§1. Figures of poetic speech: Multi-union, non-union, inversion. Nikolaev A

The study of poetic syntax consists in the analysis of the functions of each of the artistic methods of selection and subsequent grouping of lexical elements into single syntactic constructions. If, in the immanent study of the vocabulary of a literary text, the role of the analyzed units is words, then in the study of syntax, sentences and phrases. If the study of vocabulary establishes the facts of deviation from the literary norm in the selection of words, as well as the facts of the transfer of the meanings of words (a word with figurative meaning, i.e. trope, manifests itself only in context, only during semantic interaction with another word), then the study of syntax obliges not only the typological consideration of syntactic units and grammatical relationships of words in a sentence, but also to identify the facts of correction or even change in the meaning of the whole phrases with the semantic correlation of its parts (which usually occurs as a result of the use of so-called figures by the writer).

It is necessary to pay attention to the author's selection of types of syntactic constructions because this selection can be dictated by the subject and general semantics of the work. Let us turn to examples that will serve as fragments of two translations of the “Ballad of the Hanged” by F. Villon.

There are five of us hanged, maybe six.

And the flesh, which knew a lot of delights,

It has long been devoured and has become a stench.

We became bones - we will become dust and rottenness.

Whoever smiles will not be happy himself.

Pray to God to forgive us.

(A. Parin, "The Ballad of the Hanged")

There were five of us. We wanted to live.

And they hung us. We blackened.

We lived like you. We are no more.

Do not try to condemn - people are insane.

We will not object in response.

Look and pray, and God will judge.

(I. Ehrenburg, "Epitaph written by Villon for him and his comrades in anticipation of the gallows")

The first translation more accurately reflects the composition and syntax of the source, but its author fully showed his poetic individuality in the selection of lexical means: the verbal series are built on stylistic antitheses (for example, the high word “delights” collides within one phrase with the low word “gorged”) . From the point of view of the stylistic diversity of vocabulary, the second translation seems to be depleted. In addition, we can see that Ehrenburg filled the text of the translation with short, "chopped" phrases. Indeed, the minimum length of the phrases of Parin's translator is equal to a line of verse, and the maximum length of Ehrenburg's phrases in the above passage is also equal to it. Is it by chance?

Apparently, the author of the second translation sought to achieve the utmost expressiveness through the use of exclusively syntactic means. Moreover, he coordinated the choice of syntactic forms with the point of view chosen by Villon. Villon endowed the right of the narrating voice not with living people, but with the soulless dead who speak to the living. This semantic antithesis should have been emphasized syntactically. Ehrenburg had to deprive the speech of the hanged of emotionality, and therefore there are so many uncommon, vaguely personal sentences in his text: bare phrases tell bare facts ("And we were hanged. We turned black ..."). In this translation, the absence of evaluative vocabulary, in general, of epithets is a kind of “minus-reception”.

An example of Ehrenburg's poetic translation is a logically justified deviation from the rule. Many writers formulated this rule in their own way when they touched upon the issue of distinguishing between poetic and prose speech. A.S. Pushkin spoke about the syntactic properties of verse and prose as follows:

“But what can be said about our writers, who, considering it base to explain simply the most ordinary things, think of enlivening children's prose with additions and languid metaphors? These people will never say friendship without adding: this sacred feeling, of which the noble flame, etc. Should have said: early in the morning - but they write: scarcely the first rays rising sun lit up the eastern edges of the azure sky - oh, how new and fresh it all is, is it better just because it is longer. Accuracy and brevity are the first virtues of prose. It requires thoughts and thoughts - without them, brilliant expressions are of no use. Poems are another matter ... ”(“ On Russian Prose ”)

Consequently, the "brilliant expressions" about which the poet wrote - namely, lexical "beauties" and the variety of rhetorical means, in general types of syntactic constructions - are not an obligatory phenomenon in prose, but possible. And in poetry it is common, because the actual aesthetic function of a poetic text always significantly sets off the informative function. This is proved by examples from the work of Pushkin himself. Syntactically brief Pushkin the prose writer:

“Finally, something began to turn black in the side. Vladimir turned there. Approaching, he saw a grove. Thank God, he thought, it's close now. ("Blizzard")

On the contrary, Pushkin the poet is often verbose, building long phrases with rows of periphrastic phrases:

The philosopher is frisky and piit,

Parnassian happy sloth,

Harit pampered favorite,

Confidant of the lovely aonids,

Pochto on a golden-stringed harp

Silenced, joy singer?

Can it be you, young dreamer,

Finally broke up with Phoebus?

("To Batyushkov")

E.G. Etkind, analyzing this poetic message, comments on the periphrastic series: "Piit" - this old word means "poet". "Parnassian happy sloth" - this also means "poet." "Kharit pampered favorite" - "poet." "Confidant of the lovely aonids" - "poet". “Joy singer” is also a “poet”. In essence, a "young dreamer" and a "frisky philosopher" are also a "poet." “I almost fell silent on the golden-stringed harp ...” This means: “Why did you stop writing poetry?” But then: “Have you really ... parted with Phoebus ...” - this is the same thing, ”and he concludes that Pushkin’s lines“ modify the same thought in every way:“ Why don’t you, poet, write more poems?“.

It should be clarified that lexical "beauty" and syntactic "longness" are necessary in poetry only when they are semantically or compositionally motivated. Verbosity in poetry may be unjustified. And in prose, lexico-syntactic minimalism is just as unjustified if it is raised to an absolute degree:

The donkey put on a lion's skin, and everyone thought it was a lion. The people and cattle ran. The wind blew, the skin opened up, and the donkey became visible. The people fled: they beat the donkey."

("Donkey in a lion's skin")

The sparing phrases give this finished work the appearance of a preliminary plot plan. The choice of elliptical type structures (“and everyone thought it was a lion”), saving meaningful words, leading to grammatical violations (“the people and cattle ran”), and finally, the economy of official words (“the people fled: they beat the donkey”) determined the excessive schematism of the plot of this parable, and therefore weakened its aesthetic impact.

The other extreme is the overcomplication of constructions, the use of polynomial sentences with different types of logical and grammatical connections, with many ways of distribution. For example:

“It was good for a year, two, three, but when is it: evenings, balls, concerts, dinners, ball gowns, hairstyles that expose the beauty of the body, young and middle-aged courtiers, all the same, everyone seems to know something, they seem to have the right to use everything and everyone should laugh when summer months in a dacha with the same nature, which also only gives the height of the pleasantness of life, when both music and reading are also the same - only raising questions of life, but not resolving them - when all this went on for seven, eight years, not only without promising any change , but, on the contrary, losing her charms more and more, she fell into despair, and a state of despair, a desire for death began to find itself on her ”(“ What I saw in a dream ”)

In the field of Russian language studies, there is no established idea of what maximum length a Russian phrase can achieve. However, readers should feel the extreme protractedness of this sentence. For example, the part of the phrase "but when all this" is not perceived as an inaccurate syntactic repetition, as a paired element to the part "but when it is". Because we, reaching the first indicated part in the process of reading, cannot keep in memory the already read second part: these parts are too far apart from one another in the text, too large quantity the details mentioned within a single phrase complicated our reading by the writer. The author's desire for maximum detail when describing actions and mental states leads to violations of the logical connection of the parts of the sentence (“she fell into despair, and a state of despair began to come over her”).

The study of poetic syntax also involves an assessment of the facts of the correspondence of the methods of grammatical connection used in the author's phrases to the norms of the national literary style. Here one can draw a parallel with the variegated passive vocabulary as significant part poetic dictionary. In the field of syntax, as in the field of vocabulary, it is possible barbarisms, archaisms, dialectisms etc., because these two areas are interconnected: according to B.V. Tomashevsky, "each lexical environment has its own specific syntactic turns."

In Russian literature, syntactic barbarisms, archaisms, and vernacular are the most common. Barbarism in syntax occurs if the phrase is built according to the rules foreign language. In prose, syntactic barbarisms are more often identified as speech errors: “Approaching this station and looking at nature through the window, my hat fell off” in A.P. Chekhov’s story “The Book of Complaints” - this gallicism is so obvious that it causes the reader to feel comic . In Russian poetry, syntactic barbarisms were sometimes used as signs of high style. For example, in Pushkin's ballad "There was a poor knight in the world..." the line "He had one vision..." is an example of such barbarism: the link "he had a vision" appears instead of "he had a vision". Here we also encounter syntactic archaism with the traditional function of raising the stylistic height: “There is no prayer to the Father, nor to the Son, / Nor to the Holy Spirit forever / It has not happened to a paladin ...” (it would follow: “neither to the Father, nor to the Son”). Syntactic vernacular, as a rule, is present in epic and dramatic works in the speech of the characters for a realistic reflection of the individual speech style, for the autocharacterization of the characters. To this end, Chekhov resorted to the use of vernacular: “Your dad told me that he was a court adviser, but now it turns out that he is only a titular one” (“Before the Wedding”), “Are you talking about which Turkins? Is it about those that the daughter plays the pianos? ("Ionych").

Figures of speech

Of particular importance for identifying the specifics of artistic speech is the study of stylistic figures (they are also called rhetorical - in relation to the private scientific discipline in which the theory of tropes and figures was first developed; syntactic - in relation to that side of the poetic text, for the characteristics of which they are required). description).

The doctrine of figures took shape already at the time when the doctrine of style was taking shape, in the era of Antiquity; developed and supplemented - in the Middle Ages; finally, it finally turned into a permanent section of normative "poetics" (textbooks on poetics) - in modern times. The first attempts to describe and systematize figures are presented in ancient Latin treatises on poetics and rhetoric (more fully in Quintilian's The Education of an Orator). The ancient theory, according to M.L. Gasparov, “assumed that there is some simplest,“ natural ”verbal expression of any thought (as if a distilled language without stylistic color and taste), and when real speech somehow deviates from this unimaginable standard , then each individual deviation can be taken separately and taken into account as a “figure”.

Tropes and figures were the subject of a single doctrine: if “trope” is a change in the “natural” meaning of a word, then “figure” is a change in the “natural” word order in a syntactic construction (rearrangement of words, omission of necessary or use of “extra” - from the point of view of “ natural" speech - lexical elements). We also note that within the limits of ordinary speech, which does not have an orientation towards artistry, figurativeness, the detected “figures” are often considered as speech errors, but within the limits of artistically oriented speech, the same figures are usually distinguished as effective means of poetic syntax.

Currently, there are many classifications of stylistic figures, which are based on one or another - quantitative or qualitative - differentiating feature: the verbal composition of the phrase, the logical or psychological correlation of its parts, etc. Below we list the most significant figures, taking into account three factors:

Unusual logical or grammatical connection of elements of syntactic constructions.
Unusual mutual arrangement of words in a phrase or phrases in a text, as well as elements that are part of different (adjacent) syntactic and rhythmic-syntactic structures (poems, columns), but with grammatical similarity.
Unusual ways intonation markup of the text using syntactic means.

Taking into account the dominance of a single factor, we will single out the corresponding groups of figures. But we emphasize that in some cases in the same phrase one can find both a non-trivial grammatical connection, and the original arrangement of words, and devices that indicate a specific intonational “score” in the text: within the same segment of speech, not only different paths, but also different figures.

Groups of methods of non-standard connection of words

The group of methods of non-standard connection of words into syntactic units includes:

ellipse, anacoluf, sylleps, alogism, amphiboly(figures distinguished by an unusual grammatical connection),
catachresis, oxymoron, gendiadis, enallaga(figures with an unusual semantic connection of elements).

One of the most common not only in artistic, but also in everyday speech syntactic techniques is an ellipse(Greek elleipsis- abandonment). This is an imitation of a break in a grammatical connection, consisting in the omission of a word or a number of words in a sentence, in which the meaning of the omitted members is easily restored from the general speech context. This technique is most often used in epic and dramatic works when constructing character dialogues: with its help, the authors give life-likeness to the scenes of communication of their characters.

Elliptical speech in a literary text gives the impression of being reliable, because in life situation conversation, the ellipse is one of the main means of composing phrases: when exchanging remarks, it allows you to skip previously spoken words. Therefore, in colloquial speech ellipses have an exclusively practical function: the speaker conveys information to the interlocutor in required amount using the minimum vocabulary.

Meanwhile, the use of the ellipse as an expressive means in artistic speech can also be motivated by the author's attitude to the psychologism of the narrative. The writer, wishing to depict various emotions, psychological states of his hero, can change his individual speech style from scene to scene. So, in F.M. Dostoevsky's novel "Crime and Punishment" Raskolnikov often expresses himself in elliptical phrases. In his conversation with the cook Nastasya (Part I, Ch. 3), ellipses serve as an additional means of expressing his alienated state:

- ... Before, you say, you went to teach children, but now why don't you do anything?

“I am doing [something]…” Raskolnikov said reluctantly and sternly.

- What are you doing?

- [I do] Work...

What kind of work [are you doing]?

“[I] think,” he answered seriously after a pause.

Here we see that the omission of some words emphasizes the special semantic load of the remaining others.

Often ellipses also denote a rapid change in states or actions. Such, for example, is their function in the fifth chapter of Eugene Onegin, in the story of Tatyana Larina's dream: “Tatyana ah! and he roar ... "," Tatiana into the forest, the bear behind her ... ".

Both in everyday life and in literature speech error recognized anacoluthon(Greek anakoluthos - inconsistent) - incorrect use grammatical forms when coordinated and managed: “The smell of shag and some sour cabbage soup that was felt from there made life in this place almost unbearable” (A.F. Pisemsky, “The Senile Sin”). However, its use can be justified in cases where the writer gives expression to the character's speech: “Stop, brothers, stop! After all, you don’t sit like that! ”(in Krylov’s fable“ Quartet ”).

On the contrary, it turns out to be more of a consciously applied technique than a random error in the literature. sylleps(Greek syllepsis - conjugation, capture), which consists in the syntactic design of semantically heterogeneous elements in the form of a series homogeneous members sentences: “This sexman wore a napkin under his arm and a lot of blackheads on his cheeks” (Turgenev, “A Strange Story”).

European writers of the 20th century, especially representatives of the "literature of the absurd", regularly turned to alogism (Greek a - negative particle, logismos - reason). This figure is a syntactic correlation of semantically inconsistent parts of a phrase with the help of its service elements, expressing a certain type of logical connection (causal, genus-species relations, etc.): “The car drives fast, but the cook cooks better” (E. Ionesco, “Bald Singer”), “How wonderful the Dnieper is in calm weather, so why are you here, Nentsov?” (A. Vvedensky, “Minin and Pozharsky”).

If the anacoluf is more often seen as a mistake than artistic technique, and sylleps and alogism are more often a technique than a mistake, then amphibolia (Greek amphibolia) is always perceived in two ways. Duality is in its very nature, since amphibole is the syntactic indistinguishability of the subject and direct complement expressed by nouns in the same grammatical forms. "Hearing sensitive sail strains ..." in the poem of the same name by Mandelstam - a mistake or a trick? It can be understood as follows: “A sensitive ear, if its owner desires to catch the rustle of the wind in the sails, magically acts on the sail, forcing it to strain,” or as follows: “A wind-blown (i.e. tense) sail attracts attention, and a person strains his hearing” . Amphibolia is justified only when it turns out to be compositionally significant. Thus, in D. Kharms' miniature "The Chest", the hero checks the possibility of the existence of life after death by self-suffocation in a locked chest. The finale for the reader, as the author planned, is unclear: either the hero did not suffocate, or he suffocated and resurrected, as the hero ambiguously sums up: “It means that life defeated death in a way unknown to me.”

An unusual semantic connection between the parts of a phrase or sentence is created by catachresis (see the section "Paths") and oxymoron (Greek oxymoron - witty-silly). In both cases, there is a logical contradiction between the members of a single structure. Catachresis occurs as a result of the use of an erased metaphor or metonymy and is assessed as a mistake in the framework of “natural” speech: „ cruise"- a contradiction between "to sail on the sea" and "to march on land", "oral instruction" - between "oral" and "in writing", "Soviet champagne" - between " Soviet Union and Champagne. Oxymoron, on the contrary, is a planned consequence of the use of a fresh metaphor and is perceived even in everyday speech as an exquisite figurative tool. "Mum! Your son is very sick!” (V. Mayakovsky, “A Cloud in Pants”) – here “sick” is a metaphorical replacement for “in love”.

Among the rare in Russian literature and therefore especially notable figures is gendiadis(from the Greek hen dia dyoin - one after two), in which compound adjectives are divided into the original constituent parts: “longing for the road, iron” (A. Blok, “On railway“). Here the word "railroad" was split, as a result of which the three words entered into an interaction - and the verse acquired an additional meaning. E.G. Etkind, referring to the issue of the semantics of the epithets "iron", "iron" in Blok's poetic dictionary, noted: two definitions, striving towards each other, as if forming one word "railroad", and at the same time starting from this word - it has a completely different meaning. "Iron Anguish" is a despair caused by the dead, mechanical world of modern - "iron" - civilization.

Words in a column or verse receive a special semantic connection when the writer uses enallaga (Greek enallage - movement) - the transfer of a definition to a word adjacent to the one being defined. So, in the line "Through the meat, fat trenches ..." from N. Zabolotsky's poem "Wedding", the definition of "fat" became a vivid epithet after being transferred from "meat" to "trench". Enallaga is a sign of verbose poetic speech. The use of this figure in an elliptical construction leads to a deplorable result: the verse "A familiar corpse lay in that valley ..." in Lermontov's ballad "Dream" is an example of an unforeseen logical fallacy. The combination "familiar corpse" was supposed to mean "the corpse of a familiar [person]", but for the reader it actually means: "This person has long been known to the heroine precisely as a corpse."

Figures with an unusual arrangement of parts of syntactic constructions

Figures with an unusual arrangement of parts of syntactic constructions include various types of parallelism and inversion.

Parallelism(from the Greek. parallelos - walking side by side) suggests the compositional correlation of adjacent syntactic segments of the text (lines in a poetic work, sentences in a text, parts in a sentence). Types of parallelism are usually distinguished on the basis of some feature that the first of the correlated constructions possesses, which serves as a model for the author when creating the second one.

So, projecting the word order of one syntactic segment onto another, they distinguish between direct parallelism (“The animal Dog is sleeping, / The bird Sparrow is Dozing” in Zabolotsky’s verse “The signs of the Zodiac are fading ...”) and reversed (“Waves are playing, the wind is whistling” in “ Sail" Lermontov). We can write the columns of the Lermontov string vertically:

waves are playing

the wind is whistling

And we will see that in the second column the subject and predicate are given in reverse order regarding the arrangement of words in the first. If we now graphically connect nouns and - separately - verbs, we can get the image of the Greek letter "". Therefore, reversed parallelism is also called chiasm (Greek chiasmos - -shape, cruciformity).

When comparing the number of words in paired syntactic segments, they also distinguish parallelism complete and incomplete. Complete parallelism (its common name is isocolon; Greek isokolon - equinoxity) - in Tyutchev's two-word lines “Amphoras are empty, / Baskets are overturned” (verse “The feast is over, the choirs are silent ...”), incomplete - in his unequal lines “ Slow down, slow down, evening day, / Last, last, charm ”(verse“ Last love ”). There are other types of parallelism.

The same group of figures includes such a popular poetic device as inversion(lat. inversio - permutation). It manifests itself in the arrangement of words in a phrase or sentence in an order that is different from the natural one. In Russian, for example, the order “subject + predicate”, “definition + defined word” or “preposition + noun in case form” is natural, and the reverse order is unnatural.

“Erota of lofty and dumb wings on...”, - this is how the parody of the famous satirist of the early twentieth century begins. A. Izmailov to the verses by Vyacheslav Ivanov. The parodist suspected the symbolist poet of abusing inversions, so he oversaturated the lines of his text with them. “Erota on wings” is the wrong order. But if a separate inversion of "Erota's wings" is quite acceptable, moreover, it is felt as traditional for Russian poetry, then "wings on" is recognized as a sign not of artistry of speech, but of tongue-tied tongue.

Inverted words can be placed in a phrase in different ways. With contact inversion, the adjacency of words is preserved (“Like a tragedian in the province of Shakespeare’s drama ...” by Pasternak), with distant inversion, other words are wedged between them (“Old man obedient to Perun alone ...” by Pushkin). In both cases, the unusual position of a single word affects its intonation. As Tomashevsky noted, "in inverted constructions, words sound more expressive, more weighty."

Figures marking the unusual intonational composition of the text

The group of figures that mark the unusual intonational composition of the text or its individual parts includes various types of syntactic repetition, as well as tautology, annomination and gradation, polysyndeton and asyndeton.

Distinguish two subgroups of repetition techniques. The first includes techniques for repeating individual parts within a sentence. With their help, authors usually emphasize a semantically tense place in a phrase, since any repetition is intonational emphasis. Like inversion, repetition can be contact (“It's time, it's time, the horns are blowing ...” in Pushkin's poem “Count Nulin”) or distant (“It's time, my friend, it's time! The heart asks for peace ...” in Pushkin's verse of the same name. ).

Simple repeat apply to different units of the text - both to the word (as in the above examples) and to the phrase ("Evening ringing, evening ringing!" in the translation of I. Kozlov from T. Moore) - without changing the grammatical forms and lexical meaning. Repetition of one word in different case forms ah, while maintaining its meaning since ancient times, they are recognized as a special figure - polyptoton (Greek polyptoton - polycase): “But a man / He sent a man to the anchar with an authoritative look ...” (Pushkin, “Anchar”). On polyptotone, according to R. Yakobson's observation, Mayakovsky's "The Tale of the Little Red Riding Hood" is built, in which a complete paradigm of case forms of the word "cadet" is presented. Antanaclasis (Greek antanaklasis - reflection) is an equally ancient figure - the repetition of a word in its original grammatical form, but with a change in meaning. “The last owl is broken and sawn. / And, pinned with a clerical button / Head down to the autumn branch, // Hanging and thinking with his head ... ”(A. Eremenko,“ In dense metallurgical forests ... ”) - here the word“ head ”is used directly, and then in a metonymic sense.

The second subgroup includes repeat figures extended not to the offer, but to a larger part of the text(stanza, syntactic period), sometimes for the whole work. Such figures mark the intonation equalization of those parts of the text to which they were extended. These types of repetition are distinguished by their position in the text. So, anaphora (Greek anaphora - pronouncement; the patristic term is mononaming) is the fastening of speech segments (columns, verses) by repeating a word or phrase in the initial position: “This is a sharply poured whistle, / This is the clicking of squeezed ice floes, / This is the night chilling the leaf, / This is the duel of two nightingales" (Pasternak, "Definition of Poetry"). Epiphora (Greek epiphora - additive; paternal term - one-sidedness), on the contrary, connects the ends of speech series with lexical repetition: “Scallops, all scallops: || scalloped cape, | scalloped sleeves, | scalloped epaulettes, | bottom scallops, | festoons everywhere” (Gogol, “Dead Souls”). Projecting the principle of epiphora onto a whole poetic text, we will see its development in the phenomenon of a refrain (for example, in a classical ballad).

Anadiplosis(Greek anadiplosis - doubling; native term - joint) is a contact repetition that connects the end of a speech series with the beginning of the next. This is how the columns are connected in the lines of S. Nadson “Only the morning of love is good: | Only the first, timid speeches are good, ”Blok’s poems are connected in this way“ Oh, spring without end and without edge - / Without end and without edge is a dream. Anaphora and epiphora often act in small lyrical genres as a structure-forming device. But anadiplosis can also acquire the function of a compositional core around which speech is built. From long chains of anadiplosis, for example, the best examples early Irish lyrics. Among them, perhaps the oldest is the anonymous "Spell of Amergin", presumably dating from the 5th-6th centuries. AD (below is its fragment in syntactically exact translation V. Tikhomirova):

Erin I call loudly

The deep sea is fat

Fat on the hillside grass

Herbs in oak forests are juicy

Moisture in the lakes is juicy

Moisture rich source

The source of the tribes is one

The only lord of Temra...

Opposite to Anadiplosis prosapodosis(Greek prosapodosis - addition; Russian term - ring, coverage), a distant repetition, in which the initial element of the syntactic construction is reproduced at the end of the following: "The sky is cloudy, the night is cloudy ..." in Pushkin's "Demons". Also, prosapodosis can cover a stanza (Esenin’s verse “Shagane you are mine, Shagane ...” is built on ring repetitions) and even the entire text of the work (“Night. Street. Lantern. Pharmacy ...” A. Blok).

This subgroup also includes complex a figure formed by a combination of anaphora and epiphora within the same piece of text, simplock(Greek symploce - plexus): “I do not want Falaley, | I hate Falaley, | I spit on Falaley, | I will crush Falaley, | I will love Asmodeus rather, | than Falaley!" (Dostoevsky, "The Village of Stepanchikovo and Its Inhabitants") - this example from Foma Opiskin's monologue serves as clear evidence that not only repetitive elements are accentuated intonation: with a simplock, words framed by anaphora and epiphora stand out in each column.

It is possible to reproduce during repetition not only the word as a single sign, but also the meaning torn off from the sign. Tautology(Greek tauto - the same, logos - a word), or pleonasm(Greek pleonasmos - excess), - a figure, when using which the word is not necessarily repeated, but the meaning of any lexical element is necessarily duplicated. To do this, the authors select either synonymous words or periphrastic phrases. The deliberate use of tautology by the writer creates in the reader a feeling of verbal excess, irrational verbosity, forces him to pay attention to the corresponding segment of speech, and the reciter to isolate this entire segment intonationally. Yes, in verse. A. Eremenko "Pokryshkin" double tautology intonationally distinguishes against the background of the general flow of speech of the colon "an evil bullet of gangster evil."

In order to highlight the intonation of a semantically significant speech segment, they also use annomination(lat. annominatio - subscript) - a contact repetition of the same-root words: "I think my own thought ..." in N. Nekrasov's "Railway". This figure is common in song folklore and in the works of poets, whose work was affected by their passion for stylization of speech.

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Close to repetition figures gradation(lat. gradatio - change in degree), in which words grouped into a series of homogeneous members have a common semantic meaning (of a feature or action), but their location expresses a consistent change in this meaning. The manifestation of a unifying feature can gradually increase or decrease: “I swear by heaven, there is no doubt that you are beautiful, it is undeniable that you are beautiful, it is true that you are attractive” (“The Fruitless Labours of Love” by Shakespeare in the translation of Yu. Korneev). In this phrase, next to "undoubtedly-indisputably-true" is the strengthening of one attribute, and next to "beautiful-beautiful-attractive" - the weakening of another. Regardless of whether the sign is strengthening or weakening, the graduated phrase is pronounced with increasing emphasis (intonational expressiveness): “It sounded over a clear river, / It rang in a faded meadow, / It swept over a mute grove ..." (Fet, "Evening").

In addition, the group of means of intonation marking includes polysyndeton(Greek polysyndeton - polyunion) and asyndeton(Greek asyndeton - non-union). Like the gradation that both figures often accompany, they suggest emphatic emphasis on the part of the text corresponding to them in sounding speech. Polysyndeton in essence is not only a polyunion ("life, and tears, and love" in Pushkin), but also a multi-sentence ("about valor, about deeds, about glory" from Blok). Its function is either to mark the logical sequence of actions (“Autumn” by Pushkin: “And the thoughts in the head agitate in courage, And the light rhymes run towards them, / And the fingers ask for a pen ...”) or to encourage the reader to generalize, to perceive the series details as an integral image (“I erected a monument to myself not made by hands ...” Pushkin: the specific “And the proud grandson of the Slavs, and the Finn, and now wild / Tungus, and the Kalmyk friend of the steppes” is formed when perceived in the generic “peoples Russian Empire"). And with the help of asyndeton, either the simultaneity of actions is emphasized (“Swede, Russian stabs, cuts, cuts ...” in Pushkin’s “Poltava”), or the fragmentation of the phenomena of the depicted world (“Whisper. Timid breathing. / Trills of the nightingale. / Silver and swaying / Sleepy Creek "by Fet).

The use of syntactic figures by the writer leaves an imprint of individuality on his author's style. By the middle of the 20th century, by the time the concept of “creative individuality” had significantly depreciated, the study of figures had ceased to be relevant, which was recorded by A. Kvyatkovsky in his “Dictionary of Poetic Terms” of 1940 edition: “At present, the names of rhetorical figures have been preserved behind the three most stable phenomena of style, such as: 1) a rhetorical question, 2) a rhetorical exclamation, 3) a rhetorical address ... ". Today, interest in the study of syntactic techniques as a means of artistic stylistics is being revived. The study of poetic syntax has received a new direction: modern science is increasingly analyzing phenomena that are at the junction of different sides of a literary text, for example, rhythm and syntax, meter and syntax, vocabulary and syntax, etc.

No less significant than the poetic dictionary, the area of study of expressive means is poetic syntax. The study of poetic syntax consists in the analysis of the functions of each of the artistic methods of selection and subsequent grouping of lexical elements into single syntactic constructions. If in the immanent study of the vocabulary of a literary text, words act as the analyzed units, then in the study of syntax, sentences and phrases. If the study of vocabulary establishes the facts of deviation from the literary norm in the selection of words, as well as the facts of the transfer of the meanings of words (a word with a figurative meaning, i.e. a trope, manifests itself only in context, only during semantic interaction with another word), then the study of syntax obliges not only a typological consideration of the syntactic units and grammatical relationships of words in a sentence, but also to identify the facts of correction or even change in the meaning of the whole phrase with the semantic correlation of its parts (which usually occurs as a result of the use of so-called figures by the writer).

There are five of us hanged, maybe six.

And the flesh, which knew a lot of delights,

It has long been devoured and has become a stench.

We became bones - we will become dust and rottenness.

Whoever smiles will not be happy himself.

Pray to God to forgive us.

(A. Parin, "The Ballad of the Hanged")

There were five of us. We wanted to live.

And they hung us. We blackened.

We lived like you. We are no more.

Do not try to condemn - people are insane.

We will not object in response.

Look and pray, and God will judge.

(I. Ehrenburg, "Epitaph written by Villon for him

and his comrades in anticipation of the gallows")

The first translation more accurately reflects the composition and syntax of the source, but its author fully showed his poetic individuality in the selection of lexical means: verbal series are built on stylistic antitheses (for example, the high word "delights" collides within one phrase with the low word "gorged") . From the point of view of the stylistic diversity of vocabulary, the second translation seems to be depleted. In addition, we can see that Ehrenburg filled the text of the translation with short, "chopped" phrases. Indeed, the minimum length of the phrases of Parin's translator is equal to a line of verse, and the maximum length of Ehrenburg's phrases in the above passage is also equal to it. Is it by chance?

Apparently, the author of the second translation sought to achieve the utmost expressiveness through the use of exclusively syntactic means. Moreover, he coordinated the choice of syntactic forms with the point of view chosen by Villon. Villon endowed the right of the narrating voice not with living people, but with the soulless dead who speak to the living. This semantic antithesis should have been emphasized syntactically. Ehrenburg was supposed to deprive the speech of the hanged of emotionality, and therefore there are so many uncommon, vaguely personal sentences in his text: bare phrases tell bare facts ("And we were hanged. We turned black ..."). In this translation, the absence of evaluative vocabulary, in general, of epithets is a kind of "minus-reception".

“But what can be said about our writers, who, considering it base to explain simply the most ordinary things, think to enliven children's prose with additions and sluggish metaphors? These people will never say friendship without adding: this sacred feeling, of which noble flame, etc. say: early in the morning - and they write: as soon as the first rays of the rising sun illuminated the eastern edges of the azure sky - oh, how new and fresh it all is, is it better just because it is longer.<...>Accuracy and brevity are the first virtues of prose. It requires thoughts and thoughts - without them, brilliant expressions are of no use. Poems are another matter..." ("On Russian Prose")

Consequently, the "brilliant expressions" about which the poet wrote - namely, lexical "beauties" and the variety of rhetorical means, in general types of syntactic constructions - are not an obligatory phenomenon in prose, but possible. And in poetry it is common, because the actual aesthetic function of a poetic text always significantly overshadows the informative function. This is proved by examples from the work of Pushkin himself. Syntactically brief Pushkin the prose writer:

"Finally, something began to turn black in the direction. Vladimir turned in that direction. Approaching, he saw a grove. Thank God, he thought, now it's close." ("Blizzard")

On the contrary, Pushkin the poet is often verbose, building long phrases with rows of periphrastic phrases:

The philosopher is frisky and piit,

Parnassian happy sloth,

Harit pampered favorite,

Confidant of the lovely aonids,

Pochto on a golden-stringed harp

Silenced, joy singer?

Can it be you, young dreamer,

Finally broke up with Phoebus?<...>

("To Batyushkov")

E. G. Etkind, analyzing this poetic message, comments on the periphrastic row: "Piit" - this old word means "poet". "Parnassian happy sloth" - it also means "poet". "Kharit pampered favorite" - "poet". "Confidant of the lovely aonids" - "poet". "Joy singer" - also a "poet". In essence, a "young dreamer" and a "frisky philosopher" are also a "poet."<...>"Almost fell silent on the golden-stringed harp ..." This means: "Why did you stop writing poetry?" But further: "Have you really ... parted with Phoebus ..."<...>- this is the same thing," and concludes that Pushkin's lines "modify the same thought in every way: "Why don't you, a poet, write more poetry?"

"The donkey put on a lion's skin, and everyone thought it was a lion. The people and cattle ran. The wind blew, the skin opened up, and the donkey became visible. The people came running: they beat the donkey."

("Donkey in a lion's skin")

The sparing phrases give this finished work the appearance of a preliminary plot plan. The choice of constructions of the elliptical type (“and everyone thought it was a lion”), the economy of significant words, leading to grammatical violations (“the people and cattle ran”), and finally, the economy of official words (“the people ran away: they beat the donkey”) determined the excessive schematism of the plot of this parables, and therefore weakened its aesthetic impact.

The other extreme is the overcomplication of constructions, the use of polynomial sentences with different types of logical and grammatical connections, with many ways of distribution. For example:

"It was good for a year, two, three, but when is it: evenings, balls, concerts, dinners, ball gowns, hairstyles that show off the beauty of the body, young and middle-aged caretakers, all the same, all seem to know something, seem to have the right to use everything and to laugh at everything, when the summer months at the dacha with the same nature, also only giving the top of the pleasantness of life, when music and reading are also the same - only raising questions of life, but not resolving them - when all this lasted seven , eight years, not only without promising any change, but, on the contrary, losing her charms more and more, she fell into despair, and a state of despair, a desire for death began to come over her "(" What I saw in a dream ")

In the field of Russian language studies, there is no established idea of what maximum length a Russian phrase can achieve. However, readers should feel the extreme protractedness of this sentence. For example, the part of the phrase "but when all this" is not perceived as an inaccurate syntactic repetition, as a paired element to the part "but when it is". Because we, reaching the first indicated part in the process of reading, cannot keep in memory the already read second part: these parts are too far apart from one another in the text, the writer complicated our reading with too many details mentioned within one phrase. The author's desire for maximum detail in describing actions and mental states leads to violations of the logical connection of the parts of the sentence ("she fell into despair, and a state of despair began to come over her").

The quoted parable and story belong to L.N. Tolstoy. It is especially easy to determine its authorship when referring to the second example, and attention to style-forming syntactic devices helps in this. G.O. Vinokur wrote about the above quote from the story: "... I recognize Leo Tolstoy here not only because this passage talks about what this writer often and usually talks about, and not only by that tone, with which he usually talks about such subjects, but also in terms of the language itself, in terms of its syntactic signs ... Style evolutions are facts of the author's biography, and therefore, in particular, it is necessary to trace the evolution of style at the level of syntax as well.

The study of poetic syntax also involves an assessment of the facts of the correspondence of the methods of grammatical connection used in the author's phrases to the norms of the national literary style. Here we can draw a parallel with passive vocabulary of different styles as an important part of the poetic vocabulary. In the sphere of syntax, as well as in the sphere of vocabulary, barbarisms, archaisms, dialectisms, etc. are possible, because these two spheres are interconnected: according to B.V. Tomashevsky, "each lexical environment has its own specific syntactic turns."

No less significant area of study of expressive means is poetic syntax. The study of poetic syntax consists in the analysis of the functions of each of the artistic methods of selection and subsequent grouping of lexical elements into single syntactic constructions. If in the study of the vocabulary of a literary text, words act as the analyzed units, then in the study of syntax, sentences and phrases. If the study of vocabulary establishes the facts of deviation from the literary norm in the selection of words, as well as the facts of the transfer of the meanings of words (a word with a figurative meaning, i.e. a trope, manifests itself only in context, only during semantic interaction with another word), then the study of syntax obliges not only a typological consideration of the syntactic units and grammatical relationships of words in a sentence, but also to identify the facts of correction or even change in the meaning of the whole phrase with the semantic correlation of its parts (which usually occurs as a result of the use of so-called figures by the writer).

Consequently, the "brilliant expressions" about which the poet wrote - namely, lexical "beauties" and the variety of rhetorical means, in general types of syntactic constructions - are not an obligatory phenomenon in prose, but possible. And in poetry it is common, because the actual aesthetic function of a poetic text always significantly overshadows the informative function. This is proved by examples from the work of Pushkin himself. Syntactically brief Pushkin the prose writer:

"Finally, something began to turn black in the direction. Vladimir turned in that direction. Approaching, he saw a grove. Thank God, he thought, now it's close." ("Blizzard")

On the contrary, Pushkin the poet is often verbose, building long phrases with rows of periphrastic phrases:

The frisky and peeing philosopher, The happy sloth of Parnassus, Harit's pampered favorite, The confidant of the lovely aonids, Why, on the golden-stringed harp, Has he silenced, the singer of joy? Have you, young dreamer, parted with Phoebus at last?

The other extreme is the overcomplication of constructions, the use of polynomial sentences with different types of logical and grammatical connections, with many ways of distribution.

In the field of Russian language studies, there is no established idea of what maximum length a Russian phrase can achieve. The author's desire for maximum detail in describing actions and mental states leads to violations of the logical connection of the parts of the sentence ("she fell into despair, and a state of despair began to come over her").

The study of poetic syntax also involves an assessment of the facts of the correspondence of the methods of grammatical connection used in the author's phrases to the norms of the national literary style. Here we can draw a parallel with passive vocabulary of different styles as an important part of the poetic vocabulary. In the sphere of syntax, as well as in the sphere of vocabulary, barbarisms, archaisms, dialectisms, etc. are possible, because these two spheres are interconnected: according to B.V. Tomashevsky, "each lexical environment has its own specific syntactic turns."

In Russian literature, syntactic barbarisms, archaisms, and vernacular are the most common. Barbarism in syntax occurs if the phrase is built according to the rules of a foreign language. In prose, syntactic barbarisms are more often identified as speech errors: "Approaching this station and looking at nature through the window, my hat flew off" in A.P. Chekhov's story "The Book of Complaints" - this gallicism is so obvious that it causes the reader to feel comic . In Russian poetry, syntactic barbarisms were sometimes used as signs of high style. For example, in Pushkin's ballad "There was a poor knight in the world..." the line "He had one vision..." is an example of such barbarism: the link "he had a vision" appears instead of "he had a vision". Here we also encounter syntactic archaism with the traditional function of raising the stylistic height: "There is no prayer to the Father, nor to the Son, / Nor to the Holy Spirit forever / It has not happened to a paladin ..." (it would follow: "neither to the Father, nor to the Son"). Syntactic vernacular, as a rule, is present in epic and dramatic works in the speech of characters for a realistic reflection of the individual speech style, for the autocharacterization of characters. To this end, Chekhov resorted to the use of vernacular: “Your dad told me that he was a court adviser, but now it turns out that he is only a titular one” (“Before the wedding”), “Are you talking about which Turkins? This is about those that my daughter plays pianos?" ("Ionych").

Of particular importance for identifying the specifics artistic speech has a study of stylistic figures (they are also called rhetorical - in relation to the private scientific discipline in which the theory of tropes and figures was first developed; syntactic - in relation to that side of the poetic text, for which their description is required).

1. Unusual logical or grammatical connection of elements of syntactic constructions.

2. An unusual mutual arrangement of words in a phrase or phrases in a text, as well as elements that are part of different (adjacent) syntactic and rhythmic-syntactic structures (verses, columns), but possessing grammatical similarity.

3. Unusual ways of intonational markup of the text using syntactic means.

Taking into account the dominance of a single factor, we will single out the corresponding groups of figures. To a group of techniques for non-standard connection of words into syntactic units include ellipse, anacoluf, sylleps, alogism, amphibolia (figures with an unusual grammatical connection), as well as catachresis, oxymoron, gendiadis, enallaga (figures with an unusual semantic connection of elements).

1. One of the most common syntactic devices not only in fiction, but also in everyday speech is ellipse(Greek elleipsis- abandonment). This is an imitation of a break in a grammatical connection, consisting in the omission of a word or a series of words in a sentence, in which the meaning of the omitted members is easily restored from the general speech context. Elliptical speech in a literary text gives the impression of being reliable, because in a life situation of a conversation, an ellipse is one of the main means of composition phrases: when exchanging remarks, it allows you to skip previously spoken words. Therefore, in colloquial speech, ellipses are assigned exclusively practical function: the speaker conveys information to the interlocutor in the required volume using the minimum vocabulary.

2. Both in everyday life and in literature, a speech error is recognized anacoluthon(Greek anakoluthos - inconsistent) - incorrect use of grammatical forms in coordination and management: "The smell of shag and some sour cabbage soup felt from there made life in this place almost unbearable" (A.F. Pisemsky, "Old Man's Sin"). However, its use can be justified in cases where the writer gives expression to the character's speech: "Stop, brothers, stop! You're not sitting like that!" (in Krylov's fable "Quartet").

3. If the anacoluf is more often seen as a mistake than an artistic device, and sylleps and alogism- more often by reception than by mistake, then amphibolia(Greek amphibolia) is always perceived in two ways. Duality is in its very nature, since amphibole is the syntactic indistinguishability of the subject and direct object, expressed by nouns in the same grammatical forms. "Hearing sensitive sail strains ..." in the poem of the same name by Mandelstam - a mistake or a trick? It can be understood as follows: "A sensitive ear, if its owner desires to catch the rustle of the wind in the sails, magically acts on the sail, forcing it to strain," or as follows: "A wind-blown (i.e., tense) sail attracts attention, and a person strains his hearing" . Amphibolia is justified only when it turns out to be compositionally significant. So, in the miniature by D. Kharms "The Chest" the hero checks the possibility of the existence of life after death by self-suffocation in a locked chest. The finale for the reader, as the author planned, is unclear: either the hero did not suffocate, or he suffocated and resurrected, as the hero ambiguously sums up: "So, life defeated death in a way unknown to me."

4. An unusual semantic connection of parts of a phrase or sentence is created catachresis and oxymoron(Greek oxymoron - witty-stupid). In both cases, there is a logical contradiction between the members of a single structure. Catahresis arises as a result of the use of an erased metaphor or metonymy and is assessed as a mistake within the framework of "natural" speech: "sea voyage" is a contradiction between "sail on the sea" and "walk on land", "oral prescription" - between "oral" and " in writing", "Soviet Champagne" - between "Soviet Union" and "Champagne". Oxymoron, on the contrary, is a planned consequence of the use of a fresh metaphor and is perceived even in everyday speech as an exquisite figurative tool. "Mom! Your son is beautifully ill!" (V. Mayakovsky, "A cloud in pants") - here "sick" is a metaphorical replacement for "in love".

5. Among the rare in Russian literature and therefore especially notable figures is gendiadis(from the Greek hen dia dyoin - one through two), in which compound adjectives are divided into their original constituent parts: "longing road, iron" (A. Blok, "On the railroad"). Here the word "railroad" was split, as a result of which three words entered into interaction - and the verse acquired an additional meaning.

6. Words in a column or verse receive a special semantic connection when the writer uses enallagu(Greek enallage - moving) - transferring a definition to a word adjacent to the one being defined. So, in the line "Through the meat, fat trenches ..." from N. Zabolotsky's poem "Wedding", the definition of "fat" became a vivid epithet after being transferred from "meat" to "trench". Enallaga is a sign of verbose poetic speech. The use of this figure in an elliptical construction leads to a deplorable result: the verse "A familiar corpse lay in that valley ..." in Lermontov's ballad "Dream" is an example of an unforeseen logical error. The combination "familiar corpse" was supposed to mean "the corpse of a familiar [person]", but for the reader it actually means: "This person has long been known to the heroine precisely as a corpse."

The use of syntactic figures by the writer leaves an imprint of individuality on his author's style. By the middle of the 20th century, by the time when the concept of "creative individuality" had significantly depreciated, the study of figures ceased to be relevant.

The figures of poetic syntax are called various methods of combining words into sentences, the task of which is to enhance the effect of what was said.

Consider the most common figures of poetic syntax with examples:

Inversion (or permutation) is a change in the usual order of words in an expression. In Russian, word order is considered arbitrary, but there are still generally accepted constructions, deviation from which entails a partial change in meaning. No one will argue that the expressions "I said it", "I said it" and "I said it" have various shades meanings.

Repeat. In general, repetition is a fundamental feature of poetic speech. Repetitions at the level of phonetics and orthoepy form the rhythmic structure of poems. Repetitions at the level of morphemics (the endings of the final lines of words) form a rhyme. Repetition at the syntax level can also play a big role. Syntactic repetitions include anadiplosis (or junction), anaphora and epiphora. Anadiplosis is a text construction in which the end of one phrase is repeated at the beginning of the next phrase. The technique helps to achieve greater coherence and smoothness of the text. An example is the poem by K. Balmont “I was catching a dream”, where “leaving shadows”, “steps trembled”, etc. are repeated. Anaphora is the repetition of the initial word or group of words in each new line of the poem. An example is the poem by M. Tsvetaeva “The rich fell in love with the poor”, where the words “love” and “do not love” are repeated. Epiphora is the opposite of anaphora. In this case, the words that end lines or phrases are repeated. An example is the song from the movie "The Hussar Ballad", each verse of which ends with the words "a long time ago."

Gradation is a consistent strengthening or weakening of the semantic coloring of words included in a group of homogeneous members. This technique helps to present the phenomenon in its development. For example, N. Zabolotsky in the poem “Road Makers” depicts an explosion with the following sequence of words: “howled, sang, took off ...”

Rhetorical question, rhetorical exclamation, rhetorical appeal - these expressions, unlike ordinary questions, exclamations and appeals, do not refer to anyone specific, they do not require an answer or response. The author uses them to give his text greater emotionality and dynamism. For example, the poem "Sail" by M. Lermontov begins with rhetorical questions, and ends with a rhetorical exclamation.

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» » Figures of poetic syntax

The general nature of the writer's work leaves a certain imprint on his poetic syntax, that is, on his manner of constructing phrases and sentences. It is in poetic syntax that the syntactic structure of poetic speech is determined by the general nature of the writer's creative talent.

The poetic figures of the language are associated with a special role played by individual lexical resources and figurative means language.

Rhetorical exclamations, appeals, questions are created by the author to focus the attention of readers on the phenomenon or problem in question. Thus, they should draw attention to them, and not demand an answer ("Oh field, field, who strewn you with dead bones?" "Do you know the Ukrainian night?", "Do you like theater?", "Oh Rus! Raspberry field...").

Repetitions: anaphora, epiphora, junction. They belong to the figures of poetic speech and are syntactic constructions based on the repetition of individual words that carry the main semantic load.

Among the repetitions stand out anaphora, that is, the repetition of initial words or phrases in sentences, poems or stanzas ("I loved you" - A.S. Pushkin;

I swear on the first day of creation

I swear on his last day

I swear on the shame of crime,

And eternal truth triumph. - M.Yu. Lermontov).

Epiphora represents a repetition of the final words or phrases in sentences or stanzas - "Here the master will come" N.A. Nekrasov.

joint- a rhetorical figure in which a word or expression is repeated at the end of one phrase and at the beginning of the second. Most often found in folklore:

He fell on the cold snow

On the cold snow like a pine

Like a pine in a damp forest ... - (M.Yu. Lermontov).

Oh spring, without end and without edge,

A dream without end and without edge ... - (A.A. Blok).

Gain represents the arrangement of words and expressions according to the principle of their increasing power: "I spoke, persuaded, demanded, ordered." The authors need this figure of poetic speech for greater strength and expressiveness when conveying the image of an object, thought, feeling: "I knew him in love tenderly, passionately, furiously, boldly, modestly ..." - (I.S. Turgenev).

Default- a rhetorical device based on the omission of individual words or phrases in the speech (most often this is used to emphasize the excitement or unpreparedness of the speech). - "There are such moments, such feelings ... You can only point to them ... and pass by" - (I.S. Turgenev).

Parallelism- is a rhetorical device - a detailed comparison of two or more phenomena, given in similar syntactic constructions. -

What is clouded, the dawn is clear,

Has fallen to the ground with dew?

What are you thinking, red girl,

Did your eyes sparkle with tears? (A.N. Koltsov)

Parceling- dismemberment of a single syntactic structure of the sentence for the purpose of a more emotional, vivid perception by the reader - "A child must be taught to feel. Beauty. People. Everything living around."

Antithesis(opposition, opposition) - a rhetorical device in which the disclosure of contradictions between phenomena is usually carried out using a number of antonymic words and expressions. -

Black evening, white snow... - (A.A. Blok).

I'm rotting in the ashes,

I command thunder with my mind.

I am a king - I am a slave, I am a worm - I am a god! (A.N. Radishchev).

Inversion- unusual word order in a sentence. Despite the fact that in the Russian language there is no once and for all fixed word order, nevertheless there is a familiar order. For example, the definition comes before the word being defined. Then Lermontov's "A lonely sail turns white In the blue fog of the sea" seems unusual and poetically sublime compared to the traditional one: "A lonely sail turns white in the blue fog of the sea." Or "The longed-for moment has come: My long-term work is over" - A.S. Pushkin.

Unions can also be used to make speech expressive. So, asyndeton usually used to convey the swiftness of the action when depicting pictures or sensations: "Cannonballs are rolling, bullets are whistling, Cold bayonets are hovering ...", or "Lanterns are flashing by, Pharmacies, fashion stores ... Lions at the gates ..." - A. WITH. Pushkin.

polyunion usually creates the impression of separateness of speech, emphasizes the significance of each word separated by the union:

Oh! Summer red! I would love you

If it weren't for the heat, and dust, and mosquitoes, and flies. - A.S. Pushkin.

And a cloak, and an arrow, and a crafty dagger -

Keep the master for years. - M.Yu. Lermontov.

Connection of non-union with multi-union- also a means of emotional expression for the author:

Drums, screams, rattle,

The thunder of cannons, the clatter, the neighing, the groan,

And death, and hell from all sides. - A.S. Pushkin.