Embalming and accumulation of knowledge about the structure of the human body. Medical papyri of ancient Egypt Ancient Egyptian sources on medicine

Even in ancient times, representatives of some civilizations reached such heights in certain areas of knowledge that even today it is difficult to believe. And some technological secrets of our predecessors are unknown to modern scientists. One such amazing civilization was ancient Egypt. Medicine, mathematics, astronomy, construction have reached a very high level there. And the topic of this article will be specifically healing.

Ancient Egypt: medicine and religious beliefs

Everything that was done here was inextricably linked with religious ideas. In general, this state of affairs is typical for many. It was believed that Egyptian medicine was the brainchild of the god of wisdom, Thoth, who created 32 Hermetic books for people, six of which were devoted to medical practice. Unfortunately, the news about this storehouse of ancient knowledge has come down to us only in indirect references. The works themselves were lost.

Ancient Egypt: medicine and biological knowledge

Apart from these books, also knowledge about biology and anatomy existed on papyri. The most famous of these are the Smith and Ebers papyri. They have come down to us from the middle of the II century. BC. The Ebers Papyrus contains general medical topics, prescriptions, and prescriptions. Smith's legacy contains valuable information about the treatment of bruises and wounds. In addition, archaeologists also found separate works on gynecology and pediatrics. However, the medicine of ancient Egypt

also had weaknesses. Despite the constant practice of dissecting and embalming the dead, knowledge of the anatomy of the human body and its physiology has not received much development. First of all, this was due to the existence of many prohibitions regarding the dead body. They significantly hindered his study. Actually, not even healers were engaged in embalming, but individual specialists for whom the body was not of interest in terms of treating diseases.

Ancient Egypt: medicine and treatment of diseases

Texts have survived to the present day that contain fairly complete information about various diseases, as well as methods for their treatment. At the same time, the development of medicine was hindered by ideas about human ailments, which were based on the ideas of instilling evil spirits into the patient. Other causes could also include poisoning and the weather. Therefore, the most important component of the treatment were magical rituals and conspiracies. In surgery, only the simplest procedures were performed: splinting, reduction of dislocations. Nevertheless, the diagnostics were quite well developed. So, the Egyptians learned to determine the pulse in different arteries. They had a fairly complete picture of blood circulation, realized the importance of the heart. What reached the heights in ancient Egypt was pharmacology, which existed in the form of various types of medicinal potions. A fairly large number of drugs were known. Their necessary doses for various diseases have been clarified. For example, olive oil, castor oil, opium and saffron are still used today.

The culture of Ancient Egypt left a deep mark in the history of world culture. The ancient Greeks and Romans, as well as the peoples of the Middle East and Africa, learned much from the literature, art and science of Egypt.

Along with mathematical, astronomical, geographical knowledge, the ancient Egyptians had knowledge in the field of medicine. Healing techniques originated in Egypt in 4000 BC. e. Medicine in Egypt was in the hands of the priests. Egyptian doctors enjoyed a high reputation. Gradually, with the accumulation of experience over 2000 BC. e. Egypt developed quite a large medical specialization. The Egyptians had surgeons, internists; surgeons differed among the doctors involved in operations on the eyes, treatment and filling of teeth.

Already in the period of the so-called ancient kingdom (III millennium BC), the Egyptians achieved significant success in medicine.

The sources of our information about medicine in Egypt, as well as about ancient Egyptian culture as a whole, are hieroglyphic inscriptions on sarcophagi, pyramids and other structures, and primarily papyri.

From Ancient Egypt to our time, medical papyri have come down, which are collections with descriptions of various diseases, symptoms of diseases, with indications of recognition and treatment methods, with lists of recipes. Of the surviving papyri, the oldest is Kahunsky, dedicated to women's diseases and written about 1850 BC. e. For 1550 years BC. e. two of the most extensive medical papyri were compiled: papyrus smith, found in Luxor, dedicated to surgery, wound healing and anatomy, and Ebers papyrus, found in Thebes, dedicated to diseases in parts of the body. The Smith Papyrus is considered to be a late copy of an older papyrus attributed to Imhotep, which has not survived to our time. Written later - around 1450-1350. Don. e. - papyrus brugsch treats about the health of mother and child, about diseases of children and is the oldest document on pediatrics. The remaining known medical papyri were written between 1200 and 1300 BC. e. The contents of the papyri are the result of numerous observations, a summary of more ancient materials, a copy and alteration of pre-existing medical documents that have not come down to us.

Egyptian medical papyri reflect different views on the disease. The most ancient papyrus focuses on the empirical rules of treatment, the indication of medicines and contains almost no religious motives. In the Ebers papyrus, which was closer to us in time, along with a mass of empirical observations, there are inclusions of a mystical, religious nature, advice on the magical actions of a doctor. The Brugsch papyrus, which is even closer to us in time of writing, is saturated with religious mysticism and contains many indications of magical procedures and prayers. The well-known German Egyptologist Trapov noted with surprise that "medicine in Egypt, over time, became more and more immersed in witchcraft and mysticism."

According to the beliefs of the Egyptians, the soul of a person continues to exist after his death, but only on condition that a body is preserved in which it could move. In order to protect the corpses from decomposition, embalming was used. This was facilitated by the acquisition of knowledge in the field of anatomy. Embalming was not of a wide nature, covering only the privileged elite - kings (pharaohs), priests, the wealthiest people, as a result of which the experience of embalming was relatively limited. A number of anatomical terms used in ancient Egypt testify to the knowledge of certain organs, including the brain, liver, heart, blood vessels. However, knowledge of human anatomy and physiology among the Egyptians remained meager.

The description of the symptoms of diseases has been elaborated in some detail. The papyri describe intestinal diseases, respiratory diseases, bleeding, skin diseases, elephantiasis, eye diseases, severe debilitating fevers. A number of branches of medical medicine were designed to meet the increased demands of wealthy people. This includes massage, hydrotherapy, the use of expensive drugs with a very complex formulation, etc.

Elements of sanitation and landscaping, discovered by archaeologists when studying the ruins of ancient Egyptian cities, were also found only in the palaces and quarters of the nobility and did not extend to the settlements and dwellings of other segments of the population.

Military doctors who accompanied the Egyptian army on the campaign accumulated information in the field of treatment of wounds, fractures and other injuries. On the tombs of the Old Kingdom, images of limb operations have been preserved. One of the oldest papyri, attributed to the physician Imhotep, later deified, contains a description of operations.

In Egypt, wound dressings, amputations, circumcision, and castration were used. In the papyrus of Imhotep contains an analysis of injuries that, according to the forecast, are divided into curable, doubtful and hopeless. Instructions are given on how to recognize the gestational age and "a woman who can and cannot give birth." There are apt descriptions of paralysis, etc. In the papyrus there is an indication of the importance of the brain and spinal cord for the human body, injuries of the head and spine are described, and it is indicated that as a result of damage to the brain, the entire body is incurably damaged.

There were schools for the training of doctors at the temples. For 600 years BC. e. these schools began to accept foreign students. In Egypt, the Greeks often studied medicine.

The medicine of Ancient Egypt had a great influence on the medicine of the Greeks, Jews and Arabs.

The Egyptians believed that a person continues to live
after death, their ideas about eternal life
assumed the existence of not only immortal
soul, but also the incorruptible body, this led to
the emergence of the rite of mummification
(embalming).

Mummification process
Priests held the right to embalm because
The Egyptians believed that the first mummification was done by God
Anubis, and he mummified the body of the god Osiris killed
Seth. In this, according to legend, he was helped by the wife of Osiris - the goddess
Isis.

Mummification tools

as tools
used: hooks
for extracting brains, a jug for oil, a funnel,
embalmer knife.

Embalming technology

1. Relatives bring the deceased to
priest.
2. The priest extracts part of the brain through the nostrils.
3.Cleans the abdominal cavity from
entrails.
4. Wraps the body of the deceased with bandages and
smeared with gum.

canopy

Organs removed from corpses were not thrown away or
were destroyed. They also kept. After extraction
organs were washed and then immersed in special
vessels with balm - canopy. In total, each mummy was supposed to
4 canopies. Canopic lids were usually decorated
heads of 4 gods - the sons of Horus. They were called Hapi, who has
baboon head; Duamutef, with the head of a jackal; Kebeksenuf,
having the head of a falcon and Imset with a human head. AT
certain canopies were placed certain organs:
Imset kept the liver, Duamutef the stomach, Kebeksenuf the intestines, and Hapi contained the lungs.

The second method of embalming

Injected into the abdominal cavity using a lavage tube
Second
method of embalming
of the deceased, cedar oil, without cutting, however, the groin and without extracting
entrails. Oil is injected through the anus and then,
plugging it so that the oil does not flow out, they put the body in soda lye
for a certain number of days. On the last day they are released from
intestines previously poured into the oil. The oil works so
strongly, which decomposes the stomach and the entrails that come out
along with oil. Soda lye, on the other hand, decomposes meat, so that from
the dead are only skin and bones."

The third method of embalming

The third way, meant for the poor, and
even simpler: “Juice is poured into the abdominal cavity
radishes and then put the body in soda lye for 70
days. After that, the body is returned to the relatives"

"Clothes" of mummies"

Mummies don't like to travel.

Every captain knew how hard it is to carry across
sea ​​wrapped in half-decayed shrouds
mummified corpse. The crew is often
began to protest loudly, threatening to leave
ship - the sailors were afraid of the death of the galley and others
misfortunes. Sometimes, however, prayers helped and
sprinkling the mummy with holy water.

The idea of ​​the structure of the human body in the ancient world

The knowledge of the ancient Egyptians in the field of structure
bodies (anatomies) were quite high. They are
knew large organs: brain, heart, blood vessels, kidneys
, intestines, muscles, etc., although they were not subjected to
special study.
In ancient Greece, autopsies were not
produced therefore the structure of the human body
did not know, their ideas about the structure of the body were
empirical. In the era of Hellenism (the highest stage
development of a slave-owning society in Ancient
Greece) were allowed to dissect bodies
dead. In addition, doctors were given
vivisection of convicted criminals.

Conclusion

- As a result of embalming appeared
new knowledge in the field of anatomy.
- Powder obtained by grinding
mummies prescribed magic and
medicinal properties.
- Artists have used this powder in
making black paint.

The study of ancient Egyptian texts began relatively recently, after the French scholar J. F. Champollion unraveled the mystery of Egyptian hieroglyphic writing. The first report of this was made on September 27, 1822, in front of a meeting of scientists in France. This day is considered to be the birthday of the science of Egyptology. The discovery of Champollion was associated with the study of inscriptions on the Rosetta stone, found by an officer of the Napoleonic army in 1799 while digging trenches near the city of Rosetta in Egypt. Before the deciphering of the ancient Egyptian letter, the only sources on the history of Ancient Egypt and its medicine were the information of the Greek historian Herodotus, the Egyptian priest Manetho, set out in ancient Greek, as well as the works of Greek writers Diodorus, Polybius, Strabo, Plutarch and others. Numerous ancient Egyptian texts on the walls of the pyramids, tombs and papyrus scrolls remained "mute" for researchers. For the first time, the existence of medical treatises in Ancient Egypt is mentioned in the entry on the wall of the tomb of Uash-Ptah, the chief architect of the king of the Vth dynasty, Neferirka-Ra (XXV century BC). The same inscription gives a clinical picture of the architect's sudden death, which, according to modern concepts, resembles a myocardial infarction or cerebral stroke. The oldest medical treatises were written on papyri. They have not survived to this day and we know about them only according to the testimony of ancient historians. So, the priest Menetho reports that Athotis (the second king of the 1st dynasty) compiled a medical papyrus on the structure of the human body. Currently, 10 main papyri are known, wholly or partly devoted to healing. All of them are lists from earlier treatises. The oldest medical papyrus that has come down to us dates back to about 1800 BC. e. One of its sections is devoted to the management of childbirth, and the other - to the treatment of animals. At the same time, papyri IV and V from the Romesseum were compiled, which describe the methods of magical healing. The most complete information about the medicine of Ancient Egypt is given by two papyri dating from about 1550 BC. e., - a large medical papyrus of G. Ebers and a papyrus on surgery by E. Smith. Both papyri appear to have been written by the same person and are copies of an older treatise. Egyptologists believe that this ancient papyrus was compiled by the legendary physician Imhotep at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. e. Subsequently, Imhotep was deified.

2. The connection of the mythology of Ancient Egypt with healing. The Egyptian religion, which existed for almost four millennia, was based on the cult of animals. Each Egyptian nome (city-state) had its own sacred animal or bird: a cat, a lion, a bull, a ram, a falcon, an ibis, etc. Snakes were especially revered. Cobra Wajit was the patroness of Lower Egypt. Her image was on the headdress of the pharaoh. Along with a falcon, a bee and a kite, she personified royal power. On amulets, the cobra was placed next to the sacred eye - the symbol of the sky god Horus. The deceased cult animal was embalmed and buried in sacred tombs: cats in the city of Bubastis, ibises in the city of Iunu, dogs in the cities of their death. Mummies of sacred snakes were buried in the temples of the god Amun-Ra. In Memphis, in a grandiose underground necropolis, a large number of stone sarcophagi with mummies of sacred bulls were found. Killing a sacred animal was punishable by death. According to the Egyptians, the soul of a deceased person has been in the bodies of deified animals and birds for 3 thousand years, which helps it to avoid the dangers of the afterlife. By this Herodotus explains the severity of the punishment for killing a sacred animal. The main gods of healing were the god of wisdom Thoth and the goddess of motherhood and fertility Isis. He was depicted as a man with the head of an ibis bird or embodied in the form of a baboon. Both the ibis and the baboon personified wisdom in ancient Egypt. He created writing, mathematics, astronomy, religious rites, music, and, most importantly, a system for treating diseases with natural remedies. The most ancient medical treatises are attributed to him. Isis was considered the creator of the magical foundations of healing and the patroness of children. Medicines with the name of Isis are even mentioned in the writings of the ancient Roman pharmacist Galen. Ancient Egyptian medicine also had other divine patrons: the mighty lion-headed goddess Sokhmet, the protector of women and women in childbirth; the goddess Tauert, depicted as a female hippopotamus. Every newborn Egyptian, regardless of social status, lay next to a small figurine of Tawert.

Sources of information about medicine in ancient Egypt

The study of ancient Egyptian texts began relatively recently, after the French scholar J. F. Champollion unraveled the mystery of Egyptian hieroglyphic writing. The first report of this was made on September 27, 1822, in front of a meeting of scientists in France. This day is considered to be the birthday of the science of Egyptology. The discovery of Champollion was associated with the study of inscriptions on the Rosetta stone, found by an officer of the Napoleonic army in 1799 while digging trenches near the city of Rosetta in Egypt. Before the deciphering of the ancient Egyptian letter, the only sources on the history of Ancient Egypt and its medicine were the information of the Greek historian Herodotus, the Egyptian priest Manetho, set out in ancient Greek, as well as the works of Greek writers Diodorus, Polybius, Strabo, Plutarch and others. Numerous ancient Egyptian texts on the walls of the pyramids, tombs and papyrus scrolls remained "mute" for researchers.

For the first time, the existence of medical treatises in Ancient Egypt is mentioned in the entry on the wall of the tomb of Uash-Ptah, the chief architect of the king of the Vth dynasty, Neferirka-Ra (XXV century BC). The same inscription gives a clinical picture of the architect's sudden death, which, according to modern concepts, resembles a myocardial infarction or cerebral stroke.

The oldest medical treatises were written on papyri. They have not survived to this day and we know about them only according to the testimony of ancient historians. So, the priest Menetho reports that Athotis (the second king of the 1st dynasty) compiled a medical papyrus on the structure of the human body. Currently, 10 main papyri are known, wholly or partly devoted to healing. All of them are lists from earlier treatises. The oldest medical papyrus that has come down to us dates back to about 1800 BC. e. One of its sections is devoted to the management of childbirth, and the other - to the treatment of animals. At the same time, papyri IV and V from the Romesseum were compiled, which describe the methods of magical healing. The most complete information about the medicine of Ancient Egypt is given by two papyri dating from about 1550 BC. e., - a large medical papyrus of G. Ebers and a papyrus on surgery by E. Smith. Both papyri appear to have been written by the same person and are copies of an older treatise. Egyptologists believe that this ancient papyrus was compiled by the legendary physician Imhotep at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. e. Subsequently, Imhotep was deified.

The connection of the mythology of ancient Egypt with healing

The Egyptian religion, which existed for almost four millennia, was based on the cult of animals. Each Egyptian nome (city-state) had its own sacred animal or bird: a cat, a lion, a bull, a ram, a falcon, an ibis, etc. Snakes were especially revered. Cobra Wajit was the patroness of Lower Egypt. Her image was on the headdress of the pharaoh. Along with a falcon, a bee and a kite, she personified royal power. On amulets, the cobra was placed next to the sacred eye - the symbol of the sky god Horus. The deceased cult animal was embalmed and buried in sacred tombs: cats in the city of Bubastis, ibises in the city of Iunu, dogs in the cities of their death. Mummies of sacred snakes were buried in the temples of the god Amun-Ra. In Memphis, in a grandiose underground necropolis, a large number of stone sarcophagi with mummies of sacred bulls were found. Killing a sacred animal was punishable by death. According to the Egyptians, the soul of a deceased person has been in the bodies of deified animals and birds for 3 thousand years, which helps it to avoid the dangers of the afterlife. By this Herodotus explains the severity of the punishment for killing a sacred animal.

The main gods of healing were the god of wisdom Thoth and the goddess of motherhood and fertility Isis. He was depicted as a man with the head of an ibis bird or embodied in the form of a baboon. Both the ibis and the baboon personified wisdom in ancient Egypt. He created writing, mathematics, astronomy, religious rites, music, and, most importantly, a system for treating diseases with natural remedies. The most ancient medical treatises are attributed to him.

Isis was considered the creator of the magical foundations of healing and the patroness of children. Medicines with the name of Isis are even mentioned in the writings of the ancient Roman pharmacist Galen.

Ancient Egyptian medicine also had other divine patrons: the mighty lion-headed goddess Sokhmet, the protector of women and women in childbirth; the goddess Tauert, depicted as a female hippopotamus. Every newborn Egyptian, regardless of social status, lay next to a small figurine of Tawert.

Mortuary cult

The ancient Egyptians considered the afterlife to be a continuation of the earthly life. According to them, the afterlife substance of a person exists in two forms - the soul and the life force. The soul, depicted as a bird with a human head, can exist with the body of a dead person or leave it for a while, rising to the gods in heaven. The life force, or "double", lives in the tomb, but can move to the other world and even pass into the statues of the deceased.

Ideas about the connection of afterlife substances with the place of burial led to the desire to preserve the body of the deceased from destruction - to embalm it. This was done by persons who were fluent in various methods of embalming. One of these ways is described by the Greek historian Herodotus. Methods of embalming are lost, but their effectiveness is obvious. The corpses mummified by the ancient Egyptians several millennia ago have survived to this day and make it possible to conduct research on the state of health and disease patterns in such remote times. However, not everyone had the opportunity to embalm the bodies of deceased relatives. Most Egyptians in those distant times were buried without mummification, in pits and without a coffin.

It should immediately be noted that the mummification of V.I. Lenin in Russia was carried out using a technology that had nothing to do with the methods of the ancient Egyptians. The originality of the Russian method lay in the possibility of preserving the lifetime coloring of tissues and the maximum portrait resemblance to a living object. All Egyptian mummies are brown in color and have a distant portrait resemblance to the deceased. The purpose of Egyptian embalming did not pursue the prospect of reviving the dead and returning him to earthly life.

The practice of embalming in ancient Egypt was, apparently, the first and main source of knowledge about the structure of the human body. Embalming also required the use of various reagents, which indirectly contributed to the emergence of ideas about the chemical nature of reactions. Moreover, it is assumed that the very name "chemistry" comes from the ancient name of Egypt - "Kemet". The knowledge of the Egyptians in the field of anatomy significantly exceeded the ideas about the structure of the human body in neighboring countries and, in particular, Mesopotamia, where the corpses of the dead were not opened.

Natural and Supernatural Diseases

The Egyptians knew large organs: the heart, blood vessels, kidneys, intestines, muscles, etc. The first description of the brain belongs to them. In the papyrus of E. Smith, the movement of the brain in an open wound of the skull is compared with "boiling copper". Egyptian physicians associated brain damage with dysfunction in other parts of the body. They were aware of the so-called motor paralysis of the limbs with head injuries. The Ebers Papyrus has an important theoretical section that analyzes the role of the heart in human life: "The beginning of the doctor's secrets is the knowledge of the course of the heart, from which the vessels go to all members, for every doctor, every priest of the goddess Sokhmet, every spellcaster, touching the head, the back of the head, hands, palms, legs - everywhere it touches the heart: vessels are directed from it to each member ... "The ancient Egyptians knew the diagnosis of diseases by pulse more than four thousand years ago.

The Egyptians saw the supernatural causes of disease in the presence of evil spirits of the dead in the body. For their expulsion, both medicines and various magical techniques were used. Bad smells and bitter food were believed to ward off evil spirits. Therefore, the composition of ritual mixtures during magical procedures included such exotic products as parts of the tails of mice, discharge from the ears of pigs, feces and urine of animals. During the exorcism of evil spirits, spells sounded: "O dead! O deceased, hiding in this flesh of mine, in these parts of my body. Look! I took out feces to eat against you. Hidden - go away! Hidden - come out!" Many healers of our time "remove the evil eye and damage" by reciting texts that are essentially close to the ancient Egyptian ones, although in those days there were many healing techniques devoid of any mysticism.

Papyrus Ebers

Discovered in Thebes in 1872, the Ebers Papyrus is a medical encyclopedia of the ancient Egyptians. It contains more than 900 prescriptions for medicines for the treatment of diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, respiratory and cardiovascular systems, hearing and vision disorders, various infectious processes and helminthic invasions. The papyrus is glued together from 108 sheets and has a length of 20.5 m. Egyptian healers used ointments, plasters, lotions, potions, enemas and other dosage forms. Milk, honey, beer, water from sacred springs, vegetable oils served as the basis for the preparation of medicines. Some recipes contained up to 40 components, many of which cannot yet be identified, which makes their study difficult. The drugs included plants (onion, pomegranate, aloe, grapes, dates, sleeping pills, lotus, papyrus), minerals (sulphur, antimony, iron, lead, alabaster, soda, clay, saltpeter), as well as parts of the body of various animals. . Here is an example of a diuretic prescription: wheat groats - 1/8, shed fruits - 1/8, ocher - 1/32, water - 5 parts. It was recommended to prepare the medicine at night and drink it for four days. The intake of certain drugs was accompanied by magical rites in the form of spells and conspiracies.

Homeland of cosmetics

The Ebers Papyrus contains prescriptions for medicines for smoothing wrinkles, removing moles, coloring hair and eyebrows, and enhancing hair growth. To protect from the scorching sun, the Egyptians of both sexes circled their eyes with a green paste containing antimony and fat. The eyes were given an almond shape. The women of Egypt blushed their cheeks and painted their lips. Apparently, the Egyptians were the first to use the wig, which was worn over short hair. The wig consisted of a large number of tightly interwoven braids. He replaced the headgear and indirectly contributed to the fight against lice. Modern Egyptian cosmetic firms, seeking to enter the Russian market, are trying to revive many ancient recipes, advertising the rejuvenating effect of ancient ointments, plasters, and lotions.

The ancient Egyptians attached great importance to the observance of hygiene rules. Religious laws prescribed moderation in food and neatness in everyday life. Describing the customs of the Egyptians in the 5th century. BC e., Herodotus testifies: "The Egyptians drink only from copper vessels, which are cleaned daily. The dress is linen, always freshly washed, and this is a matter of great concern for them. They cut their hair and wear wigs to avoid lice ... for the sake of cleanliness, preferring to be neat rather than beautiful. The priests cut their hair all over their bodies every other day in order not to have any lice or any other filth on themselves while serving the gods. The clothes of the priests are only linen, and the shoes are made of papyrus. They wash two once a day and twice a night." Apparently, it was no coincidence that the ancient Greeks considered the Egyptians the founders of "preventive" medicine.

Healing training

The transfer of medical knowledge in Ancient Egypt was closely connected with the teaching of hieroglyphic writing in special schools attached to temples. Strict discipline reigned in these institutions and corporal punishment was in use. In the large temples of the cities of Sais and Heliopolis, there were higher schools, or Houses of Life. Along with medicine, they taught mathematics, architecture, sculpture, astronomy, as well as the secrets of magical cults and rituals. The houses of life are considered by many researchers as the forerunners of the universities of later eras.

Students of the Houses of Life mastered the art of calligraphy, stylistics and oratory. Papyri were stored and copied here. Only the third or fourth lists of ancient originals have come down to us. An educated person, and a doctor had to be such, the Egyptians called "knowing things." There was a certain amount of knowledge that allowed the Egyptians to recognize "he who knows by his knowledge."

Medical practice in ancient Egypt was subject to strict moral standards. Observing them, the doctor did not risk anything, even if the outcome of the treatment was unsuccessful. However, violation of the rules was severely punished up to the death penalty. Each Egyptian physician belonged to a certain college of priests. Patients did not go directly to the doctor, but to the temple, where they were recommended the appropriate doctor. The fee for treatment was paid to the temple that maintained the doctor.

The rulers of many countries invited Egyptian doctors to serve at the court. Herodotus cites the following testimony: "The Persian king Cyrus II the Great asked Pharaoh Amasis to send him the" best in Egypt "eye doctor. Medical art is divided in Egypt in such a way that each doctor cures only one disease. Therefore, they have a lot of doctors: some heal eyes, others head, third teeth, fourth stomach, fifth internal diseases.

Herodotus writes about Egypt in the 5th century. BC e. By that time, its ancient culture had at least three thousand years of history. The country survived the invasions of many conquerors, and the former splendor was tending to a natural decline. However, the huge influence of Egypt on the development of culture and medicine of the peoples of Europe, Asia and Africa still remained in force. The birthplace of Herodotus Ancient Hellas was just entering the path of historical prosperity. The continuity of Egyptian medicine is well reflected by Homer in the Odyssey. Caring for the health and fortitude of King Menelaus, Elena

"... I intended to add juice,
Woeful, peace-giving, giving oblivion to the heart Disasters ...
Dieva's bright daughter had wonderful juice there;
Generously in Egypt, her Polydamne, wife of Thoon,
endowed them; the land there is rich and plentiful,
Cereals give birth to both good, healing, and evil, poisonous;
Every one of the people there is a doctor, exceeding deep knowledge
Other people, since everyone there is from the Peon family.

(Translated from ancient Greek by V. A. Zhukovsky)

On the battlefields

An important role in the accumulation of information in ancient Egypt was played by military doctors who accompanied the Egyptian army on campaigns. On the tombs, images of operations on the limbs have been preserved. The lists from the papyrus of the deified physician Imhotep give clear instructions on the treatment of soft tissue wounds, the technique of bandaging, as well as on the most common surgical operations of that time: circumcision and castration. All injuries were divided according to the prognosis into curable, doubtful and hopeless. Medical ethics of the time required an open communication to the patient of the expected outcome of treatment in one of three phrases: "This is a disease that I can cure; this is a disease that I may be able to cure; this is a disease that I cannot cure."

In those cases where a cure was possible, Imhotep's papyrus gives clear indications of healing tactics: "Tell you to someone who has a gaping wound on his head:" This is a disease that I will treat. "After you sew up his wound, in first day, put fresh meat on it and do not bandage it. Take care of him until the time of his illness has passed. Treat the wound with fat, honey, lint until the patient recovers."

In the treatment of fractures, Egyptian healers used wooden splints or bandaged the injured limb with linen cloth soaked in hardening resin. Such tires are found on Egyptian mummies. They are in many ways close to modern plaster casts.

Urinotherapy

In ancient Egypt, urine was widely used as a remedy. Herodotus has a description of a not quite ordinary case of urine therapy: “After the death of Sesostris, the royal power was inherited by his son Feron, who became blind ... having ill eyes. For ten years he was blind; in the eleventh year, the king heard the word of the oracle in the city of Buto, that the time of his punishment it expired that he would receive his sight if he washed his eyes with the urine of a woman who has intercourse only with her husband and has no other man.He first of all tested the urine of his own wife and, when he did not receive his sight, tested all the women in a row, until at last he received his sight. he gathered all the women whom he tested, except for the one from whose urine he received his sight, in one place, now called the Red Field, and burned them all there; the tsar himself married the woman from whose urine he received sight. So in ancient Egypt, a therapeutic effect was simultaneously obtained and an examination of marital fidelity was carried out.

In the Ebers papyrus, the gynecological section contains information about recognizing the timing of pregnancy, the sex of the unborn child, as well as "a woman who can and cannot give birth." The Berlin and Cajun Papyri describe a simple way to determine the sex of an unborn child. It is proposed to moisten grains of barley and wheat with the urine of a pregnant woman. If wheat germinates first, a girl will be born; if barley, a boy. American researchers from Georgetown University conducted such tests and received statistically significant confirmation of their effectiveness. However, this fact has no rational explanation yet.

Ancient Egyptians suffered from toothache

Exceptionally popular in ancient Egypt was the profession of a dentist. This is understandable, since the study of mummies showed the widespread occurrence of severe inflammatory diseases of the periosteum, gums and teeth among the Egyptians. Even the pharaohs, who had the best Egyptian dentists of that time, were found to have jaw lesions and tooth loss. Apparently, such interventions as filling carious cavities and prosthetics with gold or other metals were not yet known at that time. The only evidence of the use of gold in ancient Egyptian dental practice is the lining of the two lower molars, interconnected by a thin wire along the line of the necks of both teeth.

The treatment of dental diseases in ancient Egypt was carried out mainly conservatively, applying various pastes to a diseased tooth or gums. The Ebers Papyrus contains 11 prescriptions for such remedies. According to the compilers, these pastes were supposed to heal the oral cavity, strengthen teeth, relieve inflammation of the gums (periodontal disease) and toothache. Many of the Ebers papyrus paste prescriptions have been reproduced by modern Egyptian pharmacists and are recommended for the treatment of periodontitis, which is common in our time, leading to tooth loss.

The modern pharmaceutical industry in Egypt and its scientific base belongs to the state. There are only a few private pharmaceutical companies that supply drugs to the Russian drug market. Considering that a number of ancient Egyptian medicines have stood the test of time and are quite acceptable for use in our time, Egyptian doctors and pharmacists are showing great interest in developing modern medicines based on them. Laxatives, diuretics, anti-inflammatory, antirheumatic and other drugs with components of ancient Egyptian recipes have already been put into practice.

Mikhail Merkulov