First Western explorer to reach China. Geography in China

The era of the great geographical discoveries is the period of human history from the end of the 15th to the middle of the 17th centuries.
Conditionally divided into two parts:
Spanish-Portuguese discoveries the end of the 15th century and the entire 16th century, which include the discovery of America, the discovery of a sea route to India, Pacific expeditions, the first circumnavigation
Anglo-Dutch-Russian discoveries end of the 16th century to the middle of the 17th century, which includes English and French discoveries in North America, Dutch expeditions to the Indian and Pacific Oceans, Russian discoveries throughout North Asia

A geographical discovery is a visit by a representative of a civilized people to a new part of the earth previously unknown to cultural mankind or the establishment of a spatial connection between already known parts of the land.

Why did the era of great geographical discoveries begin?

• The growth of European cities in the 15th century
• Active development of trade
• Active development of crafts
• Depletion of European mines of precious metals - gold and silver
• The discovery of printing, which led to the spread of new technical sciences and knowledge of antiquity
• Distribution and improvement of firearms
• Discoveries in navigation, the advent of the compass and the astrolabe
• Advances in cartography
• The conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks, which interrupted the economic and trade relations of Southern Europe with India and China

Geographic knowledge before the beginning of the Age of Discovery

In the Middle Ages, Normans discovered Iceland and the shores of North America, European travelers Marco Polo, Rubruk, Andre from Longjumeau, Veniamin Tudelsky, Afanasy Nikitin, Karpini and others established land connections with the countries of Far Asia and the Middle East, the Arabs explored the southern and eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea , the shores of the Red Sea, the western shores of the Indian Ocean, the roads connecting Eastern Europe through Central Asia, the Caucasus, the Iranian Highlands - with India

Beginning of the Age of Discovery

The beginning of the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries can be considered the activities of the Portuguese navigators of the 15th century and the inspirer of their achievements, Prince Henry the Navigator (03/04/1394 - 11/13/1460)

At the beginning of the 15th century, the geographical science of Christians was in a deplorable state. The knowledge of the great scientists of antiquity has been lost. The impressions from traveling alone: ​​Marco Polo, Carpini, Rubruk - did not become public and contained many exaggerations. Geographers and cartographers in the manufacture of atlases and maps used rumors; discoveries made by chance were forgotten; lands found in the ocean were lost again. The same applied to the art of navigation. The skippers did not have maps, instruments, navigation knowledge, they were terribly afraid of the open sea, huddled close to the shores.

In 1415, Prince Henry became Grand Master of the Portuguese Order of Christ, a powerful and wealthy organization. With its funds, Heinrich built a citadel on the isthmus of Cape Sagres, from where until the end of his days he organized sea expeditions to the west and south, created a nautical school, attracted the best mathematicians, astronomers from Arabs and Jews, collected information wherever and from where he could about distant countries and voyages , seas, winds and currents, bays, reefs, peoples and shores, began to build more advanced and larger ships. The captains went out to sea for them, not only inspired to search for new lands, but also well prepared theoretically.

Portuguese discoveries of the 15th century

• Madeira island
• Azores
• the entire west coast of Africa
• mouth of the Congo River
• Cape Verde
• Cape of Good Hope

The Cape of Good Hope, the southernmost point of Africa, was discovered by the expedition of Bartalomeu Dias in January 1488

Great geographical discoveries. Briefly

• 1492 —
• 1498 Vasco da Gama discovers a sea route to India around Africa
• 1499-1502 - Spanish discoveries in the New World
• 1497 John Cabot discovers Newfoundland and the Labrador Peninsula
• 1500 - discovery of the mouth of the Amazon by Vicente Pinson
• 1519-1522 - the first circumnavigation of Magellan, the discovery of the Strait of Magellan, Mariana, Philippine, Moluccas
• 1513 - Vasco Nunez de Balboa discovers the Pacific Ocean
• 1513 - Discovery of Florida and the Gulf Stream
• 1519-1553 - discoveries and conquests in South America by Cortes, Pizarro, Almagro, Orellana
• 1528-1543 - Spanish discoveries of the interior of North America
• 1596 - discovery of the island of Svalbard by Willem Barents
• 1526-1598 - Spanish discoveries of the Solomon, Caroline, Marquesas, Marshall Islands, New Guinea
• 1577-1580 - the second round-the-world voyage of the Englishman F. Drake, the discovery of the Drake Strait
• 1582 - Yermak's campaign in Siberia
• 1576-1585 - British search for a northwestern passage to India and discovery in the North Atlantic
• 1586-1629 - Russian campaigns in Siberia
• 1633-1649 - the discovery by Russian explorers of the East Siberian rivers to the Kolyma
• 1638-1648 - discovery by Russian explorers of Transbaikalia and Lake Baikal
• 1639-1640 - Ivan Moskvin's exploration of the coast of the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bOkhotsk
• The last quarter of the 16th - the first third of the 17th century - the development of the eastern shores of North America by the British and French
• 1603-1638 - French exploration of the interior of Canada, discovery of the Great Lakes
• 1606 - Independently from each other, the discovery of the northern coast of Australia by the Spaniard Kyros, the Dutchman Janson
• 1612-1632 - British discoveries of the northeast coast of North America
• 1616 - discovery of Cape Horn by Schouten and Le Mer
• 1642 Tasman discovers the island of Tasmania
• 1643 Tasman discovers New Zealand
• 1648 - opening of the Dezhnev Strait between America and Asia (Bering Strait)
• 1648 - Fyodor Popov discovers Kamchatka

Ships of the Age of Discovery

In the Middle Ages, the sides of the ships were sheathed with planks, with the top row of boards overlapping the bottom. This is a durable upholstery. but the ships become heavier from this, and the edges of the plating belts create unnecessary resistance to the hull. At the beginning of the 15th century, the French shipbuilder Julien proposed to sheathe ships end-to-end. The boards were riveted to the frames with copper stainless rivets. The joints were glued with resin. This sheathing was called "caravel", and the ships began to be called caravels. Caravels, the main ships of the Age of Discovery, were built at all shipyards in the world for another two hundred years after the death of their designer.

At the beginning of the 17th century, the flute was invented in Holland. "Fliite" in Dutch means "flowing, flowing". These ships could not be overwhelmed by any of the largest shafts. They, like corks, took off on a wave. The upper parts of the sides of the flute were bent inward, the masts were very high: one and a half times the length of the hull, the yards were short, the sails were narrow and easy to maintain, which made it possible to reduce the number of sailors in the crew. And, most importantly, the flutes were four times longer than wide, which made them very fast. In flutes, the sides were also installed end-to-end, the masts were made up of several elements. Flutes were much more capacious than caravels. From 1600 to 1660, 15,000 flutes were built and plowed the oceans, replacing caravels

Mariners of the Age of Discovery

• Alvise Cadamosto (Portugal, Venice, 1432-1488) - Cape Verde Islands
• Diego Can (Portugal, 1440 - 1486) - West coast of Africa
• Bartalomeu Dias (Portugal, 1450-1500) - Cape of Good Hope
• Vasco da Gama (Portugal, 1460-1524) - the way to India around Africa
• Pedro Cabral (Portugal, 1467-1526) - Brazil
• Christopher Columbus (Genoa, Spain, 1451-1506) - America
• Nunez de Balboa (Spain, 1475-1519) - Pacific Ocean
• Francisco de Orellana (Spain, 1511-1546) - Amazon River
• Fernando Magellan (Portugal, Spain (1480-1521) - first circumnavigation of the world
• John Cabot (Genoa, England, 1450-1498) - Labrador, Newfoundland
• Jean Cartier (France, 1491-1557) east coast of Canada
• Martin Frobisher (England, 1535-1594) - polar seas of Canada
• Alvaro Mendanya (Spain, 1541-1595) - Solomon Islands
• Pedro de Quiros (Spain, 1565-1614) - Tuamotu archipelago, New Hybrids
• Luis de Torres (Spain, 1560-1614) - the island of New Guinea, the strait that separates this island from Australia
• Francis Drake (England, 1540-1596) - second circumnavigation of the world
• Willem Barents (Netherlands, 1550-1597) - the first polar navigator
• Henry Hudson (England, 1550-1611), explorer of the North Atlantic
• Willem Schouten (Holland, 1567-1625) - Cape Horn
• Abel Tasman (Holland, 1603-1659) - Tasmania, New Zealand
• Willem Janszon (Holland, 1570-1632) - Australia
• Semyon Dezhnev (Russia, 1605-1673) - the Kolyma River, the strait between Asia and America

History of China for 5,000 years, it has excited society as one of the longest and most mysterious state chronicles, which reflects the beauty of Chinese culture and morality! As in most other great civilizations of the world, China's development can be traced through its culture, through the transition from small primitive tribes to the present.

Throughout its long history, China has been the forge of many outstanding people who have made an undeniable contribution to the development of their country and enriched its history.

Among them are emperors (Qin Shi Huang - Qing Dynasty, Hanudi - Han Dynasty and Li Shimin - Tang Dynasty), philosophers (Confucius, Lao Zi), poets (Qu Yuan), astronomers and mathematicians (Zu Chun Zhi), writers and statesmen figures, besides them there were thousands more heroes in Chinese history, who are remembered and honored by modern society.

They are like shining stars that live in the heart of the Chinese people. Their great contribution to the development of history and culture made China more attractive and interesting to study. China's society has progressed and in its development has overcome five main stages - primitive, slave, feudal, semi-feudal and semi-colonial, socialist society.

Ups and downs throughout history have followed China and reflected on its culture and people's minds. Since the founding of the People's Republic of China on October 1, 1949,China has become a socialist country, and today, after 5,000 years, it continues to develop into the 21st century.

Ancient China and slave society (1.7 million - 476 BC)

"Beijing Man" - the earliest burial that was discovered by archaeologists in the city of Yuanmou in Yunnan province, its age was approximately equal to 1.7 million years. Later, remains were found in the Zhoukoudian cave near Beijing, which were about 600-800 thousand years old, he could walk upright, make and use simple tools, and knew how to make fire.

Today, the term "Peking Man" is applied to all the remains of "Homo erectus" found in China. Findings of agricultural tools by archaeologists show that 6000-7000 years ago people were engaged in the cultivation of rice and millet, and were engaged in cultivating the land.

The most ancient dynasty in China known today is the Xia Dynasty.

Its separation took place approximately in 2070 BC. and continued until 1600 BC. It occupied the lands of the western part of modern Henan province and the southern part of modern Shanxi province.

Its influence extended to the Northern and Southern regions of the Yellow River. During this period of the slave society, two more dynasties appeared - the Shang dynasty (1600 - 1027 BC) and the Western Zhou (1046 - 770 BC). Later came the Spring and Autumn period (771 - 481 BC) and the Warring States period (475 - 221 BC) - periods characterized by a decrease in the influence and power of the ruling house, as well as the struggle for power between regional powers .

This is the period of transition from a slave-owning society to a feudal one. During this historical period, bronze smelting technology was founded in China, and iron tools came into general use as early as the Shang Dynasty - 3000 years ago. White and colored glazed ceramics were produced, silk production was significantly developed, jacquard technologies appeared.
During the Spring and Autumn period, production technologies occupied a dominant position in the state. Also during the period of the Warring States there was a sharp surge in intellectual activity, the world recognized many philosophers - Lao Tzu, Confucius, Meng Tzu, Mo Tzu and the famous military scientist San Wu - the author of the book "The Art of War".

Emperor Qin Shi Huang (259-210 BC) and his Empire

In 221 BC, Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of the Qin Dynasty, put an end to the 250-plus year rivalry among independent principalities in the Warring States Period, and began a single, multinational feudal state of China, the Qin Dynasty (221- 206 BC).

Tang Dynasty Period (618-907)

The Han Dynasty was followed by the Three Kingdoms Period (220-280). Jin Dynasty (265-420), Southern and Northern Dynasties (420-589) and Sui Dynasty (581-618). They were followed by the Tang Dynasty, initiated by Li Yuan in 618.

His son, Li Shimin (626-649) was an adherent of liberal politics, thanks to which, the feudal society of China reached its highest peak in agriculture, crafts and trade, the technology of textile production and dyeing, the production of ceramics and porcelain flourished.

Shipbuilding has been developed, land and sea transportation has improved. Until 660, China's influence extended to the territories of the Tarim and Dzhungar basins, and extended to many states in Central Asia. At this time, economic and cultural relations were established with many countries, including Japan, Korea, India, Persia and Arabia.

Song Dynasty (960-1279)

After the Tang Dynasty, China experienced a period of continuous warfare known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. In 960, Zhao was the ruling dynasty. During the Song Dynasty, the capital of the state moved to the South, so the historical name of the dynasty was Southern Song, which gave a powerful impetus to economic and cultural development.

China during the Song Dynasty was the world leader in science, astronomy, engineering and printing technology. Bi Sheng invented a new printing technology, which was the biggest breakthrough in the history of printing.

Yuan dynasty (1271-1368)

In 1206, Genghis Khan founded the Mongol Khanate. In 1271, Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, captured the central Plains and founded the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368), and made Dadu (now Beijing) the capital of his empire. He formed a single state, under the influence of which were Xinjiang, Tibet and Yunnan.

Interesting! This period was marked four great inventions - paper production, compass, gunpowder and printing, later they were introduced to foreign countries, which made an invaluable contribution to the history of world civilization.

Ming dynasty (1368-1644)

In 1368, Zhu Yuan Zhang, also known as Tai Zu, founded the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) in Nanjing. When his son and successor Zhu Di (1360-1424) ascended the throne in 1402, he built and expanded the existing palaces, temples, fortifications and moats in Beijing on a large scale, and in 1421 Beijing became the official capital of the empire.

Great discoveries on earth
Content

1

1

Who Invented the Compass? one

What was the first Viking settlement? one

Who were the first Arab travelers? 2

What was the knowledge of the Europeans compared to the knowledge of the Arabs? 2

Who was the first to visit China? 2

Were the Polos the first Europeans to reach China? 2

How did people find out about Marco's adventures? 2

When was the great era of travel? 2

What state opened the great era of travel? 2

Who was the first to sail around the southern tip of Africa? 3

^ Which European reached India by sea? 3

What were the busiest years in the great era of travel? 3

Who discovered America? 3

Where did the name "America" ​​come from? 3

Where did Columbus think he was going? 3

Did Columbus really set foot on the American mainland? 3

Were the Polos the first Europeans to reach China?

How did people find out about Marco's adventures?

Who Invented the Compass?

The Chinese invented the compass about 4,000 years ago. However, Europeans began to use it about a thousand years ago.

What was the first Viking settlement?

The Vikings discovered Iceland for the first time in 860 when a group of travelers went astray. Irish monks, however, had been there 65 years earlier. Scandinavia, where the Vikings were from, was very harsh on Earth.

Who were the first Arab travelers?

Arabs have played an important role in the history of travel. In the VI-VII centuries. They conquered a huge territory, spreading their scientific knowledge and their religion - Islam.

What was the knowledge of the Europeans compared to the knowledge of the Arabs?

The Europeans knew much less in the fields of science, such as mathematics and geography, than the Arabs at that time. Their view of the world was based on Christian beliefs. On European maps, the Earth was depicted as a circle with Jerusalem in the center.

Who was the first to visit China?

China, located in the Far East, was a hard-to-reach place. In 1271, Mark Polo, the son of a merchant from Venice (Italy), reached Beijing with his father and uncle and spent many years in the company of the Chinese ruler Kublai Khan (in Russian transcription - Khubilai).

Were the Polos the first Europeans to reach China?

No. The road known as the Silk Road, which ran from China to the west, had been used by merchants since 500 BC, but the Polos were the first Europeans to travel the length and breadth of the country and have contact with the Chinese rulers.

How did people find out about Marco's adventures?

On his return home in 1295, war broke out between the Venetians and the Genoese, and he was imprisoned. While in prison, Marco dictated his story to another prisoner. Many did not believe what was written in his book. It told about the exploration of oil and coal deposits, magnificent palaces, elephant parades, 100,000 white horses donated to Kublai Khan and amazing gems, which clearly exceeded the imagination of the Venetian citizens.

When was the great era of travel?

XV-XVI centuries often referred to as the great era of travel because so many discoveries were made during that time. Sea routes to the East were laid; unexplored lands were explored, such as America, the West Indies and the Pacific islands.

What state opened the great era of travel?

Portugal, early 15th century The sails of ships sailing from the port of Lisbon sailed south until the winds turned them to the east. The caravels were not large - about 24 m long.

Who was the first to sail around the southern tip of Africa?

Portuguese captain Bartolomeo Dias, in 1487.

He had two caravels and a large cargo ship. He rounded the Cape of Good Hope, but the crew refused to go any further.

Which European reached India by sea?

The Portuguese navigator Vasca da Gama lost two ships and half of his men, but returned to Portugal with a cargo of spices and jewels taken from India.

What were the busiest years in the great era of travel?

Most of the discoveries were made in an incredibly short period of time - 34 years:

1487 Diaz bypassed Africa from the south.

1492 Columbus reached the West Indies.

1497 English explorer John Cabat reached Newfoundland, beyond North America.

1498 Do Gama reached India by sea.

1519-1521 Magellan sailed in the Pacific Ocean.

Who discovered America?

In 1492, Christopher Columbus traveled from Spain across the Atlantic to the West Indies and discovered the New World, the existence of which the Europeans did not suspect. But people lived in America for thousands of years before Europeans sailed there.

Where did the name "America" ​​come from?

It comes from Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian adventurer who claimed to have reached the Americas in 1497, but this is highly doubtful.

Where did Columbus think he was going?

Columbus believed that he was sailing to China. When he got to the West Indies, he insisted that these were islands beyond China.

Did Columbus really set foot on the American mainland?

No. He landed first in the West Indies. Later, he made three more voyages to the shores of the West Indies. The third time he reached Panama, in Central America, he never landed on the North American mainland.

Civilization is one of the oldest in the world, written sources cover periods of thousands of years. Traditionally, three periods are distinguished in the history of China: pre-imperial (before 221 BC), imperial and new (since 1911).

prehistoric period

Peking Man Mystery

In the first half of the XX century. not far from Beijing, fossil remains of an ancient man close to Pithecanthropus were found. He was called "Sinanthropus" ( Sinanthropus pekinensis- Peking Chinese people). The age of the "Peking Man" dates back to 770 thousand years. The find does not fit well with the monocentric theory of human origin generally accepted in anthropology, according to which, the emergence of man occurred in a single area (usually Africa is considered the cradle of man) and all people on Earth settled from this single center.

Chinese anthropologists defend the independent origin of the Asian (Mongoloid) race, considering the Sinanthropes to be the ancestors of the Chinese. Despite numerous disputes and skepticism (which is fueled by the disappearance of the finds during the Second World War), the place of discovery of Sinanthropus - Zhoukoudian was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.

Of the extinct hominids that lived before Sinanthropus in China, they call the Yuanmou man (1.7 million years ago) and the Lantian man (800 thousand years ago).

Stone Age cultures

The oldest archaeological cultures considered to be the ancestors of the ethnic Chinese (Han), known collectively as Majiayao, Yangshao and Qujialing, belong to the Middle Neolithic (V-II millennium BC). The most developed crafts were the production of stone and bone tools and pottery. The main agricultural crop was chumiza. The main domestic animals were dogs and pigs.

Later, during the first half of the II millennium BC. e. on the basis of Yangshao culture, under the influence of migrants, a more developed culture of Lunshan was formed. These ancient Chinese already knew the potter's wheel, received new types of crops (wheat, barley) and livestock (goats, sheep, cows).

Pre-imperial states of China

Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors

Chinese mythology connects the ancient history of China with three rulers and five emperors, and their name lists, in contrast to the number, may vary.

The first rulers are essentially mythological cultural heroes who form the basis of Chinese culture. The ruler of Fu-xi is credited with developing the I-Ching system (Book or Canon of Changes), the ruler of Shen-nong is the creator of agriculture (in particular, the inventor of the plow), calendar and medicine. Huang Di (Yellow Emperor) - the founder of the Chinese people and the creator of Taoism.

Huang-di, Zhuan-xu, Ku, Yao and Shun can be called as five emperors.

shang yin

At the end of the XIV century. BC e. in the middle reaches of the Yellow River, the Shang dynasty was formed, which is often considered the first state formation in China. Regardless of priority, Shang-Yin is the first state to achieve significant influence and control over many neighboring peoples through organization: they had a professional army with bronze weapons and war chariots.

Zhou

The Zhou people lived to the east of the Shang state. In the course of a number of military campaigns and diplomatic actions, the Zhou found themselves in a subordinate position. But in the eleventh century BC e. Zhou ruler Wu conquered the Shang state.

The Zhou era lasted from the 11th to the 3rd centuries. BC e. At that time, independent state formations were formed from hereditary allotments, constantly competing with each other, but it was Zhou who became the cauldron in which the Chinese ethnos was formed. The last historical period of the Zhou era, which already fell on the Iron Age, is called the "Period of the Warring States". Then there were seven kingdoms: Wei, Zhao, Han, Qin, Qi, Yan and Chu.

Chinese empire

During the Warring States Period, the westernmost kingdom, Qin, gradually began to take over. By 221 BC. e. The legendary Qin Shi Huang united all the kingdoms under his rule, creating a unified China and founding the first imperial Qin dynasty.

Qin Shihuang-di carries out reforms, the general meaning of which is clear from the slogan "all chariots with standard gauge, all words with standard spelling." A single network of roads of the empire is being created, a single hieroglyphic writing, a single system of measures and weights, and a monetary system are being introduced. Xianyang (near modern Xian) becomes the single capital of the empire.

All border defensive walls between the conquered kingdoms were demolished, only the northern sections separating China from the northern nomads were strengthened and merged into a single Great Wall of China.

Almost immediately after the death of Qin Shi Huang, the Qin empire ceased to exist. In the beginning of troubled times, during a deep socio-economic crisis, China experienced numerous wars between the Qin military leaders and the troops of the former independent kingdoms.

The second Chinese empire was headed by a native of the kingdom of Chu - Liu Bang. The empire he founded was called the Han. During the Han period, Confucianism became the official ideology of China, and the territory of the empire expanded significantly. From 65 BC e. Buddhism traveled along the Silk Road from India to China.

The last emperor of the Han Dynasty was deposed in 220, and a period of three kingdoms began in China: three rulers at once claimed the imperial title and the state was divided into three parts. In 280, China was again united under the rule of the commander Sima Yan, who founded the Jin dynasty.

The Jin period (265-420) was marked by numerous invasions of the Huns and other northern steppe peoples. In northern China, the so-called "sixteen barbarian states" arose, founded by representatives of non-Chinese.

Period between 420 and 589 called the period of the Southern and Northern Dynasties. China is divided in two.

By the end of the VI century. the descendants of the nomads are almost completely assimilated with the Chinese. At the same time, ethnic Chinese are actively moving to the southern regions, moving the center of Chinese culture to the south.

In 581, the northern Chinese commander Zhou Yang Jian unites the entire Northern China under his rule, proclaims a new Sui dynasty, and then a newly united China. In 618, as a result of a coup, the Sui dynasty is replaced by the Tang dynasty. The Tang Empire gains great power, expands its territory, restores the Silk Road and develops maritime trade. The Tang era is traditionally considered the peak of China's power, when it was ahead of the rest of the world's contemporary countries in development.

The Tang Empire was shaken by internal uprisings and disasters and external military defeats, the centralization of power gradually faded away, the military leaders on the periphery of the state gained more and more power. After one of the coups, the period of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (907-960) began.

The fragmentation of China was restored by the Song dynasty (960-1279), which faced the invasion of the steppe peoples. Despite the forced territorial concessions, the Song period is considered the era of China's economic and cultural flourishing: artisans reach heights in the manufacture of products from porcelain, silk, lacquer, wood, ivory, etc. Gunpowder and a compass were invented, book printing was spread, new high-yielding varieties were developed cereals, cotton crops are increasing.

Mongol Empire

At the beginning of the XIII century. Mongols invade China. The great Genghis Khan creates a most dangerous enemy near China - a powerful union of tribes with an organized and combat-ready army. Having conquered the peoples of Southern Siberia, Central Asia, Russia, by 1234 the Mongols completed the defeat of the North Chinese Jurchen state of Jin.

China was completely conquered only after the European campaigns of the Mongols. This was done by the grandson of Genghis Khan - Khubilai. Kublai Khan assumes the title of Emperor Yuan (1271) and in 1279 destroys the Song dynasty, completely annexing China to Mongolia. Kublai Khan became the first non-Chinese (non-Han) emperor of China. Being nominally the ruler of the entire vast Mongol Empire, Khubilai essentially limited his interests to China, in fact, the rest of the Mongol uluses received significant independence.

Kublai Khan moved the capital of the Mongol Empire from Karakorum (present-day Kharkhorin in Mongolia) to the city of Khanbalik in Northern China (present-day Beijing). Khubilai's reign was characterized by the centralization of power, the widespread use of traditional Chinese institutions while discriminating against the ethnic Chinese themselves (Han Chinese).

Kublai patronized Buddhism and persecuted the Taoists. In many ways, the spread of Buddhist teachings in East Asia is the result of Khubilai's reign.

Europeans got their idea about Kublai Khan from the descriptions of the Italian traveler Marco Polo, who served for some time as an official with Kublai Khan and was sympathetic to both the emperor and the methods of his rule.

Khubilai carried out expansionist military campaigns, subjugating Burma, Korea, part of Vietnam, but the attempt to invade Japan ended in failure and the defeat in Vietnam was especially sensitive, which stopped the advance of the Mongols into Southeast Asia.

Min

The reign of Khubilai's successors was complicated from time to time by crises and rebellions, one of the anti-Mongol uprisings in 1368 brought the former peasant and Buddhist monk Zhu Yuanzhang first to the leaders, and after the destruction of the Khanbalik capital by the rebels, to the emperors. The Ming ("Shining") Empire was proclaimed. China became an independent state again.

Zhu Yuanzhang carried out reforms in an effort to restore the country's economy and consolidate personal power. After the execution of the first minister, the emperor received full executive power, relying on a specially created secret police, which carried out regular "purges" among officials and the population.

A large Chinese fleet under the command of Zheng He for the period from 1405 to 1433. made several sea expeditions to Southeast Asia, India and the east coast of Africa.

In the Ming era, Europeans penetrate China - the Portuguese, Spaniards, Dutch. In 1557, Portugal leased Macau (Aomyn) from China, establishing its own colony. Jesuit Christian missionaries appear in China.

Qing

By the end of the XVI century. China's northern neighbors - the Manchus - stop paying tribute and increase military pressure on the northern borders. The Aisin Gioro clan in 1616 founded the Jing (“Golden”) dynasty, which would later receive the name Qing (“Pure”). On June 6, 1644, the Manchus captured the Chinese capital, declaring the infant Aisingero Fulin the emperor of all China. The complete conquest of China ended only in 1683 with the capture of Taiwan.

The Manchu dynasty in the Qing Empire ruled until 1911, pursuing a policy of isolating China from the outside world. In the middle of the XVIII century. trade with Europeans was eliminated, with the exception of one port in Canton (Guangzhou). The island of Macau continued to be under the control of the Portuguese.

Expansion was successfully carried out in the north and northeast: the Dzungar Khanate and East Turkestan were included in the Qing Empire. In the southeast, campaigns against Burma and Vietnam ended in the defeat of the Qing.

The commercial interests of Europeans in China (silk, porcelain, tea, etc.) and China's unwillingness to buy European goods led to the massive importation of opium into China by the British. Opium smoking became a real disaster for China and led to a series of so-called "opium wars" in the middle of the 19th century. and the defeat of the Qing empire in them. Britain received a huge indemnity, Hong Kong Island and the right to trade in Chinese ports.

The already mentioned Britain, France, Germany, Russia and Japan had their own interests in China. In various ways: both military and diplomatic, and blackmail, and bribery, world powers sought concessions from China.

Emperor Zaitian tried to carry out radical renovation reforms in China, but on September 21, 1898, Empress Dowager Cixi removed the emperor from power and canceled the reforms.

In May 1900, the Yihetuan Rebellion (Boxer Rebellion) broke out in China against foreign influence in the empire. Cixi, who supported the rebels, declared war on Great Britain, Germany, Austria-Hungary, France, Italy, Japan, the USA and Russia. The Great Powers agreed on joint action against the rebels. Beijing was occupied by a detachment under the command of the Russian general Linevich. As a result of the uprising, China became even more dependent on foreign states. Russia, in particular, gained control over the territories in Manchuria and Korea (lost during the Russo-Japanese War).

Republic of China

In 1911, the Wuchang Uprising began in China, which resulted in the Xinhai Revolution. The Manchu dynasty was overthrown and the Republic of China was proclaimed. On February 12, 1912, Emperor Pu Yi abdicated. General Yuan Shikai, Prime Minister and Commander-in-Chief, came to power, declared by the President of China.

Mongolia and Tibet seceded from China.

Soon after the revolution, the Kuomintang Party (Chinese People's Party) was founded in China, which began to wage an armed struggle, on the one hand, against militaristic groups in the field, and on the other, against communist movements. Chiang Kai-shek, elected chairman of the Kuomintang, undertook the so-called Northern March, as a result of which he gained control of almost the entire territory of China.

In the autumn of 1931, Japan attacked China. In Manchuria, the puppet state of Manchukuo was proclaimed, which was headed by the emperor of the Manchu empire Qing. On July 7, 1937, Japan declared war on China; Chinese historians count the start of World War II from this date. The Japanese aimed to completely capture the territory of China. The Chinese were hampered by internal tensions between the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).

People's Republic of China

After the defeat of Japan in World War II, a civil war continued in China, as a result of which the armed forces of the CPC under the leadership of Mao Zedong, with the support of the Soviet Union, liberated all mainland China from the Kuomintang by the end of 1949.

Chiang Kai-shek fled to the island of Taiwan, still officially calling itself the Republic of China.

The PRC carried out a series of reforms in all areas with varying degrees of success, gradually moving away from a rigidly planned socialist economy, opening up borders, but maintaining the CCP's monopoly on governance.

By the 21st century China, largely due to the cheapness of labor, has turned into a world factory, it was here that the production of most goods from Europe, the USA and Japan was transferred.

Thanks to a positive trade balance, China has accumulated significant financial resources, has a huge political, economic and military potential.

The era of the great geographical discoveries is the most important stage in the history of mankind. This is a time when the outlines of the continents, seas and oceans are becoming more accurate, technical devices are being improved, and the leading countries of that time are sending sailors in search of new rich lands. In this lesson, you will learn about the sea expeditions of Vasco da Gama, Christopher Columbus and Ferdinand Magellan, as well as the discovery of new lands by them.

background

Among the reasons for the Great geographical discoveries are:

Economic

After the era of the Crusades, Europeans developed strong trade ties with the East. In the East, Europeans bought spices, fabrics, jewelry. In the XV century. overland caravan routes, along which Europeans traded with eastern countries, were captured by the Turks. The task of finding a sea route to India appeared.

Technological

The compass and the astrolabe (an instrument for measuring latitude and longitude) were improved.

New types of ships appeared - caravel, carakka and galleon. They were distinguished by their spaciousness and powerful sailing equipment.

Navigation charts were invented - portolans.

Now Europeans could make not only traditional coastal voyages (i.e., mainly along the coast), but also go far into the open sea.

Developments

1445- the expedition organized by Henry the Navigator reached the Green Cape (the western point of Africa). The island of Madeira, the Canary Islands, part of the Azores were discovered.

1453- Constantinople is captured by the Turks.

1471 The Portuguese reached the equator for the first time.

1488- Expedition Bartolomeu Dias reached the southernmost point of Africa - the Cape of Good Hope.

1492- Christopher Columbus discovered the islands of San Salvador, Haiti, Cuba in the Caribbean.

1497-1499- Vasco da Gama reached the Indian port of Calicut, rounding Africa. For the first time, a route was opened to the East across the Indian Ocean.

1519- Ferdinand Magellan goes on an expedition in which he discovers the Pacific Ocean. And in 1521 it reaches the Mariana and Philippine Islands.

Members

Rice. 2. Astrolabe ()

Rice. 3. Caravel ()

Successes have also been made in cartography. European cartographers began to draw maps with more accurate outlines of the coasts of Europe, Asia and North America. The Portuguese invented navigational charts. On them, in addition to the outlines of the coast, settlements were depicted, obstacles encountered on the way, as well as the location of ports. These navigation charts were called portolans.

The pioneers were Spaniards and Portuguese. The idea of ​​conquering Africa was born in Portugal. However, the knightly cavalry was helpless in the sands. Portuguese prince Henry the Navigator(Fig. 4) decided to try the sea route along the west coast of Africa. The expeditions he organized discovered the island of Madeira, part of the Azores, the Canary Islands. In 1445, the Portuguese reached the western point of Africa - Cape Verde. Somewhat later, the coast of the Gulf of Guinea was discovered. A large amount of gold and ivory was found there. Hence the name - Gold Coast, Ivory Coast. At the same time, African slaves were discovered, which were traded by local leaders. Portugal became the first European country to sell live goods.

Rice. 4. Henry the Navigator ()

Already after the death of Henry the Navigator, the Portuguese reached the equator in 1471. In 1488 the expedition Bartolomeu Dias reached the southern end of Africa - Cape of Good Hope. Rounding Africa, this expedition entered the Indian Ocean. However, due to the rebellion of the sailors, Bartolomeu Dias was forced to return. His path continued Vasco da Gama (Fig. 5), which in 1497-1499. rounded Africa and after an 8-month voyage arrived in the Indian port of Calicut (Fig. 6).

Rice. 5. Vasco da Gama ()

Rice. 6. The opening of the sea route to India, the route of Vasco da Gama ()

Simultaneously with Portugal, the search for a new sea route to India began Spain, which at that time was ruled Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon. Christopher Columbus(Fig. 7) proposed a new plan - to reach India, moving west, across the Atlantic Ocean. Christopher Columbus shared the view that the earth is spherical. On August 3, 1492, Columbus on three caravels "Santa Maria", "Nina" and "Pinta" set off from Spain in search of India (Fig. 8). On October 12, 1492, a shot rang out on the Pinta caravel. This was the signal: the sailors had reached the island they named San Salvador, which in translation means "holy savior." Having explored the island, they went south and discovered two more islands: Haiti (then Hispaniola) and the island of Cuba.

Rice. 7. Christopher Columbus ()

Rice. 8. Route of Christopher Columbus ()

The first expedition of Columbus lasted 225 days and discovered caribbean sea. During the next three expeditions, Columbus discovered the coast of Central America and the northern coast of South America. However, the Spanish crown was not satisfied with the amount of gold that entered the country. Soon Columbus was turned away. He died in 1506 in poverty, confident that he had discovered a new sea route to India. The continent discovered by Columbus was originally called West Indies(Western India). Only later the mainland was given the name America.

The rivalry between Spain and Portugal led to the first division of the world in history. IN 1494 was concluded Treaty of Tordesillas, according to which a conditional meridian was drawn along the Atlantic Ocean somewhat west of the Azores. All newly discovered lands and seas to the west of it were to belong to Spain, and to the east to Portugal. but Ferdinand Magellan's first circumnavigation of the world corrected this document.

Back in 1513, the Spaniard Vasco de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and reached the shores of the Pacific Ocean. He called it then the South Sea. In the autumn of 1519, on five caravels with a team of 253 sailors, Fernand Magellan (Fig. 9) set off on his journey (Fig. 10). His goal was to find a way across the Atlantic Ocean to the Moluccas (Spice Islands). After a year of travel, Magellan's team entered a narrow strait, which was later named Strait of Magellan. After passing through it, Magellan's team managed to enter the previously unknown ocean. This ocean is called Quiet.

Rice. 9. Ferdinand Magellan ()

Rice. 10. The first round-the-world trip of Ferdinand Magellan ()

In March 1521, Magellan's team reached the Mariana Islands and then landed in the Philippines, where Magellan himself died in a skirmish with the locals. His team managed to reach the Moluccas. Three years later, only one ship with 17 sailors returned home. Magellan's first circumnavigation of the world proved that the Earth is spherical.

European exploration of the New World took the form conquests - conquests. Together with the conquest, the resettlement of colonists from Europe to the New World begins.

The great geographical discoveries changed the picture of the world. First, it has been proven that the Earth is spherical. A new continent, America, was also discovered, as well as a new ocean, the Pacific. The outlines of many continents, seas and oceans have been refined. The great geographical discoveries were the first step towards the creation of a world market. They shifted the trade routes. So, trading cities Venice and Genoa lost their key role in European trade. Their place was taken by ocean ports: Lisbon, London, Antwerp, Amsterdam, Seville. Due to the influx of precious metals into Europe from the New World, a price revolution took place. Prices for precious metals fell, while prices for products and raw materials for production rose.

The great geographical discoveries marked the beginning of the colonial redistribution of the world and the dominance of Europeans in Asia, Africa and America. The exploitation of slave labor and trade with the colonies allowed European trading circles to enrich themselves, which became one of the prerequisites for the formation of capitalism. Also, the colonization of America led to the destruction of the oldest American cultures. The great geographical discoveries were one of the causes of the food revolution in Europe. Previously unknown crops were introduced: corn, tomatoes, cocoa beans, potatoes and tobacco.

Bibliography

1. Boytsov, M.A. Magellan's Way: Early Modern Times. History reading book. - M., 2006.
2. Vedyushkin V.A., Burin S.N. Textbook on the history of modern times, grade 7. - M., 2013.
3. Verlinden C., Mathis G. “Conquerors of America. Columbus, Cortes. Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1997.
4. Lange P.V. Like the sun ... The life of Ferdinand Magellan and the first circumnavigation of the world. - M.: Progress, 1988.
; Painter
5. What discovery is Ferdinand Magellan famous for, and what continent was discovered by Christopher Columbus?
6. Do you know any other famous navigators and the territories they discovered?