Bean plants. Plants of the legume family
Residents of countries temperate climate since childhood, peas, beans, clover, vetch, white acacia are familiar. In the tropics, the "rain tree" or adobe (Samanea saman) is well known, and one of the most beautiful trees in the world is the royal delonix (Delonix regia, pl. 26), which is sometimes called the "flame of the forests." Carob (Ceratonia siliqua) was a favorite delicacy among the peoples who inhabited the countries of the Mediterranean, and soybeans (Glycine max) have been cultivated in China for several millennia. All these plants, at first glance so different, belong to the legume family, whose representatives are recognized in nature by complex leaves with stipules and a characteristic fruit, which botanists identify as a bean. One of the names of the family comes from the Latin name of the bean (legumen). Another name (Fabaceae) is associated with the Latin name of the genus Faba. The family is usually divided into three subfamilies: mimosa (Mimosoideae), caesalpinia (Caesalpinoideae) and actually legumes, or moths (Faboideae), mainly based on differences in the structure of the flower. Many botanists prefer to treat them as families in their own right.
The number of legume genera now known is about 700, and the species are probably at least 17,000. Among flowering plants, only two families - orchids and Asteraceae - outnumber legumes in the number of species.
Legumes - trees (often very large, sometimes up to 80 m high), shrubs, shrubs, semi-shrubs and grasses (the latter mainly in the moth subfamily).
Climbing forms, both herbaceous and woody, are quite common. The height of the measured plant of the Malacca compass (Koompassia moluccana) was 82.4 m, the South American chain-shaped cedrelinga (Cedrelinga catenaeformis) - about 70 m, the high mora (Mora excelsa) and high afrormosia (Afrormosia excelsa) - about 60 m. From the trunks of such huge trees in the lower part powerful plank-like roots depart. Of course, not all legumes reach such colossal sizes, but there are amazing plants among relatively low trees. It is known, for example, that the fastest growing tree in the world is a legume from the mimosa subfamily - sickle-shaped albizia (Albizia falcataria). The lightest wood in the world, lighter than the wood of the famous balsa tree, comes from Aeschynomene virginiana.
There are nodules on the roots of most moths (about 70% of species), some mimosa (10-15%), some caesalpinias. They are of very different shapes and appear as growths of the parenchymal tissue of the root due to the introduction and endogenous settlement of bacteria from the genus Rhizobium. Occasionally, cyanobacteria settle, for example, in the nodules of the Alexandrian clover (Trifolium alexandrinum), the endosymbiont Nostoc punctiforme was found. Every year, legumes living in symbiosis with bacteria return at least 100-140 kg/ha of nitrogen to the soil. Interestingly, sometimes nodules are known in some groups, but are absent in related groups, for example, nodule-bearing species of the genus Chaetocalyx and nodule-less species of Aeschynomene.
The leaves of legumes are compound, with stipules, often falling off early. Most mimosa and many caesalpinia have doubly pinnate leaves. Unpaired pinnate and trifoliate leaves are common in moths (the rarest exception is a trifoliate leaf in African caesalpinium curly kamenzia (Camoensia scandens, Table 26). Paired pinnate leaf - main type leaves in caesalpinia. Some tropical legumes are remarkable for their very large leaves. The axis of the leaf in one of the South American species of the genus Alexa (Alexa) reaches 1 m and carries several pairs of leathery, shiny half-meter leaves. The leaves of representatives of the mimosa subfamily never reach such a significant size, but often consist of hundreds and even thousands of individual leaflets. Relatively rare are secondarily simplified leaves, in which the only plate is an apical unreduced leaflet: the genera Aotus from Australia, Podalyria from South Africa from the moth subfamily, a few Caesalpinia, for example, the genus Palue (Paloue) or false-simple, where the upper pair of leaflets fuses into one, as in bauhinia (Bauhinia), cercis (Cercis) and lilac barklia (Barklya syringifolia). Such leaves fold in half at night. Sometimes the upper leaves or most of them are turned into antennae (as in peas and vetch). The role of the green leaf in the species of leafless rank (Lathyrus aphaca) is performed by large leaf-shaped stipules, while their leaf blade is reduced. At the base of the petiole and petioles, there are often special thickenings - pads, with the help of which, under the influence of a change in turgor, leaves and leaves are set in motion (all mimosa, caesalpinia and about half of moths). The leaves and leaflets of such plants are capable of performing various nastic movements or, in the simplest cases, folding up for the night. The reaction to mechanical irritation of the leaves of shy mimosa (Mimosa pudica) is well known, and the leaves of the "telegraph plant" - desmodium (Desmodium motorium) - make intermittent circular movements.
Inflorescences in legumes can be both apical and axillary, more often lateral flowers - a brush or panicle, less often primrose. In tropical and some subtropical legumes, various forms of ramifloria and caulifloria are known, when inflorescences appear on thick branches or even tree trunks. The number of flowers in the inflorescence sometimes decreases, down to a single flower, but the size of the flower, as a rule, increases. The kamenzia curly mentioned above has a flower reaching a length of 25 cm. Of course, such a large flower requires appropriate pollinators. Curly camensia is pollinated by butterflies with a very long proboscis.
The "queen" of flowering trees - the Burmese noble Amherstia (Amherstia nobilis), cultivated in the tropics, has two dozen bright large flowers collected in a thirty-centimeter inflorescence, which is strikingly beautiful against the background of dark green foliage. Very characteristic is the capitate inflorescence of clover, as it were, the final stem. In reality, it is lateral, but shifts to the apical position during growth. Sometimes the size of the flowers is relatively small, but they are collected in dense capitate or brush-like inflorescences. Thus, the effect of visual attraction for pollinators is increased. Dense inflorescences, consisting of many small flowers, are common for most mimosa. Parts of their flowers are usually brightly colored. The stamens become rigid and protrude from the corolla. They produce an excessive amount of pollen, or the flowers produce a lot of nectar. All this makes brush-shaped or spherical mimosa inflorescences attractive for a wide variety of insects and animals (flies, butterflies, wasps, bees, bumblebees, small birds, bats). The efficiency of pollination is thus ensured by the abundance of pollinators, which are sometimes attracted by the peculiar, pungent smell of flowering plants.
The vast majority of legumes are characterized by entomophily. The role of pollinators in cross-pollination is performed by a variety of insects, and the pollination mechanism is often very subtle. Self-pollination is characteristic of relatively few legumes. Peas, lentils, species of lupins and astragalus, some wikis self-pollinate. Sometimes cleistogamy occurs, that is, self-pollination inside unopened flowers. Wind pollination is known in the tropical genus Hardwickia from the subfamily Caesalpinia. In the tropics and occasionally in the temperate zone, birds and bats participate in pollination. Bats visit large inflorescences of a number of mimosas. Some caesalpiniae are ornithophilous large flowers, for example, species of the genera Anglocalyx (Angylocalyx), Alexa (Alexa), Castanospermum (Castanospermum), Erythrina (Erythrina), etc. To attract birds, erythrin flowers release such an amount of nectar that in the USA in some places they are called "cry-baby" - crying baby. Since the flowers of erythrin are upside down, the pollen during the invasion of the bird spills out on its back, while the stigma also touches the back. In some Australian moths, such as species of the Australian genus Brachysema (Brachysema), pollination is carried out by birds standing on the soil.
The flowers of legumes are in most cases bisexual, but unisexual flowers are still known in a number of representatives. In particular, monoecious (monoecious and even dioecious flowers) several species of trees from the genera Gleditsia (Gleditsia, Table 27) and Gymnocladus (Gymnocladus), widely cultivated in subtropical countries. Some types of neptunia (Neptunia) and parkia (Parkia) are remarkable in that some of the flowers in one inflorescence have only stamens, and some have only gynoecium.
Most often, legume flowers have 10 stamens, which are arranged in 2 circles. Sometimes, in the early stages of development, the primary tubercles that give rise to stamens split and the number of stamens increases many times over. Splitting is especially characteristic of mimosa, in the flowers of which there are sometimes up to several hundred stamens (Fig. 97). The stamens of moths, as a rule, grow together, but in a different way, and this determines a number of biological features of the flower. Most often, the accreting stamens form a tube that is not closed from above, and insects easily insert their proboscis, taking out the nectar that accumulates in it. It is usually not possible to insert a proboscis into a closed tube, and nectar either accumulates outside the tube or is not formed at all, and abundant pollen will be the main attracting agent.
The flowers of the beautiful tropical caesalpinia (Caesalpinia pulcherrima) are pollinated by large butterflies. These butterflies, in an effort to get nectar from the depths of the corolla, touch the dust particles of far-protruding stamens and transfer the pollen that has spilled out at the same time to the protruding stigmas of other flowers. Pollination is carried out similarly in a number of ornithophilous moths from the genera Alexa, Castanospermum and Anglocalyx. Here the stamens likewise project far from the corolla. Occasionally, some of the stamens in legume flowers are turned into brightly colored staminodes. In the inflorescence of neptunia filled (N. plena), along with purely female, purely male and bisexual flowers, there are flowers that carry only staminodes.
The gynoecium of legumes mostly consists of one carpel, but several archaic genera are known, in the flowers of which there are from 2 to 16 free carpels, usually sitting on a special stand - gynophore. Such, in particular, are the species of the genera Archidendron (Archidendron) and Afonsea (Affonsea) from Mimosa, some Cassia (Cassia) from Caesalpinia, and even some Moths.
The number of ovules in the ovary varies from 2 to 15-20, but representatives of some genera have only one ovule. Mimosas and caesalpinias are quite clearly distinguished from moths. In the former, the ovules are mostly anatropic, while in moths they are campylotropic or hemitropic, bitegmal or rarely unitegmal.
The shape and size of the calyx of legumes vary quite significantly. In Indian saraca (Saraca indica), in addition to the purely protective role that the calyx plays when the flower is in bud, its brightly colored lobes (almost all legumes have a calyx to one degree or another) attract pollinating insects, replacing the missing petals. In meat-red clover (Trifolium incarnatum), the teeth of the calyx of barren flowers act as a motor apparatus, changing position under the influence of changes in air humidity.
In the vast majority, the number of petals is 5, and only some representatives from different subfamilies have fewer. For example, in species of the genus Amorpha (Amorpha), only one is preserved. At first glance, the petals of species from the subfamily Caesalpinia and Moth usually appear free at the base, but in fact they are most often attached to the floral tube, which has arisen from the fused tissues of the sepals, petals and stamens. Undoubtedly, the ancestors of modern legumes had a rather large open actinomorphic corolla, which allowed the flowers to be visited by a wide variety of insects and birds. Such a corolla has been preserved in some species of the archaic Madagascar-African moth Cadia. Mimosa corolla is also actinomorphic, but usually small, with petals fused into a tube. Such a tube additionally fixes the position of hard, protruding stamens. Caesalpinia and moths are overwhelmingly remarkable for their more or less zygomorphic corolla. The sharply zygomorphic corolla is especially characteristic of the second of the named subfamilies. By resemblance to a moth, he was still in the 16th century. received the name of the moth in the botanical literature, and this name is often used to refer to the subfamily of legumes. The moth corolla consists of a larger upper petal - a flag, which covers all the other petals in the kidney and somewhat opposes them in a blossoming flower; two lateral petals form wings, and the innermost, fused in the upper half or sticking together, form a boat containing stamens and ovary. At least 95% of moth species have the corolla type described above. Few deviations from the main variant are known, in particular, several primitive tropical moths and species of the North American genus Amorpha, in which only one of the 5 petals has been preserved - the flag. The remarkable stability of the moth corolla, which is a kind of “biological lock” that protects the pollen and nectar reserves from inefficient pollinators, is associated with adaptation to pollination by bees and bumblebees.
The flag serves mainly to attract insects. On it, especially at the base, additional marks in the form of bright veins are often noticed. Attracted by a bright flag or a bright flower in general, the insect perches on the edge of the boat, or more often on one of the wings, and tends to introduce the proboscis to the base of the stamen filaments to the nectar reserves. At the same time, the petals of the boat or wings, under the weight of the insect and its active movements, are bent, making at the same time oscillatory movements in time with the movements of the body of the insect. All petals begin to react as a single system, since they are connected through the ears and humps that each of the four petals has. Under the influence of insect movements, the flag is folded back, the wings move down and to the sides, and the stamens and gynoecium, due to a certain elasticity, retain a horizontal position and come into contact with the abdomen of the insect. When the insect flies away, the recurved petals, again due to the mainly springy action of the ears, return to their previous position and the stamens and gynoecium take refuge in the boat.
The described type of pollination mechanism is common in many moths, the most common, but not the only one. Sometimes, for example, in species of lotus (Lotus), ulcer (Anthyllis), lupine (Lupinus), motley tree (Coronilla varia), the edges of the boat near the top grow together, forming a hollow cone, in the lower part of which anthers are placed, and the upper part is usually filled with mature pollen. When the boat is bent, the stamens push out pollen like a piston, and with stronger pressure, the gynoecium also protrudes. Some vetches have a special brush on the stigma or directly below it, which, when the petals are bent, “sweeps” pollen from the boat and applies it to the body of the insect.
A feature of the mechanism of pollination of flowers of different types of alfalfa (Medicago) is the presence of an obligatory element called "tripping" (English tripping - shutdown, shutdown). At a certain moment, when a bee or a bumblebee opens the petals, the gynoecium, which is rigidly connected with them (in addition to the abalone, on the wings of alfalfa flowers there is also a special tooth that rests on the petals of the boat), jumps out of the boat and hits the belly of the insect. Without hitting some more or less solid object, the subsequent penetration of pollen tubes into the stigma tissue is impossible and pollination does not occur. The phenomenon of tripping reliably protects the plant from self-pollination.
Strong and relatively heavy insects such as bees and bumblebees, as well as birds, benefit from a moth-like corolla and specialized pollination mechanisms, and various flies and small weak butterflies are usually not very effective pollinators. In this case, a biological lock appears, which opens under certain conditions and reliably stores the food reserves guaranteed for certain types of insects. Interestingly, even the length of the insect's proboscis matters. So, in many clovers, the length of the stamen tube is 9-10 cm, which corresponds to the length of the proboscis of a number of bumblebees and bees. In an ordinary bee, the proboscis is shorter, so it only bends the boat and collects accumulated pollen, but at the same time promotes cross-pollination. The Soviet entomologist EK Grinfeld (1955) found that in many cases bees are even more effective pollinators than bumblebees. When visited only by bees, about 80% of the seeds are tied, and by bumblebees - 60% of the number of flowers visited. Often, short-proboscis insects simply steal nectar by piercing the integument of the flower from the outside. In this case, pollination, of course, does not occur. The number of insects "stealing" nectar increases in spring and autumn, when there are relatively few flowers.
The legume fruit, called the bean, develops from a single carpel. It is very diverse in morphological and anatomical features, which are purely adaptive in nature (Fig. 98). Rarely, the fruit consists of several beans (in representatives of the family with flowers that have several carpels). When the fruits ripen, part of the seeds are aborted, which depends on a number of environmental factors (lack of pollinators, drought) and increases sharply during self-pollination. Beans of various sizes. The record for the size of the bean is at the same time the most large fruit in the world, belongs to the fruits of climbing entada (Entada scandens), sometimes reaching a length of one and a half meters.
Legume seeds without endosperm or with scanty endosperm (in moths usually without endosperm). Spare nutrients are deposited directly in the cotyledons. Outside, the seeds are covered with a dense, shiny seed coat, which, under natural conditions, allows the seeds of some species to remain viable for decades. Recently, it has been reported that normal plants of Arctic lupine (L. arcticus) have been grown from seeds that have lain in permafrost for 10,000 years. This, apparently, is a kind of record of suspended animation, i.e., long-term viability in a state of deep rest. Another record belongs to the South American oil-bearing sea mimosa (Mora oleifera). This tree has the largest seeds in the world, the length of which reaches 15-17 cm.
In some species of legumes, the seeds germinate by bringing the cotyledons above the ground (aerial germination). Underground germination is considered more perfect, as it provides cotyledons with protection from being eaten by animals, trampling, temperature fluctuations, and so on. This type of germination is common to all vetch, some bean and other genera.
The variety of methods of distribution among representatives of the family is so great that we will note only a few and the most characteristic of them. Readers are probably aware of the facts when a mature bean cracks, opening up with two valves, which simultaneously twist with force and scatter seeds almost a meter from the parent plant. Cracking is associated with a special arrangement of mechanical tissue fibers in the pericarp. The seeds of many vetch and bean are scattered in a similar way. Birds eat small fruits of species of Alysicarpus (Alysicarpus) and individual segments of the segmented beans of some Desmodium (Desmodium), thereby contributing to their settlement over considerable distances. The fruits of many legumes, the distribution of which is facilitated by mammals, are characterized by various outgrowths or spines on the pericarp, which act as hooks. Such outgrowths are described in a number of representatives of licorice (Glycyrrhiza), in two-leaved zornia (Zornia diphylla) and in species of alfalfa (Medicago), scorpiorus (Scorpiorus) and mimosa (Mimosa). The fleshy beans of the “Tahitian nut”, the edible inocarpus (Inocarpus edulis), quite common on many islands of Oceania, are distributed by crabs.
The most important role in the dispersal of legumes is played by water and wind. Pterygoid outgrowths of the pericarp, and they are known in representatives of several dozen genera, sometimes allow the fruits to plan for tens of meters, as noted in tropical tree Malacca compass (Koompassia malaccensis). The fruits of the desert ammodendron Connolly (Ammodendron conollyi) are twisted in such a way that, under the influence of the slightest movement of air, they easily move on the surface of the sand. The sea current distributes the fruits or parts of the fruits of the species of Caesalpinia (Caesapinia), Sophora (Sophora), Cassia (Cassia), Afzelia bijuga (Afzelia bijuga), etc. Some seeds and fruits can be carried by water for hundreds and thousands of kilometers. In 1921, A. I. Tolmachev found the remains of fruits and seeds of the tropical creeper entada climbing near the islands of Novaya Zemlya near Yugorsky Shar, where the last northern branch of the Gulf Stream enters. It is not without reason that it is believed that it was the beans of this vine that inspired the ancient Normans with the idea of the existence of America, which, in fact, was discovered by them before Columbus.
Bright red or red with black marks, seeds of tropical species of Adenanthera bicolor (Adenanthera bicolor) and Adenantera peacock (A. pavonina), Erythrina (Erythrina), Ormosia (Ormosia), Abrus (Abrus) attract wild pigeons, parrots and crows, which willingly eat and partially spread. The seeds of Sindora (Sindora) and Afzelia (Afzelia) are equipped with a fleshy arilloid, which mice and ants gnaw, while at the same time taking away the seeds themselves. The spread of the Brazilian species of clitoria cajanifolia (Clitoria cajanifolia) is facilitated by mucous secretions on their seeds.
Legumes are very widespread - from the Arctic to the Antarctic islands. In terms of breadth of distribution, representatives of the moth subfamily are generally second only to cereals. In most countries of tropical, warm temperate and boreal climates, moths make up a significant part of the local flora. Only in cold climates is their share relatively small. It is known, for example, that in the flora of the island of Kalimantan, moths occupy the 6th place in terms of the number of genera represented there, in New Caledonia - 3rd, on the Mariana Islands - 3rd, in the flora of Brazil, moths are second only to four families, in Italy they are on 5th place, and in Iceland and Greenland, i.e., in a cold climate, only 10. Approximately 10% of the species composition of the flora of the USSR falls on moths (2nd place after Compositae). About 1,000 species of the largest genus, astragalus (Astragalus), grow in the USSR.
Representatives of the other two subfamilies - mimosa and caesalpinia - are noticeably inferior in terms of breadth of distribution to moths. These are predominantly tropical and partly subtropical plants. In many tropical countries, mimosa and caesalpinia are prominent components of the local flora. North of 40° N. sh. they are rare. So, in Central Asia and the Caucasus, a few wild-growing species of purple (Cercis), honey locust (Gleditsia caspia) and mimosa (Lagonychium farctum) are known. In the southern hemisphere, some mimosas, representatives of the genus Prosopis (Prosopis), reach Patagonia up to 56 ° S. sh., however, the general picture - gravitation towards the tropics and subtropics - is not violated. Several modern centers of species diversity of mimosa and caesalpinia are known. In Australia and Africa, for example, there are several hundred species of acacia (Acacia, Table 28), and in South America - almost 400 species of cassia.
The upper altitudinal limits of the distribution of moths (caesalpinia and mimosa almost never cross the border with the average daily temperature of the coldest month of the year, equal to 0 ° C) often coincide with the limits of the distribution of flowering plants. In Asia, some alpine views thermopsis (Alpine thermopsis - Thermopsis alpina and swollen thermopsis - T. inflata), astragalus, ostrich (Oxytropis), penny (Hedysarum), Tibetan strachia (Stracheya tibetica) rise to 4500 and even 5000 m above sea level.
The ability to adapt to a wide variety of environmental conditions is amazing in moths. They easily penetrate into many plant communities and are often their edificators. It is believed that in the grass stands of the forest and forest-steppe zones, moths make up 10-20% of the total mass. In the reserve near Kursk (Streletskaya steppe), on an area of 100 m2, among 117 species, there were 12 species of legumes. In the prairies of North America, which are analogues of the European steppes, different types of moths from the genera Psoralea (Psoralea), astragalus, licorice and Baptisia (Baptisia) play a special role. Shrub mimosa from the genus Prosopis is also very common here. The participation of moths in the creation of various shrub communities of the Mediterranean and Western and Central Asia is significant. An unforgettable impression is made by communities of upland xerophytes, in which xerophilic representatives of legumes take a great part. Particularly impressive are the dense prickly, pressed to the ground cushions of tragacanth astragalus and sainfoin.
Many legumes are excellently adapted to the lack of moisture on heavy and infertile clay soils or on shifting sands. In the camel thorn (Alhagi pseudalhagi), the roots reach groundwater at a depth of 3-4 m, possibly more, which allows plants to settle in clay, stony and even saline deserts. Long cord-like roots of sandy acacias (Ammodendron) hold plants well on the loose sands of the Karakum and Kyzyl Kum, at the same time fixing them. A characteristic savanna landscape is created by xerophilic with flat umbrella-shaped crowns, small-leaved and prickly species of African acacias, parkia (Parkia) and brachystegia (Brachystegia). In Australian xerophilous acacias, the leaves are often turned into phyllodes.
In the humid tropics and subtropics, legumes often form part of the forest as the main species. In the mid-mountain forests of the Hawaiian Islands, the main forest-forming tree is the golden-leaved moth (Edvardsia chrysophylla). Two other species of this genus - four-winged Edwards (E. tetraptera) and small-leaved Edwards (E. microphylla) - occupy a similar place in some types of forests in New Zealand. A large, up to 5 cm long, beautiful flower of Edwardsia four-winged is chosen as the national flower of this country. It is interesting that Guatemala got its name from the local name of the characteristic plant of the local forests - Myroxylon balsamum var. Pereirae.
A rare case of single-species forests in the humid tropics is the high mora of mimosa, which forms pure forests with a flat tree canopy on the island of Trinidad. Dry tropical forests and woodlands, the so-called "forests of Chaco" in the provinces of Gran Chaco (Paraguay and Argentina) and Yungas (in the foothills of Hades in Bolivia), almost half consist of different legumes (often types of prosopis).
The prominent role of legumes in the life of mankind is well known. In terms of economic importance, they are second only to cereals. In addition to a very large group of food, among legumes there are many fodder, technical, melliferous, medicinal, decorative, giving valuable wood representatives. Here we will focus only on some of the most important aspects of the use of legumes, noting in most cases only the main uses of each type.
Along with cereals, the seeds of many moths are the oldest component human diet of all times and almost all peoples. Butterfly seeds are exceptionally rich in proteins, and at the same time contain sufficient amounts of starch. Some cultivated species accumulate a lot of fatty oil in the seeds (soybeans, peanuts).
Soybean (Glycine max) is one of the most important cultivated plants of world importance. Unknown in the wild, this annual is now cultivated on an area of 44.4 million hectares, with about half of the crops located in the United States and a third in China. The main areas of culture in the USSR are Primorsky Krai, Ukraine and the North Caucasus. Soy proteins are close to meat proteins in their amino acid composition. Soybean oil (15-26% by weight of seeds) is used for the production of sweets, sauces, soy milk, as well as in the manufacture of margarine, soap, glycerin, varnishes and paints. Soybean cake is a valuable concentrated feed, rich in protein (up to 40%). The birthplace of this culture is obviously China, where soybeans were known at least 4-5 thousand years ago. From China, she came to Japan and Korea. It was brought to Europe at the end of the 18th century.
The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) is one of the main plants of ancient agriculture in South and Central America. In the wild, it is unknown, but it is assumed that the ancestor of cultivated beans was the wild Argentine species of native beans (P. aborigineus). The Spaniards brought beans to Europe after the travels of Columbus. In Russia, it has been grown since the 17th - 18th centuries. Bean crops for grain (about 20 cultivated species out of 200) now amount to about 23 million hectares. Its main producers are India, Brazil, China, Mexico and Romania. Mature bean seeds contain an average of 24-27% protein, they are consumed boiled. In many countries, unripe beans are used to prepare various dishes. Tepari (P. acutifolius) is cultivated in various parts of the Americas and was introduced into cultivation in Mexico at least 5,000 years ago. In the Central Asian republics, in addition to the fairly widely cultivated common bean, mung bean (Vigna radiata) is often cultivated.
Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea, Fig. 99) is a cultural species of world importance, whose homeland is South America. About 19 million hectares are occupied by the crop. The main areas are concentrated in India, China and the African continent. Peanuts are valued primarily because of the non-drying type of oil, which the seeds contain from 40 to 60%. Peanut oil is used in canning and Food Industry, toasted seeds are known to be a delicacy. The biology of this plant is remarkable. Cross-pollination is almost completely lost; self-pollinating flowers that bloom only one day predominate. The stem of the fertilized ovary and its lower part (gynophore) begin to grow due to the intercalary meristem, first vertically, and then bend towards the soil. Having reached the soil, the gynophore penetrates into it, the mycelium of the symbiotic fungus appears on it, after which the growth stops. Seeds ripen at a depth of 8-10 cm, well protected from the action of dry hot air.
Peas (Pisum sativum) are cultivated in many countries of the world. The sown area of peas in world agriculture is about 11 million hectares. The largest areas are in the USSR (about 4 million hectares) and the PRC. Peas are not found in the wild; on the basis of archaeological finds, Western Asia is considered its homeland. Pea crops were widespread in Ancient Russia. Mature seeds are a well-known food product. Unripe seeds of mainly brain varieties and beans are canned. Seeds, green mass, hay, pea silage are excellent feed for livestock.
Chickpeas (Cicer arietinum) - an annual, also unknown in the wild, covers more than 10 million hectares and is especially widely cultivated in India and Pakistan. White-seeded varieties are usually used for food, others - for livestock feed.
Since the Stone Age, horse (fodder) beans (Faba bona) have been widely cultivated in the Mediterranean. It is undemanding to heat moisture-loving plant It is widely used in Western Europe as a food crop (in total, it covers 4.7 million hectares in the world), but in the USSR it is cultivated mainly as a feed crop.
Legumes that form underground tubers are considered very promising for tropical regions. These tubers, in addition to starch, contain significant amounts of protein (up to 20%), which is superior to such well-known food tuberous plants as cassava, potatoes and yams. Two types of "yam beans" are known, individual tubers of which reach 8 kg. The birthplace of one of them - cut pachyrhizus (Pachyrhizus erosus) - Mexico, the other - tuberous pachyrhizus (P. tuberosus) - Brazil.
The nutritional value of representatives of the subfamily of caesalpinia and mimosa is significantly inferior to that of moths, however, among them there are species that are widely used in the world economy.
The fruits of the "Tsaregradsky horns", or carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua), widely cultivated in the Mediterranean, contain gum and sugar. At present, its largest plantations are in Cyprus. Homeland Indian tamarind (Tamarindus indica) in the dry savannas of West Africa, even the capital of Senegal, Dakar, is named after the local name for tamarind ("dakar"). Now tamarind is cultivated in all tropical countries for the sake of fruits, the sour-sweet pulp of which contains 30-40% sugars, citric, tartaric, acetic acids and vitamin C. In India alone, over 250,000 tons of fruits are harvested annually for local use and export.
The fodder value of moths is invaluable. Clover species (Trifolium) undoubtedly occupy the first place in the world in terms of area. 12-15 species are cultivated, many of which are already unknown in the wild. The most ancient type of clover, apparently, is Bersim, or Alexandrian clover (T. alexandrinum). In the USSR, red clover, or meadow clover (T. pratense), became widespread. In the wild, it grows throughout Europe, where it has been cultivated since the 14th century. IN THE USSR total area crops - about 8 million hectares. In Australia, the main pasture clover in the 20s of the XX century. the Mediterranean species of underground clover (T. subterraneum) has become. This species has a special adaptation for experiencing drought: heads with cleistogamous, self-pollinating flowers, which, towards the end of flowering, burrow into the soil, where the beans ripen.
Alfalfa species (Medicago) have no less nutritional value than clover. Feeding value of many alfalfa is on average higher than that of clovers. From a large number cultivated species, we note first of all the alfalfa, or blue (M. sativa). The world area of its crops is more than 20 million hectares. Alfalfa is pollinated exclusively by insects, and when there are not enough insects (about 500 million flowers per 1 hectare of crops), seed production drops sharply. Less common, but also cultivated as fodder, are sainfoin (Onobrychis sativa) and yellow lupine (Lupinus luteus). In the latter, only specially bred low alkaloid varieties ("sweet lupine") are used for food. In the arid regions of the USA and Canada, as well as in China, white sweet clover (Melilotus albus) is widely cultivated as a good fodder grass. A very important pasture plant of the deserts and semi-deserts of Central Asia is the aforementioned camel's thorn, rich in sugars, which in hot weather stand out on the stems and leaves in the form of a whitish coating.
Along with moths, some mimosas have acquired important food value for the tropics in recent decades. This role is played primarily by some African acacias, mainly whitish acacia (Acacia albida) and American and Afroasiatic species of the genus Prosopis (Prosopis). The widely studied tree of the light-headed leucena (Leucaena leucocephala) is considered especially promising. The birthplace of this type of leucena is Central America, but now it is cultivated under the tropics almost everywhere. It is believed that the value of the green mass obtained from leucene is not inferior to the nutritional value of alfalfa, but the plant is 1.5-2 times more productive than the latter.
The most valuable wood in the world is high pericopsis, or golden aformosia (Pericopsis elata), harvested in the forests of Ghana. Various high-value varieties of pink, mahogany and ebony supply tropical species of Dalbergia (Dalbergia) and pterocarpus (Pterocarpus, Fig. 100). Tall trees of the genus Intsia, native to Southeast Asia and Melanesia, provide high quality wood for furniture production. Wood similar in properties is given by trees (mainly African), belonging to the species of the genus Afzelia (Afzelia).
The technical significance of legumes is mainly due to the presence of various gums, balms, coloring and aromatic substances in a number of their representatives. Soluble gums, such as acacia senegal gum (Acacia senegal), are used as a basis for the production of dyes and partly in medicine. Tragacanth gum, mined in the USSR, Iran and Turkey from various shrub astragalus belonging to the tragacanth section (Astragalus sect. Tragacantha), can swell strongly: 5 g of gum absorb 200 g of water. Due to the atom property, gum is used in a number of industries, for example, in textile, confectionery, paint and varnish, etc.
Various types of Copaifera from the tropical regions of South America produce the so-called Copai balm, used in the lacquer industry, less so in medicine. Warty trachylobium (Trachylobium verrucosum) is the source of Zanzibar balsam, and logwood (Haematoxylum campechianum) from Central America is an important hematoxylin dye. From the fruits of "divi-divi", which are obtained from two South American species of the genus dipteryx (Dipteryx), coumarin is isolated - a substance with the smell of fresh hay, which is widely used in the manufacture of soap, toilet water, and a number of food products.
The use of legumes in medicine has a long history. Among the representatives of the family, a number of plants, such as Cassia species (Cassia) and Japanese Sophora (Styphnolobium japonicum), are of world importance as medicinal plants.
Mention deserves Calabar beans, or poisonous physostigma (Physostigma venenosum), growing wild in the forests of tropical Africa. Calabar beans, containing toxic alkaloids, are highly poisonous. At home, they were used as "court beans" under the name ezera. A person suspected of a crime was given to drink a decoction of herbs, which included Calabar beans; death meant confirmation of the accusation, otherwise the subject was considered acquitted. From Calabar beans, the alkaloid eserin is obtained, which is used in ophthalmology. Sophora japonica flowers, now cultivated in 82 countries, are an industrial source of rutin. Thickets of Central Asian licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) and Ural licorice (G. uralensis) are of global importance. Licorice roots contain saponins with a pronounced effect on water-salt metabolism in the body. Root extracts are widely used in the food industry for the manufacture of halva.
The most important of the legumes used in medicine, of course, are several types of cassia. Cassia narrow-leaved, or senna (C. angustifolia), and cassia holly (C. acutifolia) - of African origin, give an Alexandrian leaf containing anthraglycosides and has been used as a laxative for several hundred years. Cassia is bred in many countries with a warm climate. In the USSR, these and some other species are cultivated in South Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan on an area of 200-370 ha.
Of the numerous ornamental moths, we mention the so-called white locust, or false acacia robinia (Robinia pseudacacia) - an American tree species, now widely cultivated throughout the world in the temperate zone, and the Japanese sophora named above. A real decoration of many gardens in Europe is the golden shower (Laburnum anagyroides). The most beautiful moth species are recognized as cliantyca, or red flowers (Clianthus, Table 27), originating from New Zealand and Australia. The other two subfamilies are also very rich in magnificent ornamental plants, which, unfortunately, can be cultivated almost exclusively in the tropics and subtropics.
The "rain tree", or samanea (Samanea saman), has become ubiquitous in the tropics. The giant flat crowns of these trees protect the streets of many settlements well from the scorching rays of the tropical sun, but they are unlikely to protect from rain at night, since its leaves, like many other legumes, fold at night. apparently, is Venezuela, naturalized, creating a secondary "savannah" landscape.
Under the name of the "orchid" tree, some large-flowered species of bauhinia are known in the tropics (Bauhinia, Fig. 101). Madagascar royal delonix (Delonix regia, table 26) is now the adornment of all tropical countries. One of the most beautiful trees in the world belongs to legumes, whose birthplace is Burma, the noble Amherstia (Amherstia nobilis).
A story about legumes would be clearly incomplete without mentioning a number of valuable plants that are currently underused, but are an important reserve in the economy of all mankind. IN last years It has been established that some legumes from regions with a dry climate contain large amounts of protein in the aerial parts and, after appropriate selection, they can be used as fodder plants.
The fodder qualities of Cassia sturtii (Cassia sturtii), a beautifully flowering shrub from the deserts and semi-deserts of South Australia, are highly appreciated. Cultivated in the arid regions of Western Asia, this species produces about 1 ton of hay per hectare. No less interesting is the tamarugo (Prosopis tamarugo) - a tree growing in the barren Atacama Desert (Chile), where a powerful crust of salt covers the soil. Very few higher plants can thrive under such conditions, but the tamarugo develops excellently and provides excellent fodder for sheep. The testing of these plants is of particular interest for the desert regions of our country. The guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba), a herbaceous plant recently cultivated for food purposes in India and, in recent years, in the USA, is of considerable interest for testing. Guar seeds in the endosperm contain a gum used in cosmetics and perfumes, and a large number of protein and fatty oil make guar a very valuable food plant under industrial conditions.
Meadow herbaceous plants - (Leguminosae, or Fabaceae), an extensive family dicot plants. One and perennial herbs, shrubs, shrubs, lianas and trees. About 700 genera and over 17,000 species. Distributed in all areas of the globe, although trees ... ... Collier Encyclopedia
- (Fabaceae, Leguminosae) a family of dicotyledonous plants, widespread in all regions of the globe. Some called "B." unite 3 closely related families: Moth (Papilionaceae, or Fabaceae), Caesalpinia ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
CLOVER, OR RED (T. PRATENSE L.)- see Perennial with a tap root system penetrating in water meadows in the floodplain of the river. Oki at 30-40 cm, and in a culture on well-drained soils even up to 2-3 m. Above-ground shoots are erect or slightly curved, ascending, 15-40 high ... ... Meadow herbaceous plants
MOUSE PEA, OR MOUSE VITCH (VICIA ERACCA L.)- see Mouse peas Perennial with long (up to 60 cm), located in top layer soil at a depth of up to 15 cm. The main root penetrates the soil up to 2 m or more. The stems are thin, ribbed, ascending or recumbent, climbing with the help of antennae, ... ... Meadow herbaceous plants
CLOVER HYBRID, OR PINK (T. HYBRIDUM L.)- cm. Perennial with a taproot system penetrating to a depth of 1 m, but the bulk of the roots are located in the soil up to 30 50 cm. 40 (in culture up to 100) cm, less often erect, simple or slightly branched, often hollow inside. Leaves with… Meadow herbaceous plants
Legumes are very useful for humans, as they are rich in fiber, contain vitamin A and B vitamins, iron, calcium, carbohydrates, proteins, fats and starch. Legumes contain even more protein than meat products, so they can replace meat for vegetarians.
root system legumes are roots with nodules on them, formed when nitrogen-fixing bacteria enter. They fix nitrogen, with the help of which the plant and soil receive nutrition.
And now some interesting facts about legumes:
- Since the beans contain folic acid and potassium, they are able to have a cleansing effect on the blood and the body as a whole.
- The content of vitamin B reduces the likelihood of heart disease, improves digestion. What is important for girls, the presence of this vitamin in the diet improves the condition of the hair: they acquire a more lush and strong structure.
- According to nutritionists, eating 150 g of legumes every day will lower blood cholesterol levels.
- The Mediterranean countries are considered to be the birthplace of legumes, from where they subsequently spread throughout the world.
The most common legumes include:
- Lupine
A fairly popular product of legume origin, high in fat and protein, which is of vegetable origin. That is why soy is included in many animal feeds. Also used as a substitute for animal products.
As already mentioned, soy contains proteins that are slightly inferior to the same proteins of animal origin, so it is often eaten by vegetarians who need to make up for the lack of proteins that have failed to enter the body due to the rejection of meat food.
Common annual plant, which is found almost everywhere. It is often a weed that grows along roadsides and where there is a lot of garbage. Since it is able to grow in the most unexpected places, it is not picky about the soil, it is resistant to frost.
Flowers are usually solitary, purple or pink, less often white. The beans are light yellow in color, wide.
Everyone knows this type of legume. This is a real storehouse of various vitamins, such as B1, B2, B3, B6, C, E, K and PP. ABOUT useful properties these vitamins can be read on the relevant Internet resources.
The beans, which can vary in size and color, are arranged in pods 6-20 cm long.
Lentils are considered one of the oldest cultivated plants.
The most common are red and brown lentils. After heat treatment, brown lentils acquire an unobtrusive nutty smell. And red lentils have found application in Asian cuisine.
Since this culture does not contain fat, people who are overweight can eat it. The advantage is that thanks to the carbohydrates contained in lentils, it gives a feeling of satiety for a long period of time.
This perennial herbaceous plant, which varies in height from 30 to 70 cm, has eye-catching bright pink-purple flowers collected in a brush. The fruit is a bean.
From this plant, light amber-colored honey is harvested, distinguished by its aroma and taste.
For our country, the cultivation of this type of legume is not typical. Mostly chickpeas are grown in Turkey, North America, Mexico.
It has a characteristic nutty flavor. It can be boiled or fried, served as a side dish, added to pilaf.
Chickpeas are small beans that have a brownish-green color and resemble an owl's or ram's head in shape. In comparison with the same peas, it has a larger size.
Since it belongs to a legume, the pea fruit is a bean, which can have a different shape and color, depending on the variety.
It has a light green to dark green hollow stem with clinging tendrils. It contains only 55 kcal per 100 g of the product, therefore it is considered a dietary product. However, in dried form, the number of calories increases dramatically, so in this form, peas are not recommended in large quantities for people suffering from obesity.
Lupine
Also called "wolf beans". Differs in endurance and ability to absorb substances which will subsequently enrich the soil.
The leaves of the plant are collected in 5-6 pieces in a rosette; white, red or purple flowers form long brushes (up to 1 m). In height, lupine can reach 1.5 m. The inflorescences look like beans.
A well-known plant belonging to the legume family. Blooms from late spring to early autumn. Grows mainly in meadows, in forests in glades. Found everywhere.
It has trifoliate bright green leaves. When flowering, it forms bright pink, less often dark red, spherical heads.
This annual plant, capable of reaching a height of 180 cm, has round white flowers with dark spots on the wings, collected in inflorescences.
The fruit is a bean. One plant can develop 10-20 fruits, and in some cases even more.
The advantage of broad beans is the powerful attachment of the lower fruits, as this allows harvesting with combines and other agricultural machines.
It bears the name - peanut, a distinctive feature of which is the development of fruits in the ground.
Above-ground flowers are yellow-orange, arranged once or 2-3 in the axils of the leaves. Underground flowers are small and colorless.
Beans cocoon-shaped with a fragile red or dark / light brown shell. Seeds are dark red or light pink, oblong-oval or rounded.
,
20
colored laminated key tables, including: woody plants (trees in winter, trees in summer, shrubs in winter and shrubs in summer), herbaceous plants (flowers of forests, meadows and fields, reservoirs and swamps and primroses), as well as mushrooms, algae, lichens and mosses ,
8
colored determinants herbaceous plants (wild flowers) of central Russia (Ventana-Graf publishing house), as well as
65
methodical benefits And 40
educational and methodological films on methodologies conducting research work in nature (in the field).
FAMILY BEANS - FABACEAE, or LEGUMINOSAE
Residents of countries with a temperate climate are familiar with peas, beans, clover, vetch, white locust from childhood. In the tropics, the "rain tree" or adobe is well known ( Samanea saman), and one of the most beautiful trees in the world - royal delonix ( Delonix regia), which is sometimes called the "flame of the forests". carob fruit ( Ceratonia siliqua) were a favorite delicacy among the peoples who inhabited the countries of the Mediterranean, and soy ( Glycinemax) have been cultivated in China for several millennia. All these plants, at first glance so different, belong to the legume family, whose representatives are recognized in nature by complex leaves with stipules and a characteristic fruit, which botanists identify as a bean. From the Latin name for bean ( legumen) is one of the family names. Other name ( Fabaceae) is related to the Latin genus name Faba.
Number known now childbirth legumes about
700
, but species
,
probably
,
at least
17
000
. Among flowering plants, only two families - orchid And Compositae- outnumber legumes in number of species.
Legumes common
very widely - from the Arctic to the Antarctic islands. In terms of breadth of distribution, representatives of the legume subfamily are generally second only to cereals. In most countries in tropical, warm temperate and boreal climates, legumes form a significant part of the local flora. Only in cold climates is their share relatively small.
The ability to adapt to a wide variety of environmental conditions is amazing in legumes. They easily penetrate into many plant communities and are often their edificators. It is believed that in the grass stands of the forest and forest-steppe zones, legumes make up 10-20% of the total mass. Many legumes are excellently adapted to the lack of moisture on heavy and infertile clay soils or on shifting sands. In the humid tropics and subtropics, legumes often form part of the forest as the main species.
Speaking about the enormous distribution of legumes, one should, however, indicate those communities and habitats where representatives of this family never enter. Thus, legumes are almost absent in freshwater communities.
Legumes - trees(often very large, sometimes up to 80 m high), shrubs
, bushes
,
shrubs
And herbs(the latter mainly in the legume subfamily).
Climbing forms, both herbaceous and woody, are quite common. On the roots most legumes (about 70% of species), some mimosa (10-15%), some caesalpinia have nodules. They are of very different shapes and appear as growths of the parenchymal tissue of the root.
Leaves legumes are complex, with stipules, often falling early. Unpaired pinnate and ternate leaves are common in legumes. Some legumes are remarkable for their very large leaves.
Relatively rare leaves are secondarily simplified, in which the only plate is an apical unreduced leaflet. Such leaves fold in half at night. Sometimes the upper leaves or most of them are turned into antennae (as in peas and ranks). At the base of the petiole and petioles, there are often special thickenings - pads, with the help of which, under the influence of a change in turgor, leaves and leaflets are set in motion. The leaves and leaflets of such plants are capable of performing various nastic movements or, in the simplest cases, folding up for the night.
inflorescences in legumes, they can be both apical and axillary, more often side-flowered - with a brush or panicle, less often primate. The number of flowers in the inflorescence sometimes decreases, down to a single flower, but the size of the flower, as a rule, increases.
flowers legumes are in most cases bisexual, but unisexual flowers in a number of representatives are still known. Most often, flowers have 10 stamens, which are arranged in 2 circles. Sometimes, in the early stages of development, the primary tubercles that give rise to stamens split and the number of stamens increases many times over. The stamens of legumes, as a rule, grow together, but in a different way, and this determines a number of biological features of the flower. Most often, the accreting stamens form a tube that is not closed from above, and insects easily insert their proboscis, taking out the nectar that accumulates in it. It is usually not possible to insert a proboscis into a closed tube, and nectar either accumulates outside the tube or is not formed at all, and abundant pollen will be the main attracting agent.
The gynoecium of legumes mostly consists of one carpel, but several archaic genera are known, in the flowers of which there are from 2 to 16 free carpels, usually sitting on a special stand - gynophore.
The number of ovules in the ovary varies from 2 to 15-20, but representatives of some genera have only one ovule. The shape and size of the calyx of legumes vary quite significantly. In the vast majority, the number of petals is 5, and only some representatives from different subfamilies have fewer.
Undoubtedly, the ancestors of modern legumes had a rather large open actinomorphic corolla, which allowed the flowers to be visited by a wide variety of insects and birds. The vast majority of legumes are remarkable for their more or less zygomorphic corolla. By resemblance to a moth, he was still in the 16th century. received the name of the moth in the botanical literature, and this name is often used to refer to the subfamily of legumes. The moth corolla consists of a larger upper petal - a flag, which covers all the other petals in the kidney and somewhat opposes them in a blossoming flower; two lateral petals form wings, and the innermost, fused in the upper half or sticking together, form a boat containing stamens and ovary. At least 95% of legume species have the type of corolla described above. The remarkable stability of the moth's corolla, which is a kind of "biological lock" that protects the pollen and nectar reserves from inefficient pollinators, is associated with adaptation to pollination by bees and bumblebees.
The flag serves mainly to attract insects. On it, especially at the base, additional marks in the form of bright veins are often noticed. Attracted by a bright flag or a bright flower in general, the insect perches on the edge of the boat, or more often on one of the wings, and tends to introduce the proboscis to the base of the stamen filaments to the nectar reserves. In this case, the petals of the boat or wings are bent under the weight of the insect and its active movements, simultaneously making oscillatory movements in time with the movements of the insect's body. All petals begin to react as a single system, since they are connected through the ears and humps that each of the four petals has. Under the influence of insect movements, the flag is folded back, the wings move down and to the sides, and the stamens and gynoecium, due to a certain elasticity, retain a horizontal position and come into contact with the abdomen of the insect. When the insect flies away, the recurved petals, again due to the mainly springy action of the ears, return to their previous position and the stamens and gynoecium take refuge in the boat.
For the vast majority of legumes, such type
pollination like entomophilia. The role of pollinators in cross-pollination is performed by a variety of insects, and the pollination mechanism is often very subtle. Self-pollination is characteristic of relatively few legumes. Peas, lentils, species of lupins and astragalus, some wikis self-pollinate. Sometimes cleistogamy occurs, that is, self-pollination inside unopened flowers. Wind pollination is also less common.
The described type of pollination mechanism is common in many legumes, the most common, but not the only one. Sometimes, for example in species lollipop (lotus), lupine
(Lupinus) the edges of the boat near the apex grow together, forming a hollow cone, in the lower part of which anthers are placed, and the upper part is usually filled with mature pollen. When the boat is bent, the stamens push out pollen like a piston, and with stronger pressure, the gynoecium also protrudes. Some vetches have a special brush on the stigma or directly below it, which, when the petals are bent, "sweeps" pollen from the boat and applies it to the body of the insect.
Feature of the mechanism of pollination of flowers of different species alfalfa (Medicago) consists in the presence of a mandatory element called "tripping" (eng, tripping - shutdown, shutdown). At a certain moment, when a bee or a bumblebee opens the petals, the gynoecium, which is rigidly connected with them (in addition to the abalone, on the wings of alfalfa flowers there is also a special tooth that rests on the petals of the boat), jumps out of the boat and hits the belly of the insect. Without hitting some more or less solid object, the subsequent penetration of pollen tubes into the stigma tissue is impossible and pollination does not occur. The phenomenon of tripping reliably protects the plant from self-pollination.
Strong and relatively heavy insects such as bees and bumblebees, as well as birds, benefit from a moth-like corolla and specialized pollination mechanisms, and various flies and small weak butterflies are usually not very effective pollinators. In this case, a biological lock appears, which opens under certain conditions and reliably stores the food reserves guaranteed for certain types of insects. Interestingly, even the length of the insect's proboscis matters. Yes, many clovers the length of the stamen tube is 9-10 cm, which corresponds to the length of the proboscis of a number of bumblebees and bees. In an ordinary bee, the proboscis is shorter, so it only bends the boat and collects accumulated pollen, but at the same time promotes cross-pollination. Often, short-proboscis insects simply steal nectar, piercing the integument of the flower from the outside. In this case, pollination, of course, does not occur. The number of insects "stealing" nectar increases in spring and autumn, when there are relatively few flowers.
Fetus legume, called a bean, develops from a single carpel. It is very diverse in morphological and anatomical features, which are purely adaptive in nature. Rarely, the fruit consists of several beans (in representatives of the family with flowers that have several carpels). When the fruits ripen, part of the seeds are aborted, which depends on a number of environmental factors (lack of pollinators, drought) and increases sharply during self-pollination. Beans of various sizes.
seeds legumes without endosperm. Spare nutrients are deposited directly in the cotyledons. Outside, the seeds are covered with a dense, shiny seed coat, which, under natural conditions, allows the seeds of some species to remain viable for decades.
In some species of legumes, the seeds germinate by bringing the cotyledons above the ground (aerial germination). Underground germination is considered more perfect, as it provides cotyledons with protection from being eaten by animals, trampling, temperature fluctuations, and so on. This type of germination is common to all vetch, some bean and other genera.
Diversity dissemination methods
among the representatives of the family is so great that we will note only a few and the most characteristic of them. There are known facts when a mature bean cracks, opening with two valves, which simultaneously twist with force and scatter seeds almost a meter from the parent plant. Cracking is associated with a special arrangement of mechanical tissue fibers in the pericarp. The seeds of many vetch and bean are scattered in a similar way. The fruits of many legumes, the distribution of which is facilitated by mammals, are characterized by various outgrowths or spines on the pericarp, which act as hooks.
The most important role in the dispersal of legumes is played by water and wind. Pterygoid outgrowths of the pericarp sometimes allow the fruits to plan for tens of meters.
The family is divided into 3 subfamilies : mimosa ( Mimosoideae), caesalpiniae ( Caesalpinoideae) and legumes proper, or legumes ( Faboideae), mainly based on differences in flower structure. Many botanists prefer to treat them as families in their own right.
Well-known outstanding the role of legumes in human life
. In terms of economic importance, they are second only to cereals. In addition to a very large group of food, among legumes there are many fodder, technical, melliferous, medicinal, decorative, giving valuable wood representatives.
The seeds of many legumes are the oldest component of the human diet of all times and almost all peoples. Legume seeds are exceptionally rich in proteins, and at the same time contain sufficient amounts of starch. Some cultivated species accumulate a lot of fatty oil in the seeds (soybeans, peanuts).
The nutritional value of legumes is invaluable. In the first place in the world in terms of occupied area, undoubtedly, are the views clover (Trifolium). 12-15 species are cultivated, many of which are already unknown in the wild. No less fodder value than clover, have species alfalfa (Medicago). Feeding value of many alfalfa is on average higher than that of clovers. Of the large number of cultivated species, we note first of all the alfalfa, or blue ( M. sativa). The world area of its crops is more than 20 million hectares. Alfalfa is pollinated exclusively by insects, and when there are not enough insects (about 500 million flowers per 1 hectare of crops), seed production drops sharply.
The technical significance of legumes is mainly due to the presence of various gums, balms, coloring and aromatic substances in a number of their representatives.
The use of legumes in medicine has a long history.
Many species of the family are also used as ornamental plants.
A story about legumes would be clearly incomplete without mentioning a number of valuable plants that are currently underused, but are an important reserve in the economy of all mankind. In recent years, it has been established that some legumes from regions with an arid climate contain large amounts of protein in the aerial parts and, after appropriate selection, they can be used as fodder plants.
lesson type - combined
Methods: partially exploratory, problem presentation, reproductive, explanatory-illustrative.
Target:
Students' awareness of the importance of all the issues discussed, the ability to build their relationship with nature and society based on respect for life, for all living things as a unique and priceless part of the biosphere;
Tasks:
Educational: to show the multiplicity of factors acting on organisms in nature, the relativity of the concept of "harmful and beneficial factors", the diversity of life on planet Earth and the options for adapting living beings to the whole range of environmental conditions.
Developing: develop communication skills, the ability to independently acquire knowledge and stimulate their cognitive activity; the ability to analyze information, highlight the main thing in the studied material.
Educational:
Formation of an ecological culture based on the recognition of the value of life in all its manifestations and the need for a responsible, careful attitude to the environment.
Formation of understanding of the value of a healthy and safe lifestyle
Personal:
education of Russian civil identity: patriotism, love and respect for the Fatherland, a sense of pride in their homeland;
Formation of a responsible attitude to learning;
3) Formation of a holistic worldview, corresponding to the current level of development of science and social practice.
cognitive: the ability to work with various sources of information, convert it from one form to another, compare and analyze information, draw conclusions, prepare messages and presentations.
Regulatory: the ability to organize independently the execution of tasks, evaluate the correctness of the work, reflection of their activities.
Communicative: Formation of communicative competence in communication and cooperation with peers, older and younger in the process of educational, socially useful, teaching and research, creative and other activities.
Planned results
Subject: know - the concepts of "habitat", "ecology", "environmental factors" their influence on living organisms, "connections of living and non-living";. Be able to - define the concept of " biotic factors»; characterize biotic factors, give examples.
Personal: make judgments, search and select information; analyze connections, compare, find an answer to a problematic question
Metasubject:.
The ability to independently plan ways to achieve goals, including alternative ones, to consciously choose the most effective ways solving educational and cognitive problems.
Formation of the skill of semantic reading.
Form of organization of educational activities - individual, group
Teaching methods: visual and illustrative, explanatory and illustrative, partially exploratory, independent work with additional literature and textbook, with DER.
Receptions: analysis, synthesis, conclusion, transfer of information from one type to another, generalization.
Goals: continue the formation of ideas about the diversity of flowering plants; to acquaint with the distinctive features of plants of the legume family; to teach how to make a morphological description of a plant, to give its systematic characteristics; continue the formation of skills in working with natural objects, the ability to recognize plants with a determinant or identification cards.
Equipment and materials: Table “Fabaceae family”, herbaria of plants of the legume family, model of a pea flower, collections and models of fruits, peanut beans (whole), wet preparation “Symbiosis on the roots of legumes”.
Key words and concepts: angiosperms department, dicotyledonous class, legume family (pea); moth-type flower, irregular flower; flower formula, flower diagram, pollination methods and seed dispersal methods; subfamilies mimosa, caesalpinia, legumes; nitrogen-fixing bacteria, symbiosis.
During the classes
Knowledge update
Answer the questions.
What plants belong to the Rosaceae family?
What is the main direction of the use of these plants in human life and economic activity?
What features are key when combining these plants into one family?
What fruits are found in plants of this family?
What inflorescences are found in plants of this family?
What is the flower formula of plants of the Rosaceae family?
What kind medicinal plants do you know this family?
What diseases are these plants used for?
What life forms are typical for plants of this family?
Learning new material
Teacher's story with elements of conversation
Remember which families of dicotyledonous plants we have already studied. (Families cruciferous and rosaceae.)
Today we will get acquainted with another family of dicotyledonous plants, with the family legumes, which also has a second name - moth.(The teacher demonstrates the Bean Family table, as well as a collapsible model of a pea flower.)
Why do you think it got its name? (Answers from students.)
This family name arose due to the resemblance of a legume flower to a moth. Legumes are one of the most numerous families of flowering plants. It includes about 17,000 species plants (according to some sources, 13,000) out of almost 700 childbirth(according to some sources, out of 500). About 65 genera and more than 1800 species of plants of the legume family grow on the territory of Russia. At the same time, 23 species of them are listed in the Red Book.
Remember how many species belong to the rose-colored and cruciferous families. (The number of plant species of these families is about 3000.)
Say how many times the number of cruciferous and rosaceae species is less than legumes. (About 5.5 times.)
Plants of this family are common on all continents of the globe, from the tropics with a dry climate to areas with a temperate and even cold climate.
Among the plants of this family, there are a wide variety of life forms, such as trees, shrubs, semi-shrubs, creepers, annual and perennial grasses. It is characteristic that most of the herbaceous plants of this family are concentrated in a temperate and cold climate, and a significant part of the trees and shrubs are in tropical and subtropical regions.
Remember what feature of the structure of plants was the most important when combining rosaceae and cruciferous into one family. (The structure of a flower.)
When combining plants of the legume family, the structure of the flower also plays the most important role. The flower in plants of this family of the moth type is irregular.
What are the characteristics of irregular flowers? (Irregular flowers are called flowers that have only one axis of symmetry.)
If you draw an axis of symmetry and rotate the flower around its axis, its contours will coincide with the original ones only when passing through a full circle (360 °). Perianth double. The calyx consists of 5 fused sepals. The corolla consists of 5 heterogeneous petals. The legume flower is often compared to a ship-com. The top lobe is usually the largest. It is called a sail, or a flag. On the sides of it are two smaller free petals. They are called oars (sometimes - wings). The two lower petals are fused at the tops and look like a boat.
Some genera are characterized by the fusion of not only the petals of the boat, but also the oars, and sometimes the sails (for example, clover). There are usually 10 stamens, 9 of which are fused with stamen filaments, forming a stamen tube, and one remains free. In some species of plants of the family, all stamens grow together (for example, lupine), or the stamens may remain free. The pistil in plants of the legume family is always one.
Look at the image of a legume flower on the tables, as well as in the textbook, and try to write the formula for this flower. (One of the students writes the bean flower formula on the board, the class checks and corrects the mistakes. The teacher helps and supplements.)
The flower formula of most plant species of the legume family (moth-type flower) looks like this: LCH (5) L1 + 2 + (2) T (9) + 1P1.
Flowers can be solitary, and collected in inflorescence. Among the inflorescences, the most common brush (clover, lupine), head (clover), simple ear.
What do you think, what are the reasons for such a difficult arrangement of a flower? (Student answers.)
The purpose of such a complex flower is to force the insect to get dirty with pollen on its way to the nectar and, accordingly, transfer it to the pistil. Since the flowers are collected in inflorescences or located close to each other, the probability cross pollination increases sharply.
Legumes are typical pollinator diversity and, accordingly, many methods of pollination. They are pollinated mainly by bees and butterflies, less often by birds, sometimes by bats. But there are wind-pollinated plants or self-pollinated ones. In general, pollination is achieved in all possible ways.
Many plants of the family are characterized by the appearance special devices flowers for pollination by a specific method or by certain types of pollinators. For example, clover flowers have such a structure that only insects with a long proboscis, such as bumblebees, can get nectar.
What do you think, what should be the fruit of plants of the legume family? (Student answers.)
Fetus plants in this family are called bean. It happens most often unilocular, multi-seeded, opening in two valves or splitting into separate segments. But in some plants, an unopened one-seeded fruit (clover) is formed.
Remember what the structure of the bean fruit is.
Draw the structure of the bean fruit. (One of the students draws on the board, others, if necessary, correct errors and inaccuracies.)
Draw the structure of the fruit pod. (One of the students draws on the board, others, if necessary, correct errors and inaccuracies.)
What is the difference in the structure of the bean fruit from the pod fruit? (Student answers.)
The bean fruit is unilocular, its seeds are attached to the walls of the fruit. And the fruit is a bilocular pod, its seeds are attached to the septum in the middle of the fruit.
What plant family has a pod fruit? (For cruciferous plants.)
seeds leguminous plants almost always without endosperm, with fleshy cotyledons. The embryo in the seeds is very large.
How many cotyledons do these seeds have? (The seeds of legumes have two cotyledons, since these plants belong to the dicotyledonous class.)
What is the function of the fleshy cotyledons? (They store the nutrients necessary for the embryo in the first time after its germination, until it forms its own root system.)
Legumes have a variety of ways to disperse seeds. Some species do not need additional intermediaries, and the seeds are scattered or simply fall off on their own. In other types of legumes, the seeds are dispersed by birds, rodents, ants, or the wind. The leaves of the vast majority of species are complex with large stipules. Most often there are trifoliate leaves (clover), pinnate (peas, acacia, vetch), palmate (lu-pin). In many species, the leaves are modified into tendrils.
In what species of plants of the legume family have the leaves turned into tendrils? (For example, peas.)
The leaf arrangement is usually alternate. The root system in most species is pivotal. All representatives of legumes are characterized by the presence of special nodules on the roots, in which nitrogen-fixing bacteria settle. These bacteria are able to absorb nitrogen gas from the atmosphere and convert it into compounds available to plants.
How are nodules formed on the roots of legumes? (Bacteria from the soil penetrate into the cells of the roots of leguminous plants through root hairs. They cause division and an increase in the size of the cells, as a result of which similar modifications of the roots are formed in the form of nodules.)
Right. Bacteria receive a permanent place of residence, protection and additional nutrition in the form of carbohydrates and other metabolic products, and the plant is provided with minerals.
Remember the name of such a mutually beneficial existence. (Symbiosis, from the Greek "sim" - joint and "bios" - life.)
All organs of legumes are rich in substances containing nitrogen. In particular, the seeds contain a large amount of protein. In terms of the amount of this substance, legumes are more than twice as large as cereals. Wheat grains contain up to 12%, and beans - up to 25% of easily digestible, as in beef, protein, and soybeans - up to 45%. That is why the plants of this family are so valuable for people on a diet.
After harvesting legumes, the roots of these plants remain in the ground, due to which soil enriched with nitrogen. The legume family is usually divided into three subfamilies: mimosa, caesalpinia and legumes proper, or moths. The most numerous is the legume subfamily. Of the 700 genera of the legume family, about 500 belong to it, and out of 17,000 species, 12,000.
FamilyLegumes
Biology 6 .FamilyMothLegumes
FamilyMothLegumes
Resources:
I.N. Ponomareva, O.A. Kornilov, V.S. Kuchmenko Biology: Grade 6: a textbook for students of educational institutions
Serebryakova T.I., Elenevsky A. G., Gulenkova M. A. et al. Biology. Plants, Bacteria, Fungi, Lichens. Trial textbook for grades 6-7 of high school
N.V. Preobrazhenskaya Biology workbook for the textbook by V. V. Pasechnik “Biology Grade 6. Bacteria, fungi, plants
V.V. Pasechnik. Manual for teachers of educational institutions Biology lessons. 5th-6th grades
Kalinina A.A. Lesson developments in biology Grade 6
Vakhrushev A.A., Rodygina O.A., Lovyagin S.N. Verification and control work to
textbook "Biology", 6th grade
Presentation Hosting
The legume family has two forms: herbaceous and woody. Forms, in turn, are divided into three subfamilies according to the structure of the flower: mimosa, caesalpinia and legumes.
Caesalpinia and mimosa plants live only in warm climates, while legumes grow all over the globe. These include well-known fodder and vegetable crops: peas, beans, beans, soybeans, chickpeas, peanuts, alfalfa and clover.
All representatives of legumes have a distinctive fruit structure - a pod. When ripe, the pod opens along one or two seams. Beans are the most diverse in shape and size.
The leaves of most representatives of legumes are complex: pinnate or palmate, arranged in pairs, from one to twenty pairs.
A feature of the roots of legumes is the presence of tubers, which are colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that penetrate from the ground into the roots and cause the growth of the root system.
Nutritional value of legumes
The role of leguminous plants in human life is very great. Since ancient times, legumes have been an integral part of the diet of all peoples.
The nutritional value leguminous plants, due to their diverse composition: proteins, big amount, some have in fruits vegetable oil.
Peas contain up to 28% protein, lentils - 32%, soybeans up to 40% of the total mass. Such indicators make legumes a cheap substitute for meat foods. From soybeans and peanuts, vegetable oil is obtained industrially.
Legumes are a source of B vitamins: B1, B2, B6, which positively affect the functioning of the heart. Fiber in the composition of products has a beneficial effect on the functioning of the intestines and causes saturation of the body.
A very important advantage of leguminous plants is that they do not accumulate toxic substances in themselves.
The role of leguminous plants
Forage, medicinal, technical, honey, ornamental crops also play a very important role in the life of mankind. Of forage crops, in terms of area occupied, clover is in first place, then various types of alfalfa and camel thorn.
Medicinal plants are also valuable: cassia (used as a laxative), licorice root (is a raw material for the medical industry).
Some tropical species are the source of the most valuable red and dark brown wood. Many types of legumes secrete gum, which is used in paint and varnish and textile industry.
Legumes are a special type of vegetable crops that differ from other grains in their high protein content. One of the most famous representatives of legumes is peas, but this culture is characterized by much greater diversity.
Legumes
Legumes are a valuable source of vegetable protein, which is widely used as food by both humans and animals. They belong to the dicotyledonous family and are distributed in various parts of the world, as they are able to grow in a variety of climatic conditions, ranging from dry regions ending in mountainous areas.Legumes are also called grain legumes due to the special shape of their fruits, which are usually round or oval in shape, resembling grains. At the same time, however, the fruits of legumes are usually larger than those of cereals: as a rule, they are at least 3 centimeters and can reach 1.5 meters. In most legumes, the seeds are enclosed in a special shell called a pod.
The nutritional value of legumes lies in the fact that, at a fairly low cost, they contain a significant amount of protein: on average, 100 grams of legumes have from 22 to 25 grams of protein. This figure is significantly higher than, for example, cereals, 100 grams of which contain 8-13 grams of protein. In addition, 60-70% of the weight of a legume is accounted for by the starch contained in it, and another 1-3% is fat.
Types of legumes
Legumes are one of the most diverse plant species: their number is about 18 thousand species, and a significant part of them are edible. At the same time, one of the most common plants belonging to this crop is soybean: it is used both independently and as a component in the production of complex products in the dairy, meat and confectionery industries. At the same time, among other representatives of its species, soy is the product with the highest protein content: 100 grams of this crop contains about 35 grams of this valuable substance.In Russia, the most famous legumes are peas, beans and beans. They are usually harvested by drying and then used in the preparation of soups and second courses. Also beans and beans are used for the production of canned vegetables. In addition, some species of these crops are also used as forage plants, and in this case, not only the fruits, but also the rest of the green parts of the plants, including the stem and leaves, are fed to livestock.
However, the variety of legumes is not limited to this list. So, in recent years, products of this group, previously poorly known on the market, began to appear in Russian stores, for example, chickpeas, chickpeas and lentils. In addition, peanuts, which are considered to be nuts, also belong to this category.
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