The gender of nouns in the Russian language is an exception. Grammatical norms of the modern Russian language

most characteristic morphological feature the noun is the category of gender. All nouns, with a few exceptions, belong to one of three genders: masculine, feminine, or neuter.

In addition, among the words ending in -а (-я), there are nouns with the meaning of a person, which can be assigned either to the masculine or to the feminine, depending on gender: This master is a talented self-taught and This weaver is a talented self-taught. These words belong to the so-called common gender (bully, touchy, slut, razinya, dormouse, crybaby, etc.).

Morphologically, the gender of nouns is determined by the nature of the stem and ending. Syntactically, the gender of a noun is determined by the form of the adjective agreed with it: green bush, green grass, green plant.

Masculine nouns include: all nouns with a stem in -i and a solid consonant (on -zh and -sh there can also be feminine words) with a zero ending in the nominative singular; nouns with a base in a soft consonant, as well as in -zh and -sh, having the ending -а (-я) in the genitive case of the singular; some animate nouns ending in -а (-я); nouns with the suffix -ushk-, -ishk-, -ish- and the endings -я, -о, -е, formed from masculine nouns: our boy, a small vozishko; ... A great writer will come out of Gorky (Ch.); the words apprentice (derived from the word master), path also belong to the masculine gender.

Feminine nouns include: most of the words with the ending -а (-я) in the nominative singular; nouns with a stem in a soft consonant and in -zh, -sh, in which the ending in the genitive case of the singular is -i (an exception is the word way - masculine).

The nouns of the middle gender include: nouns with the ending -о (-е) in the nominative singular; ten words per -mya: name, time, tribe, banner, burden, seed, stirrup, crown, flame and udder; word child.

General nouns include nouns (with the meaning of a person) in -а (-я): grump, bully, fidget, ignoramus, touchy, miser, disheveled, etc. The gender of these nouns is determined depending on their specific use in speech. So, if words of the general gender are used to refer to males, they act as a masculine noun: "He is such a fidget, this restless boy," the mother complained. If words of the general gender are used to refer to females, then they act as feminine nouns: What a naughty one you are! Most of these words serve as a means of expressive characterization. They are used mainly in colloquial style speech.

Words with formal masculine characteristics (names of persons by profession, position, occupation), which are now widely used also for naming females, should not be mixed with nouns of the general gender. These words did not become grammatically common words, but remained masculine words: the new judge Ivanova, the famous sculptor Mukhina, Nikolaeva-Tereshkova - a woman cosmonaut. Many of these words do not have parallel feminine forms at all: associate professor, teacher, agronomist, master, candidate of science, etc. Some words have a parallel feminine form, but are used to refer to the wife of a person of the corresponding profession or rank: professor, director, colonel and etc. The same parallel formations can designate a female person by profession and occupation (often used with a contemptuous connotation). They are used only in colloquial, and sometimes in colloquial styles of speech (doctor, doctor, agronomist, conductor, cashier, librarian, etc.).

A few words denoting a profession have only feminine forms: manicurist, typist (working on a typewriter), ballerina. There are no masculine correlative words for these nouns. Instead of the words typist, ballerina, milkmaid, descriptive phrases are used to refer to males: an employee typing on a typewriter; ballet dancer; machine milking master, etc.

Nouns used only in plural, do not have a gender category (scissors, tongs). In determining the gender of some nouns (comparatively few), fluctuations are sometimes observed. So, individual nouns, usually used in the masculine form, are sometimes used in the feminine form: shoe - shoe (colloquially), rail - rail (in colloquial speech), banknotes - banknotes, gelatin - gelatin (in professional speech), etc. For the present, masculine forms are more characteristic.

Gender category in separate words (usually foreign origin) may change. For example, a number of words used in the modern general literary language as masculine nouns were previously used in the feminine form: black piano - black piano, green poplar - green poplar (see M.Yu. Lermontov: Behind the high poplar I see there window), a sanatorium - a sanatorium, etc. (see A.S. Novikov-Priboy: Fights with a storm on the high seas can correct anyone better than any sanatorium).

Some nouns in the modern general literary language are used as feminine nouns, while in other styles of speech they can be used in the masculine gender. Sometimes the masculine forms are not a stylistic parallel form, but are more or less obsolete. This includes, for example, such nouns as shoe - shoe, arabesque - arabesque, thick veil - thick veil, old corn - old corn, cataract - cataract, clearing - clearing, etc. Individual nouns can have parallel forms of feminine and masculine, semantically and stylistically indistinguishable: shutter - shutter, stack - stack, giraffe - giraffe. Finally, some indeclinable nouns commonly used in modern language as neuter nouns, they used to allow a masculine form (obsolete forms): fluffy boa - fluffy boa (see A.S. Pushkin: He is happy if she puts a fluffy boa on her shoulder); my cocoa (see I.S. Turgenev: It's time for me to drink my cocoa), etc.

According to the existing rules, all indeclinable nouns of foreign origin, denoting inanimate objects, most often refer to the middle gender: communiqué, taxi, metro, cinema, sconce, scarf, cocoa, etc. Other genders: coffee (m. R.), sirocco (m. R.), avenue (f. R. ), Gobi (female), kohlrabi (female), etc. Indeclinable animate nouns are, as a rule, masculine: kangaroo, chimpanzee, etc. However, if the word is used to name female animals, then it acts as a feminine noun: a kangaroo (chimpanzee) fed a cub. Indeclinable nouns denoting men are masculine: attache, rentier, dandy; denoting women - to the feminine: lady, madam, miss, etc.

The gender of indeclinable nouns, which are foreign geographical names (names of cities, rivers, lakes, mountains, etc.), is determined by correlating it with the gender of that common noun whose name is a proper name: green Batumi (city), stormy Mississippi (river ), distant Capri (island), modern Helsinki (city), etc. The gender of nouns, which are the names of newspapers, magazines, collections, etc., is also determined: "Humanite" (newspaper) issued a refutation; "Weltbühne" (magazine) published an article, and so on.

In this lesson, you will learn what kind of nouns are, practice in determining the gender of nouns in the singular and in the plural, observe the generic endings of nouns. Why is the genus constant sign nouns? What nouns cannot have gender? Are there common nouns? These questions will be answered in the lesson.

Introduction

Our ancestors, the ancient Slavs, once divided all things and creatures into three classes - masculine, feminine, and "real" (or "proper"). They deified many objects, endowing them with a feminine or masculine gender.

For example, the word child real kind among the ancient Slavs. Children have never had the right to own personal property. (V. Volina)

Do you know that there are languages ​​thatnouns have no gender. These are English, Finnish, Turkish, Chinese, Japanese and others.

There are languages ​​in which nouns have onlytwo kinds. It's French, Spanish, Italian.

There are languages ​​thatthere are many more genders than in our language.

For example, in many languages ​​of the peoples of the Caucasus and Africa there can be up to 40 genera. They are called "classes". (N. Betenkova)

Lesson topic: “The gender of nouns. Generic endings of nouns.

How to recognize the gender of nouns

Read the nouns. Which of them are men and which are women?

Grandfather, mother, sister, father, grandmother, son, brother, granddaughter, uncle, aunt, daughter, great-grandfather, man, woman.

In Russian, nouns are both masculine and feminine. What kind of words did we write in each column?

granddad

dad

brother

uncle

great grandfather

Man

These are masculine words, since you can substitute the word for them is he.

These are feminine words, since you can substitute the word for them she.

What word can be substituted for these words?

Wheel, hollow, insect, towel - IT. These are neuter words.

Nouns are masculine, feminine and neuter. The gender of nouns is determined by substituting pronouns.

To nouns male you can substitute words he's mine.

To nouns female you can substitute words She is mine.

To nouns neuter you can substitute words it is mine.

Determine the gender of plural nouns

If it is necessary to determine the gender of a noun used in the plural, the word is first put in the singular, in the initial form. The initial form of a noun answers the questions who? what?

The cranes have flown

And the rooks are already far away.

Didn't have time to look back

Blizzards covered the snow. (Vl. Prikhodko)

Cranes- in plural, initial form - who? crane, he, m.r.

Rooks- in plural, initial form - who? rook, he, m.r.

Blizzards- in plural, beginning. form - what? blizzard, she, f.r.

Snow- in units, early form - what? snow, he, m.r.

Why gender is a constant feature of nouns

If a noun, for example, is feminine, can it be masculine or neuter?

Nouns are already born with masculine, feminine or neuter words. By birth, they do not change. That is why gender is a constant feature of nouns.

March.

sketched the sky

White drifts.

The sun burned on them

Doors and windows.(I. Zagraevskaya)

March- he, m.r.

Sky- it, cf.

snowdrifts- in plural, beginning. form - what? snowdrift, he, m.r.

The sun- it, cf.

doors- in plural, beginning. form - what? door, she, f.r.

windows- in plural, beginning. form - what? window, it, cf.

What nouns cannot have gender?

Eyes, curlers, blinds, mustaches, sleds, skis, skates, holidays.

eyes- what? eye, it, cf.

Curlers, blinds

Mustache- what? moustache, he, m.r.

Sled- cannot be used in singular.

Skiing- what? ski, she, female

Skates- what? horse, he, m.r.

Holidays- cannot be used in the singular.

For nouns that do not have a singular form, gender cannot be determined.

For example, trousers, tongs, scissors, day, cream, sawdust, ink, hide and seek, chess, yeast, tongs, twilight.

General nouns

Interesting nouns: orphan, clever, crybaby.

good girl- who can be praised with this word, a boy or a girl?

Compare: He was an orphan. She was an orphan.

These nouns, depending on the specific circumstances, can act as masculine nouns. (He was so smart!), then as feminine nouns(She was so smart!)

These are nouns general kind.

Let's pick up more common nouns: the ringleader, fidget, quiet, why, smarty, sweet tooth.

Generic endings for nouns

What endings can masculine, feminine and neuter nouns have?

dad but

Slav but

uncle I

You I

daughter but

natures but

Dash but

tet I

cf.

movements e

fun e

linen yo

Borodin about

lace about

cloth about

Finish the diagram: write the endings.

For nouns male more often endings -a, -i, and zero.

For nouns feminine endings -а, -я and zero.

For nouns neuter endings -o, -e, -e.

(Some nouns ending -i, for example, dit I, flame I, time I ).

What is common in the composition of words - masculine, feminine and neuter nouns

Nouns masculine and feminine may have the same endings -a, -i, zero.

Is it possible to determine the gender of nouns only by the end?

We solve the spelling problem at the end of nouns

Jam_, rainbow_, cave_, swamp_, glade_, knee_, wheel_, patronymic_, lake_.

Knowing the gender of a noun, substituting words it, she, you can solve the spelling problem at the end, correctly write the letter of an unstressed vowel.

Jam_ heό, ending -o,

rainbow_ oná, ending -а,

cave_ oná, ending -а,

swamps_ heό, ending -o,

glade_ oná, ending -а,

knee_, wheel_, patronymic_, lake_ onό, ending -о.

Jam about, rainbows but, caves but, swamps about, polyan but, knee about, wheel about, patronymic about, lakes about.

How are borrowed words distributed by gender?

In Russian, the word Sun- neuter.

IN German word Sun- feminine ("di zonne").

The English just say "san" ( Sun), without attributing this noun to any of the existing genders.

French Sun- masculine ("le sole").

Spanish for "el sol" Sun- male.

How are words distributed by gender that came from other languages, that is borrowed words?

In russian language borrowed words retain the gender they had in the foreign language.

This explains the fact that in modern Russian the words piano, coffee, kangaroo are masculine;

somersault, chassis, dominoes- to the middle gender, and the word shawl- to the feminine.

Nouns borrowed from languages ​​in which there is no gender receive it in Russian: basketball, football(from English) - masculine.

We are looking for nouns, determine their gender

Test yourself. Find nouns, determine their gender.

Who wrote what?

Once upon a time there was no paper. The first manuscripts appeared on clay tablets. In the East, paper replaced Ivory. Animal skin was often used for writing - parchment. IN Ancient Russia wrote on birch bark, birch bark.

paper- paper, oil,

manuscripts- manuscript, female,

on the tablets- plate, female,

in the east- east, m.r.,

paper- paper, oil,

bone- female,

for writing- letter, cf.,

skin- leather, female,

animals- animal, cf.,

parchment- m.r.,

in Russia - Rus, female,

on the bark- bark, female,

birch bark- birch bark - zh.r.

Conclusion

I will remember the feminine

And I'll say, "She's mine."

And remember the masculine gender

And again I will say: "He is mine."

The neuter gender is mine!

This is your rule!(E. Semyonova)

In the lesson, you learned that if you need to determine the gender of a noun used in the plural, the word is first put in the singular, in the initial form.

Nouns do not change by gender.

For nouns that do not have a singular form, gender cannot be determined.

Bibliography

1. M.S. Soloveichik, N. S. Kuzmenko "To the secrets of our language" Russian language: Textbook. Grade 3: in 2 parts. - Smolensk: Association XXI century, 2010.
2. M.S. Soloveichik, N. S. Kuzmenko "To the secrets of our language" Russian language: Workbook. Grade 3: in 3 parts. - Smolensk: Association XXI century, 2010.
3. T. V. Koreshkova Test tasks In Russian. Grade 3: in 2 parts. - Smolensk: Association XXI century, 2011.
4. T. V. Koreshkova Practice! Notebook for independent work in Russian for grade 3: in 2 parts. - Smolensk: Association XXI century, 2011.
5. L.V. Mashevskaya, L.V. Danbitskaya Creative tasks in the Russian language. - St. Petersburg: KARO, 2003.
6. G.T. Dyachkova Olympiad tasks in Russian. 3-4 classes. - Volgograd: Teacher, 2008.

Homework

1. Match these nouns with nouns that are close in meaning. Specify genus.

   Ring - ...

   Strengthening - ...

   Border - …

   Gulf - ...

   Luck - …

   The curtain - …

   Duty - …

   Silence - ...
   Words for reference: heat, fortress, bay, success, silence, duty, ring, darkness, curtain, boundary.

2. Read the text. Determine the gender of nouns.

   Pretender.

   A large gorilla lives in the Prague Zoo. One morning the monkey suddenly fell ill. She refused food, moaned. The doctor decided that the animal had overeaten. The gorilla was given medicine and left. The monkey recovered instantly. During the inspection, she pulled the key out of the caretaker's pocket. She opened the cage with them and began to walk around the zoo.

3. Read the text. Find nouns, write them down in 3 columns:

   m. r., w. R. , cf. R.

   Petya is dreaming.

   If soap

   came

   In the morning to my bed

   And I would have washed myself -

   It would be nice!

   If, say,

   Wizard

   Gave me a textbook

   So that he would

   I myself could

   Answer any lesson...

   If I had a pen in addition,

   To solve the problem,

   Write any dictation ... (B. Zakhoder)

1. Internet portal Oldskola1.narod.ru ().
2. Internet portal School-collection.edu.ru ().
3. Internet portal Gramota.ru ().
4. Internet portal Russisch-fuer-kinder.de ().

gender of nouns

1. What is the gender system of nouns in Russian?

All nouns of the Russian language in the form singular can be assigned to one of the following genera: male, female, average, general.

2. How to determine the gender of a noun?

The gender of a noun can be determined by agreeing with it a pronoun my:

my son, my governor, my curtain, my house- masculine;my wife, my wall, my night- feminine gender,my window, my sky, my animal- neuter gender.

For most nouns denoting people, gender can be determined by gender: my apprentice, my grandfather(masculine); my mother, my sister(feminine gender).

The gender of nouns is determined by the singular form. Nouns used only in the plural have no kind: manger, pasta, trousers, pitchfork.

3. Which nouns are in common gender?

Common nouns are nouns that characterize person, give him evaluation characteristic; they have endings -and I and belong to the 1st declension: slob, starter, sing, hard worker, dirty, dude, drunkard, sissy, sleepyhead, crybaby.

Common nouns can refer to both male and female people: What a slob you are! What a slob you are!

4. How to determine genderimmutable nouns?

gender of immutable nouns, calling people, determined by sex: brave hidalgo, refined lady.

Nouns denoting professions and occupation, are masculine: military attache, night porter. Nouns of the 2nd declension with a zero ending, naming persons by profession ( doctor, professor, associate professor, driver etc.), even if used in relation to females, are still nouns male.

Invariable nouns that call animals, are masculine, although when referring to a female they can be used as feminine nouns: Australian kangaroo, funny chimpanzee; chimpanzees feeding their babies.Exceptions:tsetse(fly), iwashi(fish) - feminine.

immutable inanimate nouns are neuter: night taxi, tasty stew, new blinds, fragrant cocoa, aged bordeaux, heady chardonnay, hot cappuccino, locomotive depot, new coat, wicker planter. Exceptions: coffee, penalty, sirocco(masculine); avenue, salami(feminine gender).

Genus foreign language geographical names determined by the generic word: distant Monaco(this is a principality, i.e. a neuter noun, which means the word Monaco also neuter) wide Limpopo(river - f.r.), densely populated Tokyo(city - m.r.). If two different generic words can be used, then agreement options are possible: independent Haiti(state - s.r.), independent Haiti(country - female) and distant Haiti(island - m.r.); lovely Brescia(city - m.r.) and beautiful Brescia(province - female). In some cases, the gender of a noun is established by tradition, so a dictionary check is required.

5. How to determine the gender of compound words (abbreviations)?

Initial - by the names of letters, sound - by sounds, like ordinary words.

The genus of abbreviations is usually defined by reference word in deciphering the abbreviation or by generic word: NATO(alliance - m.r.) decided, MSGU(university - m.r.) accepted new students, CIS(commonwealth - s.r.) took the initiative, UNESCO(organization - female) declared 2011 the year of forests.

In some cases, the gender of a noun is established by tradition, so a dictionary check is required: university(the reference word is an institution, but the gender is masculine), MFA(the reference word is the ministry, but the gender is masculine), TASS(the reference word is agency, but the gender is masculine).

6. How to determine the gender of nouns ending in -Л in the form im. P.(words like tulle, callus, polish, roofing felt, valve)?

The gender of such words must be memorized, in case of difficulty, check in dictionaries. For example, you can use the dictionaries in the "Word Check" section on the website gramota.ru.

The words are masculine aerosol, polish, lampoon, vaudeville, quantile, quartile, endgame, tulle, tar paper, flat and etc.

The feminine gender includes words like mezzanine, corn, rosin, vacuole, triol and etc.

7. How to determine the gender of nouns denoting the names of shoes and paired items?

The gender of such words must be memorized, in case of difficulty, check in dictionaries.

Words denoting names shoes:

In addition, there is a two-gender noun high fur boots. If in plural the stress falls on the end of the word (unt s, -ov), then the singular form is one unt. If in plural the accent falls on the stem at nty), then the form im.p. unit - unta.

Other words denoting the names of paired objects: gaiters - one gaiter, leggings - one gaiter, sideburns - one sideburn, leggings - one leggings. But: golfs - one golf, rails - one rail, adjustments - one adjustment.

8. How to determine the gender of compound nouns(words like cafe-dining room,sofa bed)?

If only one part of the noun changes in cases, the gender is determined by variable part: personal web page(female). If the noun changes both parts of the word, then the gender is determined on a more significant within the meaning of the: delicious ice cream cake(m.r.), comfortable chair-bed (s.r.).

See additionally: How to say correctly: "The cafe-dining room is closed (oh, a) for repairs."

9. Do nouns change by gender?

Nouns by gender do not change, the gender of each noun is a constant category: mum- only zh.r., an Apple- only s.r. etc.

Almost all bird names ending in -ь are masculine nouns, BUT bittern, owl. Swan - usually m.p., but poetic - may be feminine.

All names of insects, except louse, moth - m.r.

Real nouns in the definition of the gender of which one can experience fluctuations, aerosol, tulle, shampoo - m.p., and some substances - vanilla, rosin - f.r.

Nouns that can name types of items are used in pairs. (boots, sneakers, clips, slippers, shoes ...). When you need to name an object from a pair, part of the words has one generic form - butsa, clip, sandal, slipper, shoe - f.r., and part of the noun. It can have two forms that are the norm of the language (ked-keda, cl. R.p. kedov - ked; unt - unta, R.p. untov - unt)

If we are talking about the gender of nouns with size-evaluative suffixes, then in the vast majority of cases, nouns formed by means of suffixes indicating size, emotional. assessment, retain the gender of the original word (son-son, woe-gorushko), but there are exceptions. - words like talker, liar, liar, coward, braggart, rascal. - suff. - ishk -, - the words little animal, shed, which belong to the zh.r. - noun Ugly - Society. Genus - affectionate names on - ik, - unchik, - chik ... Derived from the names of the female, but related to masculine words.

Indeclinable nouns that designate an inanimate object belong overwhelmingly to cf. A small number of words denoting inanimate objects are exceptions. So to noun. m.r. belong - the names of the winds (take the gender of the word "wind") - the names of languages ​​(Pashto, Swahili, Hindi), the name of artificial languages ​​(Esperanto) are more often used as m.p. words, but acceptable and neuter gender - the names of some products (suluguni, coffee ). Their use as words m.r. most often preserved in texts formal business style, and outside of it, the modern language norm allows the use of the neuter gender. - font names (aldene), some individual words like ecu, pinalti, status quo, although m.r. is also the norm. and cf.r. like the words auto, sirtaki. to the words of j.r.: - kohlrabi, salami, avenue, street

Indeclinable nouns that refer to persons. In this case, the genus noun. Depends on the gender of the person. All names of women, titles, addresses to a woman belong to zh.r. (pani, frau, lady ...). In addition to Zh.R. include nouns whose LZ reveals any features and characteristics of a woman (ingenue (stage role of a girl), peri (mythological being in the form of a girl)). The names of men, titles, addresses to men belong to m.r. (monsieur, chevalier). In the words of m.r. are also nouns that name persons by their position, performance of duties, etc. (i.e. occupations, positions and characteristics of men for whom the tradition of the country has assigned this idea), (attaché, croupier, referee, entertainer, dandy). BUT the names of people by nationality are words of a common gender. Plus vis-a-vis and protégés. Indeclinable names related to the animal world, most of them belong to m.r. (kangaroo, cockatoo, hummingbird). A small number of words that refer to the names of the animal world have the gender of that inflected class name, in relation to which the given indeclinable noun acts as a species variety (tsetse, ivasi - f.r.

Noun declension

Declension of nouns is the change of words in cases and numbers. Another meaning of this term is a class of words united by the common inflection and a pattern according to which the words of this class change. in RJ, inflected and indeclinable nouns are contrasted. The vast majority of nouns are inflected. Indeclinable nouns unite:

Foreign nouns (eskimo)

Male foreign-language surnames for a vowel (Goethe)

Women's names and surnames on a hard consonant (Elizabeth)

Russian surnames (Zhivago, Polish)

Ukrainian surnames (Prisivko)

Most of the abbreviations

There are 3 types of declension in RJ:

substantive

The largest composition. Learns all other nouns. Within its framework, 1,2, and 3 declensions of nouns stand out.

The 1st declension includes nouns m.r. with zero ending in I.p. and nouns cf. with inflection -o, -e. In scientific grammar, this declension is recognized as the first, and in school grammar, as the second. It is recognized as such, as it is the most productive.

The 2nd declension includes nouns m.r. and f.r. with inflections -а, -я, plus nouns of the general gender such as "glutton".

The 3rd declension includes nouns f.r. with zero ending in singular

adjective

Declension of substantiated adjectives and participles. (Bakery, waiting room, patient, etc.)

Mixed (passive)

This is the declension of proper names into -ov, -in, plus toponyms like Tushino. It is called mixed because it has atypical inflections in some cases. (table-table, Kuznetsov - Kuznetsov. -ov - th

"Academic Grammar 80" suggests highlighting the zero declension as well. It is proposed to refer to it all indeclinable nouns. But it can hardly be called declination at all.

Scheme of morphological analysis of nouns:

initial form

LGR (lexical and grammatical categories)

A) own - common noun

B) animate - inanimate

C) concrete, abstract - collective, material. Arguments.

A) motivated - unmotivated

B) a way of expressing gender

C) for personal names, the characteristic of the opposition

Consent class

Number form

A) a way of expressing a numerical value

B) the value of the number form

Case form

A) means of expressing case values

B) case meaning

Type and variety of declension

Syntactic function of a noun

For derived nouns, the way of word formation

Adjective

General characteristics of the adjective as a part of speech.

An adjective is a class of words that is characterized by a general categorical meaning of the signs of objectivity (a white coat, fresh bread, a wild beast, etc.).

Unlike the verb, the adjective expresses a static non-procedural sign of objectivity.

A lonely sail turns white

Away white sail

As Ovsyannikov-Kulikovsky wrote: “The adjective is such a movement of our thought, by virtue of which we attribute signs to objects and imagine that they are in the object, passively dwell in it."

Genetically, the adjective is related to the noun. In historical terms, the adjective is secondary. Over time, they stood out from the undivided name. It is no coincidence that many modern adjectives historically go back to nouns. Morphologically, adjectives have common grammatical categories of gender, number, and case. They are non-binary, inflectional, formal, syntactic. In addition, the adjective also has its own morphological category of degrees of comparison, which expresses the measure of the feature. However, it is inherent only in qualitative adjectives. In syntactical terms, the adjective is characterized by such a syntactic connection with the noun as agreement. The primary syntactic function of the adjective is the function of the agreed definition. Along with it, adjectives are able to perform the function nominal predicate(the night is quiet). For short forms of adjectives, this function is leading. In word-building terms, adjectives are characterized by a set of special formants - -sk-, -n-, -ov-, -in-, -an- etc. The formation of adjectives is characterized by such methods as suffix, prefix, prefix-suffix. In addition, the composition of adjectives is replenished due to the adjectivization of participles (screaming colors, hackneyed truths). Thus, the adjective is a significant part of speech that expresses the meaning of a static non-procedural feature of objectivity and implements it in the inflectional categories of gender, number and case.

Until recently, adjectives were considered as inflected words. Most of them bow down. But in the 20th century, a new subclass of indeclinable (analytical) adjectives began to actively form. These are borrowed words of foreign origin (bordeaux, beige, khaki, mini, maxi, etc.). It is now intensively developing, which indicates the growth of the features of analyticism in the SRY. Thus, modern adjectives, as well as nouns, are characterized by the opposition of inflected and inflected words. The boundaries of adjectives are understood in science broadly and narrowly. IN broad sense, the class of adjectives may include, in addition to adjectives proper, pronouns-adjectives and ordinal numbers. In a narrow sense, adjectives cover a traditionally distinguished class of words.

In the Russian language, adjectives are represented by 3 main FGRs:

quality

relative

Possessive

Lexico-grammatical categories of adjectives.

The main opposition among the categories of adjectives is qualitative and relative adjectives.

Quality adjectives represent the direct name of the features (green, large); denote signs that have a quantitative characteristic, i.e. may be manifested to a greater or lesser extent (difficult - very difficult).

By the nature of the sign quality adjectives are divided into 2 groups:

Adjectives denoting a variable attribute. In relation to the subject, it can act as an assessment given by the speaker (difficult exam, beautiful dress). Such adjectives are called qualitative-evaluative. They are characterized by the presence of degrees of comparison and the possibility of forming antonyms.

Adjectives that denote an absolute sign, independent of the speaker's assessment (checkered, striped, mute, single). They do not have degrees of comparison. They are called self-quality.

By meaning, quality adjectives are divided into:

Empirical

These are adjectives denoting qualities and properties directly perceived by the senses.

Rational

Designate signs established as a result of mental activity.

Qualitative adjectives are characterized by a range of derivational and morphological features that distinguish them from other lexical and grammatical categories.

May have degrees of comparison

It is typical to contrast full and short forms (stupid - stupid)

Can be combined with adverbs of measure and degree (very smart, unusually warm, too dirty, completely incomprehensible, etc.)

Forms of subjective evaluation are formed from qualitative adjectives (adjectives with diminutive-petitive or augmentative suffixes). They also include prefix formations with the value of the intensity of the feature (kind, super-important).

Correlative adverbs with suffixes -о-, -е- (fast-fast, sincere-sincerely) are formed from qualitative adjectives.

Abstract nouns (boldness, simplicity, blueness) are formed from qualitative adjectives.

From qualitative adjectives, verbs can be formed with the meaning of the manifestation of a sign (red - to blush)

Qualitative adjectives enter into antonymic and synonymous pairs (high - low).

It is necessary to distinguish truncated adjectives from short forms of adjectives. They are special forms of adjectives which, when used in poetic speech XVIII - early XIX centuries for verification purposes: "a gloomy shadow fell on the field." Their use is characterized by truncation of inflection, for example, "gloomy" from "gloomy" - a special poetic device. Truncated adjectives differ from short forms:

The nature of the stress - they are stressed on the basis

Syntactic function - in a sentence they are a definition

Short and full adjectives in SRN are correlative, however, this correlativity is incomplete:

Not all full qualitative adjectives have short forms.

1. Short forms do not form adjectives naming the colors of horses

   Most color adjectives

   Adjectives of subjective evaluation (feisty, cute)

   Qualitative adjectives, ascending by definition to relative ones with suffixes -o-, -sk-, -n- (business, efficient)

   Adjectives with –l- (burnt, seasoned). They do not form short forms to avoid homonymy.

   Many compound adjectives(transparent crystal ball)

   Separate quality adjectives that are not combined into groups (native, old).

In turn, there are a number of adjectives that have only a short form (glad, love, much - words of the state category)

Short forms correspond to full ones in the entire scope of their meaning - the short form realizes only one of the meanings of a multi-valued full adjective. (living girl - girl alive (undead)

For some short forms, a conditional meaning is assigned, which is different from the full ones (it bad person- has negative qualities, he is bad - he is seriously ill).

In a number of dimensional (parametric) adjectives, short forms acquire an additional meaning - the meaning of the excessiveness of a feature (large, small, cramped).

There is no complete correlation between short and full adjectives both structurally and semantically.

Semantics of short forms.

The question of the semantics of short forms is still open in linguistics. Vinogradov proposed the following interpretation of the semantics of short forms, in contrast to full ones. Short forms express a temporary sign, full - permanent.

“Short forms denote qualitative states that occur or arise in time. Full - a sign conceivable outside of time. This opposition of meaning does exist in language. He is sick (generally) - he is sick (at this time). However, it does not cover all short and long forms (we rarely talk to him - he is not talkative at all). The Polish linguist Boguslavsky proposed a different interpretation of the semantics of short forms. From his tz. short adjectives are used in the language to emphasize this or that degree of a sign (he is quite smart, he is too strong). There is an opinion that short forms, unlike full ones, denote a relative sign, i.e. a sign that is limited to something (these streets are narrow for travel). However, these values ​​are not typical for all short adjectives. In modern Russian studies, the most common is the following interpretation of the semantics of short adjectives. In short forms, the semantics of the property is combined with the semantics of the state, while the manifestation of the property with the so-called. perceiving person. Short adjectives express one of the properties in a complex of other properties, i.e. express an active excretory trait. This is connected with the dynamics of the designated property, the possibility of its termination, replacement by another ...

Short forms in PR denote an actually manifested property, an actively distinguishing dynamic feature. Particular manifestations of this value are the values:

Temporal localization (he is sick)

Situational, correlative, limited

Degrees, assessment of the speaker (he is extremely smart)

In PR there is competition between short and long forms. Short forms are required or preferred in the following cases:

In statements of a general, timeless nature, which are found in scientific positions, definitions, aphorisms, maxims.

When the subject is an infinitive.

When the verbal noun is the subject.

When the subject is expressed by pronouns cf. with general meaning

In combination with identifying pronouns and adverbs, also with "so".

In slogans, stereotypical wishes, formulas of politeness.

In the presence of additions or circumstances, clarifying or limiting features.

When combined with the infinitive.

In the presence of an accessory part.

The use of short forms of adjectives is influenced by factors such as:

The nature of the subject

Subject-object relations

The nature of temporary relations in the sentence

Availability minor members or accessory part

Short forms differ from full ones in stylistic terms. This question was first raised by Peshkovsky. In his book “Russian Syntax in Scientific Lighting,” he turned to the analysis of Chekhov’s play “3 Sisters” and raised the following question: “if the short form denotes a temporary sign, why do the sisters, quarreling and criticizing each other, use only the full form?”. Peshkovsky wrote: “You are evil, you are stupid - there is already an insult. In short form, we see a great categoricalness, isolation from real conditions speech, distraction. It is connected with the exceptional bookishness of this form. Stylistically, short forms are book forms. In colloquial and colloquial speech, they are often superseded by full forms. Due to the fact that the short form actively expresses the distinguishing feature, it has greater expression, expresses the assessment more clearly, and has a tinge of categoricalness (this boy is cowardly).

Thus, short and full forms differ in SRN by a whole complex of morphological, syntactic, semantic and stylistic features. When analyzing the short form, you must:

Give its morphological characteristics

Show correlation with full form

Determine meaning in given context

Give a stylistic description

syntax function

She was taciturn, not cold, unhurried (zh.r., sing., kr. Form, correlates. Unhurried, expresses an active-excretory sign, situational, relative meaning, expressive, evaluative function, nominal part of the predicate).

Degrees of comparison of adjectives.

The history of the study of degrees of comparison in Russian grammar

Typology of degrees of comparison in Russian

Education and the meaning of the forms of the comparative degree

Education and the meaning of superlatives

Until the 19th century, the grammars of the Russian language did not distinguish between the degree of comparison and the degree of quality. Adjectives were allocated irrelative or relative degrees of quality. Irrelevant indicated that the trait manifests itself to a greater or lesser extent, without comparison with others. The relative degree implied comparison. There were 6 levels of quality - 3 by 3.

Irrelevant:

Initial degree of quality (-ovod-, -evod)

Long (-enk-, -onk-)

Perfect (-ohonek-, -ehonek-)

Relative:

Positive (red) Forms of a positive degree express the simple presence of a qualitative attribute, regardless of other objects. It is a kind of reference point on the graduation scale, while in the OC it does not have special morphological forms.

Comparative (redder) Comparative degree or comparative indicates that a feature in one object appears more than in another or in the same object, but at a different time (girl's face is brighter than roses; your face is paler than it was). In this regard, the language distinguishes between correlative (this is a comparison in which the object of comparison and the standard of comparison is the same object or person) and non-corinative (this is a comparison in which different objects are compared) comparisons. In contrast to the positive degree, the comparative in the Russian language has special morphological forms - suffixes.

Excellent (reddest) Indicates the maximum degree of manifestation of the trait. A sign in one object is represented to a greater extent than in other objects of the same kind (Kazbek - highest peak Caucasus). Superlatives, like the comparative, has special morphological forms - suffixes.

In the middle of the 19th century, Buslaev distinguished between morphological and word-forming elements proper. He showed that the relative degree of comparison is actually morphological. Whatever concerns the degree of quality, it cannot be regarded as grammatical category. These meanings are expressed in the language irregularly, inconsistently. In addition, adjectives with suffixes –ohonek-, -ehonek- are archaic. They serve for general expressive coverage of speech, express the speaker's assessment. In the future, these adjectives began to be called "adjectives of subjective evaluation." As Vinogradov wrote, Buslaev was the first to introduce the doctrine of degrees of comparison into the traditional mainstream. Since the 60s of the 20th century, 3 degrees of comparison have been distinguished in Russian grammar - positive, comparative and superlative. The category of the degree of comparison of qualitative adjectives indicates that the feature can be manifested to a greater or extremely high degree. The main grammatical meaning of these forms is the meaning of a different measure of a feature in one object compared to others or in the same object taken at different time periods (grass in May is greener than in April, Vika is more serious than Olya). This grammatical meaning is manifested in 3 degrees of comparison.

In Russian, nouns come in three genders: masculine (table, young man, contract), female (wall, bird, night) and middle (window, happiness, subway). It is necessary to correctly determine the gender of nouns in order to correctly coordinate them with other members of the sentence in speech. In most cases there are no difficulties: we know, for example, that the combinations taxi drove up, sore callus are correct, while the phrases taxi drove up, sore callus- this is a gross violation of the morphological norms of the Russian language.

However, there are nouns for which the definition of gender can be difficult. Further, groups of such nouns are considered and rules for determining the gender are given.

1. Indeclinable nouns Correct: funny pony or funny pony, sweet kiwi or sweet kiwi, beautiful Tbilisi or beautiful Tbilisi

Indeclinable nouns are called nouns that do not change in cases, i.e. have no case endings and retain the same form in any case and number. Their gender is determined based on which thematic group the word belongs to.

1. Words denoting inanimate objects, are mostly nouns neuter:city ​​taxi, elegant muffler, crystal sconce, ripe mango, dangerous tsunami etc. The exceptions in this group are:

- words male: sirocco (dangerous sirocco), suluguni (delicious suluguni), tornado (destructive tornado)

- words female: avenue (first avenue), kohlrabi (fresh kohlrabi), salami (delicious salami).

A number of inanimate nouns have two generic forms: coffee - masculine and, as a valid option, neuter (tasty/delicious coffee); penalty - masculine and neuter (fair/fair penalty).

2 . Words denoting animals, birds, fish, insects, should be considered nouns male(funny chimpanzee, white cockatoo, kangaroo jumped up). However, if the female animal is meant, then the name refers to the feminine gender. (the kangaroo was carrying a cub in a bag). Remember exceptions: nouns female are ivasi (delicious ivasi), hummingbird (colorful hummingbird), tsetse (dangerous tsetse).

Names of languages(Hindi, Swahili, Bengali etc.) refer to masculine. Word Esperanto It is permissible to use both in the masculine and in the neuter gender ( famous/famous Esperanto).

place names belong to the same genus as common nouns denoting generic concepts (i.e., according to the type of words city, river, mountain etc.). For example: Sochi - this is the city, the word city masculine, hence the word Sochi also masculine (sunny Sochi); Mississippi→ river→zh.r. ( full-flowing Mississippi).

Names of newspapers, magazines, enterprises, organizations etc. belong to the same gender as common nouns denoting generic concepts ( newspaper, magazine, company etc.). For example: "Daily World" - newspaper, word newspaper feminine, hence the name "Daily World" also feminine ( "Daily World" published); "Geo"→journal→m.r. ( interesting "Geo").

Most of the words for a person(by profession, social status, etc.), are nouns male(even if it's a woman): attaché (military attaché), croupier (experienced croupier), entertainer, maestro, rentier, referee etc.

Words lady, miss,madam refer to feminine(young lady, pretty miss).

Nouns counterpart, incognito, protégé are bigenetic: the use of these words in the masculine or feminine gender depends on the gender of the person called (my counterpart, my counterpart).

The gender of nouns is a grammatical category, manifested in the ability to combine with specific forms of agreed words. The gender category can be expressed semantically (that is, in meaning, only in animate nouns), grammatically and syntactically. Semantically, all nouns are masculine, feminine, and neuter. Words indicating animals and males are masculine (brother, grandfather, student, goose, rooster, horse); nouns that name animals and females (sister, grandmother, student, goose, chicken, horse) - to the feminine gender; animals and persons, regardless of gender (monster, monster, person (person), child) - to the middle gender.

The gender of nouns is grammatically expressed using the ending in the nominative case. This category of gender is characteristic of both animate and inanimate inflected nouns. In this case, in addition to the 3 main genera, a common genus is also distinguished. The differences between them are presented in the table:

masculine	Feminine gender	Neuter gender	Common gender
The ending is zero, the stem ends with a solid consonant or with -y (chair, hero); The ending is zero, the stem ends with a soft consonant, and in the genitive case the endings are -a, -ya (horse - horse, doctor - doctor, ivy - ivy).	The ending -а, -я (hand, earth), except for words that name males (servant, governor) and words with the suffix -in, showing an magnifying subjective assessment (domina, mostina); The ending is zero, the stem ends in a consonant, and in the genitive case the ending is -i (rye - rye, silence - silence, notebook - notebooks).	Ending -o, -e (grain, sea); Words child, monster, monster, face; 10 per -mya (tribe, time, name, banner, seed, stirrup, udder, crown, burden, flame); Some indeclinable inanimate nouns foreign origin (taboo, taxi, jury, stew, interview, bra).	The ending -a, -ya, in words that name male and female persons (sleepy, grumpy, dirty, bully, stammerer, couch potato, orphan, licker, roar, ignoramus).

Syntactically, the gender of nouns can be determined by the form of the agreed word, which depends on the noun. So, participles, adjectives, consistent with masculine nouns, end in -y, -y, -oy ( beautiful garden, singing boy, fighting soldier); with feminine nouns - on -aya, -aya ( beautiful street, summer time); with neuter nouns - into -th, -ee ( beautiful sky, winter morning).

Also, the gender of nouns is determined using the ending of the predicate, expressed by the verb in the past tense in the subjunctive or indicative mood, or by participle or Masculine - the predicate has null ending(the rain has passed, the plan has been completed); feminine - ending -a (work completed, the moon has risen); neuter - ending -o (letter received, the sun has risen).

There are also Most of them belong to the middle gender (depot, interview and all substantiated indeclinable nouns like "hello", "cheers", "yes", "tomorrow", "I don't want to"). Exceptions are the following cases:

Ha (hectare), coffee, poppies, penalties, suluguni, sirocco, ecu, tornado, shimmy, as well as the names of languages ​​(Bengali, Urdu, Suomi, Pashto, Hindi) - masculine;

Avenue, bere, salami, kohlrabi are feminine.

The gender of indeclinable nouns, such as newspapers, magazines, can be determined by the gender of the noun with the meaning of the generic concept (full-flowing Japanese (city) Tokyo, wide (river) Mississippi, published (newspaper) "Times"). The gender of abbreviations must be determined by the gender of the main word (MGU - masculine - Moscow State University; UN - feminine - United Nations; CIS - middle gender - Commonwealth of Independent States). It is impossible to establish the gender of nouns that are not used in the singular, but only in the plural, since they do not have a gender category (trousers, pitchforks, pasta, mangers).