millet, rice and corn. Cultivated wheat species originate from at least three wild cereals growing in Asia Minor, Southern Europe and North Africa. Wheat culture existed already in the Neolithic era. During excavations of Neolithic settlements in Europe, grains of wheat, seeds of peas, lentils and beans were found. Rice is native to India and Indochina. Many wild forms of this plant have been found there. Relatively late, around the beginning of our era, rye appeared in Transcaucasia or Asia Minor, and a little earlier - oats. Homeland of corn and potatoes - South and Central America. We owe to Peru and Mexico the appearance of cultivated species of tomatoes, capsicum, pumpkin, and beans. Central America gave the culture of tobacco, and North - sunflower. Vegetable crops - cabbage, turnip, radish, beets, carrots, onions - were known in ancient times and come from the Mediterranean.

In the tropical countries of South America, sweet potatoes (sweet potatoes), pineapple and peanuts were cultivated. Indochina gave oranges, lemons and others citrus plants. Coffee comes from Ethiopia - its wild ancestor still grows there. Tea is introduced into the culture in the mountainous regions of Burma. Cocoa was known in Mexico even before Europeans arrived there. Cocoa beans even played the role of money there.

In very distant times, man began to cultivate spinning plants.

Centers of origin of cultivated plants

In Europe, flax was introduced into the culture, in China - hemp, in America and Asia - cotton.

Later, with the development of navigation, especially in the era of the great geographical discoveries, the migration of cultivated plants from one continent to another began. So, corn, pumpkin, beans, tomatoes, peppers, sunflowers and tobacco migrated to Europe from America.

From year to year, from century to century, farmers, improving the methods of cultivating crops, simultaneously improved the plants themselves, selecting for sowing the seeds of the most productive of them or with some special valuable property.

The gradual improvement of cultivated plants was not a matter of one generation - it continued for millennia. Agricultural tribes gradually settled on the Earth, and cultivated plants spread along with them. With the appearance and spread of cultivated plants on Earth, the living conditions of people have changed. The emergence and development of agriculture has led to a huge shift in the history of human society.

see also

Agriculture and crop production originated in ancient times. An ancient Egyptian fresco depicts harvesting wheat - harvesting, knitting and transporting sheaves, stacking them in stacks and threshing.

Centers of origin of cultivated plants
(according to N.I. Vilov)
Tropical India, Indochina, South China, the islands of Southeast Asia. It is exceptionally rich in cultivated plants (about half of the known species of cultivated plants). Homeland of rice, sugar cane, many fruit and vegetable crops.Central and East China, Japan, Taiwan Island, Korea. The birthplace of soybeans, several types of millet, many fruit and vegetable crops. This center is also rich in cultivated plant species with about 20% of the world's diversity.QUENTIN TARANTINO & ROGER AVARY Southwest Asian center. Asia Minor, Central Asia, Iran, Afghanistan, Northwest India. Homeland of several forms of wheat, rye, many cereals, legumes, grapes, fruit. It originated 14% of the world's cultural flora.QUENTIN TARANTINO & ROGER AVARYCountries located along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. This center, where the greatest ancient civilizations were located, produced about 11% of the cultivated plant species. Among them are olives, many forage plants (clover, single-flowered lentils), many vegetables (cabbage) and fodder crops. QUENTIN TARANTINO & ROGER AVARY A small area of ​​the African mainland (territory of Ethiopia) with a very peculiar flora of cultivated plants. Obviously, a very ancient center of original agricultural culture. Home to grain sorghum, one type of banana, chickpea oil plant, a number of special forms of wheat and barley.QUENTIN TARANTINO & ROGER AVARYSouthern Mexico Home to corn, long-staple cotton, cocoa, a number of cucurbits, beans - about 900 species of cultivated plants in total.QUENTIN TARANTINO & ROGER AVARY Includes part of the Andean mountain range along the western coast of South America.

Who determined the centers of origin of cultivated plants

Homeland of many tuberous plants, including potatoes, some medicinal plants(coca bush, cinchona, etc.). It was previously believed that the main centers of ancient agricultural crops were the wide valleys of the Tigris, Euphrates, Ganges, Nile and other large rivers. But Vavilov showed that almost all cultivated plants appeared in the mountainous regions of the tropics, subtropics and temperate zone. This does not only apply to fruit crops (including berries and nuts) that have been domesticated predominantly in forested areas.

Therefore (and in connection with the peculiarities of selection) horticulture has more extensive areas of its origin. South Asian tropical center. The value of the reed for a person?
Sugar cane is mined for you and me ... everyone eats sugar, nowadays it is rare to find beet sugar, so in Asia people work for our "sweet" life. It grows in water, workers canoes and cut it with a special tool, then it cleaned and evaporated, thus on the walls of the vessel in which the cane is evaporated, the real sugar remains. East Asian Center.
Vegetables
Vegetables are the most valuable food product. The indispensability of vegetables in nutrition is determined by the fact that they are the main suppliers of carbohydrates, vitamins, mineral salts, phytoncides, essential oils and dietary fiber necessary for the normal functioning of the body.QUENTIN TARANTINO & ROGER AVARY Southwest Asian center. The value of grapes for humans? Grapes as an agricultural plant have the valuable property of using solar energy most advantageously, with the help of which in its leaves inorganic forms of matter - carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, with the participation of numerous elements of the mineral nutrition of plants, are converted into valuable organic substances. That is why grape berries, along with high taste values, are of great nutritional and medicinal value.QUENTIN TARANTINO & ROGER AVARYThe value of forage grasses for humans and livestock?
Forage grasses are agricultural crops grown for animal feed.
Forage grasses are of great and versatile importance, they play an important role in strengthening forage base, have a high yield. They are grown for hay, haylage, green fodder, silage and as pasture crops.
Forage grasses are valuable animal feed. They contain proteins, carbohydrates, minerals and various vitamins necessary for the normal growth and development of animals. Forage grasses are divided into perennials and annuals according to their lifespan. They are grown both in pure form and in mixtures with other herbs.QUENTIN TARANTINO & ROGER AVARY What is the meaning of grain sorghum?

Thus, grain sorghum is a very rich, but still not widely used grain forage crop. It has not been studied enough and therefore its potential possibilities are realized very poorly.

Central American Center. The value of cocoa for a person?
For the production of the drink "cocoa" some other species from the genus Theobroma are also grown: Theobroma bicolor and Theobroma subincanum. To obtain a hot drink and a nutritious paste like chocolate, another type of theobroma is cultivated in South America - cupuaçu (Theobroma grandiflorum). The fruits of all these plants contain a tonic
QUENTIN TARANTINO & ROGER AVARY Andean (South American) center. The value of potatoes for humans? Potato is one of the most important agricultural crops. In world crop production, it occupies one of the first places along with rice, wheat and corn. The value of potatoes in human life even difficult to assess. Potato is a culture of versatile use. It is an extremely important human food product. It is rightly called the second bread. Potato tubers, depending on its purpose, contain up to 25% of dry matter, including: starch - 22%, proteins - 3%, fiber about 1%, fat - 0.3%, as well as ash substances, vitamins C , B, PP, etc. Young tubers are especially rich in vitamins