Larger number of protons than electrons contains. Atom

Instruction

The proton is positive with a mass greater than 1836 times the mass. The electric one coincides in modulus with the charge of the electron, which means that the charge of the proton is 1.6 * 10 ^ (-19) Coulomb. Nuclei different atoms contain different number. For example, there is only one in the nucleus of a hydrogen atom, and seventy-nine in the nucleus of a gold atom. Number protons in the nucleus matches the ordinal number given element in the table D.I. Mendeleev. Therefore, in order to determine the number protons in the core, you need to take the periodic table, find the desired element in it. The integer above is the ordinal number of the element - this is the number protons in the core. Example1. Let it be necessary to determine the number protons in the nucleus of a polonium atom. Find the chemical in the periodic table, it is located at number 84, which means that there are 84 protons in its nucleus.

It's interesting that amount protons in the nucleus is equal to the number of electrons moving around the nucleus. That is, the number of electrons of an element is determined in the same way as the number protons- the serial number of the element. Example 2. If polonium is 84, then it has 84 protons (in the nucleus) and the same number - 84 electrons.

The neutron is an uncharged particle with a mass that is 1839 times greater than the mass of an electron. In addition to the serial number, in the periodic table chemical elements for each substance, another number is indicated, which, if rounded, shows the total amount particles ( protons and neutrons) in the atomic nucleus. This number is called the mass number. To determine the amount neutrons in the nucleus must be subtracted from the mass number amount protons. Example 3. Quantity protons to polonium - 84. Its mass number is 210, which means that to determine the number neutrons find the difference between the mass number and the serial number: 210 - 84 = 126.

An atom of a chemical element is made up of atomic nucleus and electrons. The atomic nucleus consists of two types of particles - protons and neutrons. Almost all the mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus, since protons and neutrons are much heavier than electrons.

You will need

element atomic number, isotopes

Instruction

Unlike protons, neutrons do not have an electrical charge, that is, they zero. Therefore, knowing the atomic number of an element, it is impossible to say unequivocally how much neutrons contained in its core. For example, the nucleus of an atom always contains 6 protons, but there can be 6 and 7 protons in it. Varieties of the nuclei of a chemical element with different numbers neutrons in the nucleus isotopes of that element. Isotopes can be either natural or artificial.

The nuclei of atoms are denoted by the letter symbol of a chemical element from the periodic table. To the right of the symbol above and below are two numbers. Upper number A is the mass number of the atom. A \u003d Z + N, where Z is the charge of the nucleus (), and N is the number of neutrons. The bottom number is Z - the charge of the nucleus. Such a record gives information about the number of neutrons in the nucleus. Obviously, it is equal to N = A-Z.

For different one chemical element, the number A changes, which can be seen in the record of this isotope. Certain isotopes have their original . For example, an ordinary nucleus has no neutrons and only one proton. The hydrogen isotope deuterium has one neutron (A = 2, number 2 above, 1 below), and the tritium isotope has two neutrons (A = 3, number 3 above, 1 below).

The dependence of the number of neutrons on the number of protons is reflected in the so-called N-Z diagram atomic nuclei. The stability of nuclei depends on the ratio of the number of neutrons and the number of protons. The nuclei of nuclides are most stable when N/Z = 1, that is, when the number of neutrons and protons is equal. As the mass number increases, the stability region shifts to N/Z>1, reaching N/Z ~ 1.5 for the heaviest nuclei.

Atom Model

To describe the properties of the atom and its structure, a model is used, known as the Bohr model of the atom. In accordance with it, the structure of the atom resembles solar system- the heavy center (nucleus) is in the center, and lighter particles move in orbit around it. Neutrons and protons form a positively charged nucleus, and negatively charged electrons move around the center, being attracted to it by electrostatic forces.

An element is a substance consisting of atoms of the same type, it is determined by the number of protons in each of them. The element is given its name and symbol, such as hydrogen (H) or oxygen (O). The chemical properties of an element depend on the number of electrons and, accordingly, the number of protons contained in the atoms. The chemical characteristics of an atom do not depend on the number of neutrons, since they do not have an electric charge. However, their number affects the stability of the nucleus by changing the total mass of the atom.

Isotopes and number of protons

Atoms are called isotopes. individual elements with different numbers of neutrons. These atoms are chemically identical, but have different weight, they also differ in their ability to emit radiation.

Atomic number (Z) is the serial number of a chemical element in the periodic system of Mendeleev, it is determined by the number of protons in the nucleus. Each atom is characterized by an atomic number and a mass number (A), which is equal to the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.

An element can have atoms with a different number of neutrons, but the number of protons remains the same and is equal to the number of electrons of a neutral atom. In order to determine how many protons are contained in the nucleus of an isotope, it is enough to look at its atomic number. The number of protons is equal to the number of the corresponding chemical element in the periodic table of Mendeleev.

Examples

An example is the isotopes of hydrogen. In nature

Associative examples of the process of ezoosmos, transmission and distribution of energy and information

The composition of the nucleus of an atom. Calculation of protons and neutrons

Reaction formulas underlying controlled thermonuclear fusion

The composition of the nucleus of an atom. Calculation of protons and neutrons

According to modern concepts, an atom consists of a nucleus and electrons located around it. The nucleus of an atom, in turn, consists of smaller elementary particles- from a certain amount protons and neutrons(the common name for which is nucleons), interconnected by nuclear forces.

Number of protons in the nucleus determines the structure of the electron shell of the atom. And the electron shell determines the physical Chemical properties substances. The number of protons corresponds to the serial number of an atom in Mendeleev's periodic system of chemical elements, also called the charge number, atomic number, atomic number. For example, the number of protons in a Helium atom is 2. In the periodic table, it stands at number 2 and is designated as He 2. The symbol for the number of protons is the Latin letter Z. When writing formulas, the number indicating the number of protons is often located below the symbol of the element or right or left: He 2 / 2 He.

Number of neutrons corresponds to a particular isotope of an element. Isotopes are elements with the same atomic number (the same number of protons and electrons) but different mass numbers. Mass number- the total number of neutrons and protons in the nucleus of an atom (denoted Latin letter BUT). When writing formulas, the mass number is indicated at the top of the element symbol on one of the sides: He 4 2 / 4 2 He (Helium isotope - Helium - 4)

Thus, to find out the number of neutrons in a particular isotope, the number of protons should be subtracted from the total mass number. For example, we know that a Helium-4 He 4 2 atom contains 4 elementary particles, since the mass number of the isotope is 4. At the same time, we know that He 4 2 has 2 protons. Subtracting from 4 (total mass number) 2 (number of protons) we get 2 - the number of neutrons in the nucleus of Helium-4.

THE PROCESS OF CALCULATION OF THE NUMBER OF PHANTOMIC PO PARTICLES IN THE NUCLEAR OF THE ATOM. As an example, we deliberately considered Helium-4 (He 4 2), the nucleus of which consists of two protons and two neutrons. Since the Helium-4 nucleus, called the alpha particle (α particle), is most efficient in nuclear reactions, it is often used for experiments in this direction. It should be noted that in the formulas of nuclear reactions, the symbol α is often used instead of He 4 2 .

It was with the participation of alpha particles that E. Rutherford carried out the first official history physics reaction of nuclear transformation. During the reaction, α-particles (He 4 2) “bombarded” the nuclei of the nitrogen isotope (N 14 7), resulting in the formation of an oxygen isotope (O 17 8) and one proton (p 1 1)

This nuclear reaction looks like this:

Let us calculate the number of phantom Po particles before and after this transformation.

TO CALCULATE THE NUMBER OF PHANTOM PARTICLES BY IT IS NECESSARY:
Step 1. Calculate the number of neutrons and protons in each nucleus:
- the number of protons is indicated in the lower indicator;
- we find out the number of neutrons by subtracting the number of protons (lower indicator) from the total mass number (upper indicator).

Step 2. Calculate the number of phantom Po particles in the atomic nucleus:
- multiply the number of protons by the number of phantom Po particles contained in 1 proton;
- multiply the number of neutrons by the number of phantom Po particles contained in 1 neutron;

Step 3. Add the number of phantom particles By:
- add the received amount of phantom Po particles in protons with the received amount in neutrons in nuclei before the reaction;
- add the received amount of phantom Po particles in protons with the received amount in neutrons in nuclei after the reaction;
- compare the number of phantom Po particles before the reaction with the number of phantom Po particles after the reaction.

EXAMPLE OF THE DETAILED CALCULATION OF THE NUMBER OF PHANTOMIC PO PARTICLES IN THE NUCLEI OF ATOMS.
(Nuclear reaction involving an α-particle (He 4 2), carried out by E. Rutherford in 1919)

BEFORE REACTION (N 14 7 + He 4 2)
N 14 7

Number of protons: 7
Number of neutrons: 14-7 = 7
in 1 proton - 12 Po, which means in 7 protons: (12 x 7) \u003d 84;
in 1 neutron - 33 Po, which means in 7 neutrons: (33 x 7) = 231;
Total number of phantom Po particles in the nucleus: 84+231 = 315

He 4 2
Number of protons - 2
Number of neutrons 4-2 = 2
Number of phantom particles By:
in 1 proton - 12 Po, which means in 2 protons: (12 x 2) \u003d 24
in 1 neutron - 33 Po, which means in 2 neutrons: (33 x 2) \u003d 66
Total number of phantom Po particles in the nucleus: 24+66 = 90

Total number of phantom Po particles before the reaction

N 14 7 + He 4 2
315 + 90 = 405

AFTER REACTION (O 17 8) and one proton (p 1 1):
O 17 8
Number of protons: 8
Number of neutrons: 17-8 = 9
Number of phantom particles By:
in 1 proton - 12 Po, which means in 8 protons: (12 x 8) \u003d 96
in 1 neutron - 33 Po, which means in 9 neutrons: (9 x 33) = 297
Total number of phantom Po particles in the nucleus: 96+297 = 393

p 1 1
Number of protons: 1
Number of neutrons: 1-1=0
Number of phantom particles By:
In 1 proton - 12 Po
There are no neutrons.
The total number of phantom Po particles in the nucleus: 12

Total number of phantom particles Po after the reaction
(O 17 8 + p 1 1):
393 + 12 = 405

Let's compare the number of phantom Po particles before and after the reaction:

EXAMPLE OF A REDUCED FORM OF CALCULATION OF THE NUMBER OF PHANTOMIC PO PARTICLES IN A NUCLEAR REACTION.

famous nuclear reaction is the reaction of interaction of α-particles with the isotope of beryllium, in which the neutron was first discovered, which manifested itself as an independent particle as a result of nuclear transformation. This reaction was carried out in 1932 by the English physicist James Chadwick. Reaction formula:

213 + 90 → 270 + 33 - the number of phantom Po particles in each of the nuclei

303 = 303 - total amount phantom Po particles before and after the reaction

The numbers of phantom Po particles before and after the reaction are equal.

As already noted, an atom consists of three types of elementary particles: protons, neutrons and electrons. The atomic nucleus is the central part of the atom, consisting of protons and neutrons. Protons and neutrons have common name nucleon, in the nucleus they can turn into each other. The nucleus of the simplest atom - the hydrogen atom - consists of one elementary particle - the proton.

The diameter of the nucleus of an atom is approximately 10-13 - 10-12 cm and is 0.0001 of the diameter of the atom. However, almost the entire mass of an atom (99.95-99.98%) is concentrated in the nucleus. If it were possible to obtain 1 cm3 of pure nuclear matter, its mass would be 100-200 million tons. The mass of the nucleus of an atom is several thousand times greater than the mass of all the electrons that make up the atom.

Proton- an elementary particle, the nucleus of a hydrogen atom. The mass of a proton is 1.6721 x 10-27 kg, it is 1836 times the mass of an electron. The electric charge is positive and equal to 1.66 x 10-19 C. A coulomb is a unit of electrical charge equal to the amount of electricity passing through transverse section conductor for a time of 1s at a constant current strength of 1A (amperes).

Each atom of any element contains in the nucleus certain number protons. This number is constant for a given element and determines its physical and chemical properties. That is, the number of protons depends on what chemical element we are dealing with. For example, if one proton in the nucleus is hydrogen, if 26 protons are iron. The number of protons in the atomic nucleus determines the charge of the nucleus (charge number Z) and the serial number of the element in the periodic system of elements D.I. Mendeleev (atomic number of the element).

Neutron- an electrically neutral particle with a mass of 1.6749 x 10-27 kg, 1839 times the mass of an electron. A neuron in a free state is an unstable particle; it independently turns into a proton with the emission of an electron and an antineutrino. The half-life of neutrons (the time during which half of the original number of neutrons decays) is approximately 12 minutes. However, in bound state inside stable atomic nuclei it is stable. Total number nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the nucleus is called the mass number (atomic mass - A). The number of neutrons that make up the nucleus is equal to the difference between the mass and charge numbers: N = A - Z.

Electron- an elementary particle, the carrier of the smallest mass - 0.91095x10-27g and the smallest electric charge - 1.6021x10-19 C. This is a negatively charged particle. The number of electrons in an atom is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus, i.e. the atom is electrically neutral.

Positron- an elementary particle with a positive electric charge, an antiparticle with respect to an electron. The mass of an electron and a positron are equal, and the electric charges are equal in absolute value, but opposite in sign.

Different types of nuclei are called nuclides. Nuclide - a kind of atoms with given numbers of protons and neutrons. In nature, there are atoms of the same element with different atomic masses (mass numbers):
, Cl, etc. The nuclei of these atoms contain the same number protons, but different number neutrons. Varieties of atoms of the same element that have the same nuclear charge but different mass numbers are called isotopes . Having the same number of protons, but differing in the number of neutrons, isotopes have the same structure of electron shells, i.e. very similar chemical properties and occupy the same place in the periodic table of chemical elements.

They are denoted by the symbol of the corresponding chemical element with the index A located at the top left - the mass number, sometimes the number of protons (Z) is also given at the bottom left. For example, the radioactive isotopes of phosphorus are designated 32P, 33P, or P and P, respectively. When designating an isotope without indicating the symbol of the element, the mass number is given after the designation of the element, for example, phosphorus - 32, phosphorus - 33.

Most chemical elements have several isotopes. In addition to the hydrogen isotope 1H-protium, heavy hydrogen 2H-deuterium and superheavy hydrogen 3H-tritium are known. Uranium has 11 isotopes, natural compounds there are three of them (uranium 238, uranium 235, uranium 233). They have 92 protons and 146.143 and 141 neutrons, respectively.

Currently, more than 1900 isotopes of 108 chemical elements are known. Of these, natural isotopes include all stable (there are approximately 280 of them) and natural isotopes that are part of radioactive families (there are 46 of them). The rest are artificial, they are obtained artificially as a result of various nuclear reactions.

The term "isotopes" should only be used when we are talking about atoms of the same element, for example, carbon 12C and 14C. If atoms of different chemical elements are meant, it is recommended to use the term "nuclides", for example, radionuclides 90Sr, 131J, 137Cs.

§one. Meet the Electron, Proton, Neutron

Atoms are the smallest particles of matter.
If enlarged to globe an apple of medium size, then the atoms will become only the size of an apple. Despite such a small size, the atom consists of even smaller physical particles.
You should already be familiar with the structure of the atom from the school physics course. And yet we recall that the atom contains a nucleus and electrons that rotate around the nucleus so quickly that they become indistinguishable - they form an "electron cloud", or electron shell atom.

Electrons is usually denoted as follows: e − . Electrons e- very light, almost weightless, but they have negative electric charge. It is equal to -1. The electrical current that we all use is a stream of electrons running through wires.

atom nucleus, in which almost all of its mass is concentrated, consists of particles of two types - neutrons and protons.

Neutrons denoted as follows: n 0 , a protons So: p + .
By mass, neutrons and protons are almost the same - 1.675 10 −24 g and 1.673 10 −24 g.
True, it is very inconvenient to count the mass of such small particles in grams, so it is expressed in carbon units, each of which is equal to 1.673 10 −24 g.
For each particle get relative atomic mass, equal to the quotient of dividing the mass of an atom (in grams) by the mass of a carbon unit. relative atomic masses proton and neutron are equal to 1, but the charge of protons is positive and equal to +1, while neutrons have no charge.

. Riddles about the atom

An atom can be assembled "in the mind" from particles, like a toy or a car from parts children's constructor. It is only necessary to observe two important conditions.

First condition: each type of atom has its own own set"details" - elementary particles. For example, a hydrogen atom will necessarily have a nucleus with a positive charge of +1, which means that it must certainly have one proton (and no more).
A hydrogen atom can also contain neutrons. More on this in the next paragraph.
Oxygen atom (serial number in Periodic system equal to 8) will have a nucleus charged eight positive charges (+8), which means there are eight protons. Since the mass of an oxygen atom is 16 relative units, in order to obtain an oxygen nucleus, we will add 8 more neutrons.
Second condition is that each atom is electrically neutral. To do this, it must have enough electrons to balance the charge of the nucleus. In other words, the number of electrons in an atom is equal to the number of protons at its core, and the serial number of this element in the Periodic system.

Introduction

The current theory of the structure of the atom does not provide an answer to many questions that arise in the course of various practical and experimental work. In particular, the physical essence of electrical resistance has not yet been determined. The search for high-temperature superconductivity can only be successful if one knows the essence of electrical resistance. Knowing the structure of the atom, one can understand the essence of electrical resistance. Consider the structure of the atom, taking into account known properties charges and magnetic fields. Closest to reality and corresponds to experimental data planetary model atom proposed by Rutherford. However, this model corresponds only to the hydrogen atom.

CHAPTER ONE

PROTON AND ELECTRON

1. HYDROGEN

Hydrogen is the smallest of the atoms, so its atom must contain a stable base of both the hydrogen atom and the rest of the atoms. A hydrogen atom is a proton and an electron, while the electron revolves around the proton. It is believed that the charges of an electron and a proton are unit charges, i.e., minimal. The idea of an electron as a vortex ring with a variable radius was introduced by VF Mitkevich (L. 1). Subsequent work by Wu and some other physicists showed that the electron behaves like a rotating vortex ring, the spin of which is directed along the axis of its movement, i.e., that the electron is a vortex ring was confirmed experimentally. At rest, an electron, rotating around its axis, does not create magnetic fields. Only when moving does an electron form magnetic lines of force.

If the charge of the proton is distributed over the surface, then, rotating together with the proton, it will rotate around only its own axis. In this case, like an electron, the proton charge will not form a magnetic field.

It has been experimentally established that the proton has a magnetic field. In order for a proton to have a magnetic field, its charge must be in the form of a spot on its surface. In this case, when the proton rotates, its charge will move in a circle, i.e., it will have a linear velocity, which is necessary to obtain the magnetic field of the proton.

In addition to the electron, there is also a positron, which differs from an electron only in that its charge is positive, i.e., the charge of the positron is equal to the charge of the proton both in sign and magnitude. In other words, the positive charge of the proton is a positron, but the positron is the antiparticle of the electron and, therefore, is a vortex ring that cannot spread over the entire surface of the proton. Thus, the charge of a proton is a positron.

When an electron with a negative charge moves, the proton positron under the action of Coulomb forces must be on the surface of the proton for minimum distance from an electron (Fig. 1). Thus, a pair of opposite charges is formed, interconnected by the maximum Coulomb force. Precisely because the charge of a proton is a positron, its charge is equal to an electron in absolute value. When the entire charge of the proton interacts with the charge of the electron, then there is no "extra" charge of the proton, which would create electrical repulsive forces between the protons.

When an electron moves around a proton in the direction indicated in Fig. 1, the positive charge moves in synchronism with it due to the Coulomb force. Moving charges form around themselves magnetic fields(Fig. 1). In this case, a counterclockwise magnetic field is formed around the electron, and a clockwise magnetic field around the positron. As a result, a total field from two charges is formed between the charges, which prevents the "fall" of an electron onto a proton.

In all figures, protons and neutrons are depicted as spheres for the sake of simplicity. In fact, they should be in the form of toroidal vortex formations of the ether (L. 3).

Thus, the hydrogen atom has the form according to Fig. 2 a). The shape of the magnetic field of an atom corresponds to a torus-shaped magnet with magnetization along the axis of rotation of the charges (Fig. 2 b).

Back in 1820, Ampere discovered the interaction of currents - the attraction of parallel conductors with current flowing in one direction. Later, it was experimentally determined that electric charges of the same name, moving in one direction, are attracted to each other (L. 2).

The pinch effect also testifies to the fact that the charges should approach each other, i.e., be attracted to each other. The pinch effect is the effect of self-contraction of the discharge, the property of an electric current channel in a compressible conducting medium to reduce its cross section under the influence of its own magnetic field generated by the current itself (L. 4).

As electricity- any orderly movement electric charges in space, then the trajectories of electrons and positrons of protons are current channels that can approach each other under the influence of a magnetic field generated by the charges themselves.

Consequently, when two hydrogen atoms are combined into a molecule, charges of the same name will combine into pairs and will continue to rotate in the same direction, but already between protons, which will lead to the unification of their fields.

The convergence of electrons and protons occurs until the moment when the repulsive force of the same charges becomes equal strength, contracting charges from a double magnetic field.

On fig. 3 a), b) and in) the interaction of the charges of an electron and a proton of hydrogen atoms is shown when they are combined into a hydrogen molecule.

On fig. 4 shows a hydrogen molecule with magnetic lines of force formed by generators of the fields of two hydrogen atoms. That is, the hydrogen molecule has one dual field generator and a common magnetic flux, 2 times larger.

We examined how hydrogen combines into a molecule, but a hydrogen molecule does not react with other elements even when mixed with oxygen.

Now let's consider how a hydrogen molecule is divided into atoms (Fig. 5). When a hydrogen molecule interacts with electromagnetic wave the electron acquires additional energy, and this brings the electrons to orbital trajectories (Fig. 5 G).

Today, superconductors are known that have a zero electrical resistance. These conductors are made up of atoms and can only be superconductors if their atoms are superconductors, i.e., the proton too. The levitation of a superconductor over a permanent magnet has long been known, due to the induction of a current in it by a permanent magnet, the magnetic field of which is directed opposite to the field permanent magnet. When the external field is removed from the superconductor, the current in it disappears. The interaction of protons with an electromagnetic wave leads to the fact that eddy currents are induced on their surfaces. Since the protons are located next to each other, the eddy currents direct the magnetic fields towards each other, which increases the currents and their fields until the hydrogen molecule breaks into atoms (Fig. 5 G).

The exit of electrons to orbital trajectories and the appearance of currents that break the molecule occur simultaneously. When hydrogen atoms fly away from each other, eddy currents disappear, and electrons remain on orbital trajectories.

Thus, based on the known physical effects, we have obtained a model of the hydrogen atom. Wherein:

1. Positive and negative charges in an atom serve to obtain lines of force of magnetic fields, which, as is known from classical physics, are formed only when charges move. The lines of force of magnetic fields determine all intra-atomic, inter-atomic and molecular bonds.

2. The entire positive charge of the proton - the positron - interacts with the charge of the electron, creates the maximum Coulomb force of attraction for the electron, and the equality of charges in absolute value excludes the proton from having repulsive forces for neighboring protons.

3. In practice, the hydrogen atom is a proton-electron magnetic generator (PEMG), which works only when the proton and electron are together, i.e. the proton-electron pair must always be together.

4. When a hydrogen molecule is formed, electrons pair up and rotate together between atoms, creating a common magnetic field that keeps them paired. Proton positrons also pair up under the influence of their magnetic fields and pull together protons, forming a hydrogen molecule or any other molecule. Paired positive charges are the main determining force in molecular bonding, since positrons are directly connected to protons and are inseparable from protons.

5. Molecular bonds of all elements occur in a similar way. The connection of atoms into molecules of other elements is provided by valence protons with their electrons, i.e., valence electrons participate both in the connection of atoms into molecules and in the breaking of molecular bonds. Thus, each connection of atoms into a molecule is provided by one proton-electron valence pair (VPPE) from each atom per molecular bond. EPES always consist of a proton and an electron.

6. When a molecular bond is broken leading role the electron plays, because, entering the orbital trajectory around its proton, it pulls out the proton positron from the pair located between the protons to the “equator” of the proton, thereby ensuring the rupture of the molecular bond.

7. When a hydrogen molecule and molecules of other elements are formed, a double PEMG is formed.