The content of psychological counseling in foreign psychology. Rational-emotive approach in psychological counseling
Topic:Main pconsulting inputs.
There are two main approaches to counseling and therapy.
Suggested by American therapists Kottler, Brown
reference point ovann s for insight action oriented
client-centered behavioral
existential rational-emotive
psychoanalytic strategic
gestalt counseling
insight oriented- connection with self-awareness, self-understanding and self-disclosure, which provides true personal growth. The belief that insight precedes any real and lasting change.
Action Oriented- developing self-awareness and understanding of the counseling process, conducting direct interventions leading to relief from symptoms.
Suggested by the Russian psychologist Abramova G.S. She divided all directions into:
psychodynamic approach (psychoanalysis - Z. Freud, individual psychology - A. Adler, analytical psychology - C. Jung, transactional analysis - E. Berne).
behavioral direction - social learning, social competence training; self-learning, cognitive therapy; Rational Emotive Therapy - Ellis A.
psychodynamic approach - group therapy - Rogers K.
Psychoanalysis is independent.
Gestalt counseling - on your own.
Adlerian Consulting ( Alfred Adler)
Key points ( Rudolf Drakers, 1950):
1. social conditioning. Almost any problem has a social context and arises as a result of a person's need to belong to a group or find their place in it. 2. Autonomy and creativity: Adler believed that people are active participants in their lives and can change it.
3. Purposefulness. According to Adler, behavior is aimed at achieving goals that follow from the potential outcome of actions. It is useless to look for the causes of behavior, since they are unknowable, but even if this were not the case, they still cannot be changed. Goals, if they are realized, can be changed and chosen at your discretion. four. Subjectivism. It is not so important what happens to us, but it is important how we perceive it. 5. Holism. People are inherently integral, and it is impossible to decompose them into separate, independent units. In communication we are dealing with a whole person.
In Adlerian psychology, the feeling of inferiority is the basis of anxiety and is destructive for the client.
Purpose of counseling: by restoring self-confidence, the client was able to overcome feelings of inferiority. The individual counseling process includes four steps.
1. Become aware of your stereotypes. 2. Stop being afraid to make a mistake. 3. Allow yourself to be imperfect. 4. Enjoy the activity.
Client - centered referral (non-directive, person-centered, humanistic, Rogerian; counseling based on the theory of "I").
Founder - K. Rogers.
Topic 41. Psychological counseling: goals, objectives, principles.
The place of psychological counseling in the system of measures to provide psychological assistance to a person in a difficult life situation.
The goals of psychological counseling and the activities of a psychologist-consultant. The tasks of psychological counseling and their connection with the direction of assistance.
Types of psychological counseling and their features. Principles of psychological counseling.
Similarities and differences of psychological counseling with psychotherapy, psychocorrection and psychodiagnostics.
Psychological counseling is a special area of practical psychology associated with the provision by a specialist psychologist of direct psychological assistance to people who need it, in the form of advice and recommendations. They are given by the psychologist to the client on the basis of a personal conversation and a preliminary study of the problem that the client has encountered in life. Most often, psychological counseling is carried out at prearranged hours, in a specially equipped room, usually isolated from strangers, and in a confidential environment.
Psychological counseling is an established practice of providing effective psychological assistance to people, based on the conviction that every physically and mentally healthy person is able to cope with almost all the psychological problems that arise in his life.
Counseling as the main type of psychological practice pursues the following goals :
1. Providing prompt assistance to the client in solving his problems.
People often have such problems that require urgent intervention, an urgent solution - those for which the client does not have the opportunity to spend a lot of time, effort and money. Such problems are usually called operational, and a similar name is assigned to the corresponding solutions. Receiving urgent psychological assistance in the form of oral consultation in solving operational problems becomes indispensable. For example, the parent of a child may experience such serious complications in his relationship with him, the continuation of which is fraught with very adverse consequences for the state of the physical and mental health of the child. An employee of an institution may also have a serious problem that needs urgent solution, which, for example, he will have to resolve in communication with his immediate supervisor during a short meeting scheduled for one of the coming days. The third example: in a family, a husband or wife can unexpectedly sharply complicate relations with his wife (husband) or with any of his (her) relatives. Because of this, a complex situation fraught with serious adverse consequences can develop in this family.
2. Rendering assistance to the client in solving those issues with which he could easily cope on his own without interference from outside, without the direct and constant participation of the psychologist in his affairs, i.e. where special professional psychological knowledge, as a rule, is not needed and only general, everyday, common-sense advice is needed. Such, for example, the problem may be the client's determination of the optimal mode of work and rest for himself, the rational distribution of time between different types of activities.
3. Providing temporary assistance to a client who actually needs a long-term, more or less permanent psychotherapeutic effect, but for one reason or another is not able to count on him at a given time. In this case, psychological counseling is used as a means of providing current, operational assistance to the client, which restrains the progressive development of negative processes, preventing further aggravation of the problem faced by the client. Such, for example, may be the very unexpected appearance of a state of depression in a client.
4. When the client already has a correct understanding of his problem and he, in principle, is ready to start solving it himself, but he still doubts something, he is not quite sure that he is right. Then, in the process of conducting psychological counseling, the client, communicating with the psychologist-consultant, receives from him the necessary professional and moral support, and this gives him self-confidence.
5. Providing assistance to the client in the case when he has no other opportunity than to receive advice. In this case, when conducting psychological counseling, a specialist psychologist should make it clear to the client that he actually needs to receive more thorough, fairly long-term psychocorrectional or psychotherapeutic assistance.
6. When psychological counseling is not used as a substitute for other methods of providing psychological assistance to a client, and together with them, in addition to them, with the expectation that not only the psychologist, but also the client himself will deal with the problem that has arisen.
7. In cases where a consultant psychologist does not have a ready-made solution, since the situation is beyond his competence, he must provide the client with at least some, even minimal and insufficiently effective, assistance.
In all these and other similar cases, psychological counseling solves the following main tasks :
1. Clarification (clarification) of the problem encountered by the client.
2. Informing the client about the essence of his problem, about the real degree of its severity. (Problem informing the client.)
3. The study by a psychologist-consultant of the personality of the client in order to find out whether the client can independently cope with the problem that has arisen for him.
5. Providing ongoing assistance to the client in the form of additional practical advice offered at a time when he had already begun to solve his problem.
6. Client training how best to prevent the occurrence of similar problems in the future (the task of psychoprophylaxis).
7. Transfer by a consultant psychologist to a client of elementary, vital psychological knowledge and skills, the development and correct use of which is possible by the client himself without special psychological preparation. (Psychological and educational informing the client.)
Principles of psychological counseling:
1. Competence, professional and scientific responsibility (Do no harm!)
The competence of the consultant is the basis of his work. The consultant is obliged to correctly assess the level of his professional competence. He should not instill in the client hope for help that he is unable to provide. In counseling, the use of insufficiently mastered diagnostic and therapeutic procedures is unacceptable. Counseling meetings should never be used to test any counseling methods or techniques. Lack of competence leads to a misunderstanding of the patient's personality and condition, which is the core of the consultant's work.
To be competent, a consultant must not interrupt education and practice and constantly improve their qualifications and deepen their specialization. The consultant must know the age, gender, ethnic, socio-psychological and individual psychological characteristics of the client. If the consultant feels in some cases that he is not competent enough, he is obliged to consult with more experienced colleagues and improve under their guidance.
The consultant is directly responsible for the consequences of his decisions, actions, expert opinions, diagnostic operations. Expert opinions and psychological status must be substantiated, representative and valid, presented in a clear and understandable form, since this implies indications or contraindications for the use of a particular method.
The counseling psychologist must be aware that his professional actions affect the life decisions of the client and can change the personal and social status of the person.
Understanding that intervening in the fate of a person who has trusted a consultant is a huge responsibility leads to strict introspection and systematic reflection on the consequences of not only every word, but also every paralinguistic gesture.
2 . Confidentiality
Confidentiality, non-disclosure or duty of silence of the consultant in relation to third parties is the most important principle of the consultant's work. Failure to comply with this principle leads to a complete collapse of the patient's trust in the consultant and makes his work meaningless. There are two levels of confidentiality. The first level refers to the limit of professional use of customer information. It is the responsibility of each consultant to use client information for professional purposes only. The consultant is not entitled to disseminate information about the client with other intentions. This also applies to the fact that someone is undergoing a course of psycho-correction.
It is extremely important and at the same time the most difficult to achieve that this principle is perceived by the consultant even at the level of the unconscious.
For example, if a client and a consultant meet quite by chance in a different setting, then the consultant, who knows almost everything about this person, does not even have the right to greet him until the client himself considers it necessary to let them know about their acquaintance.
Information about clients (consultant records, individual client cards) should be kept in places inaccessible to outsiders.
The consultant, while ensuring secrecy, must acquaint the client with the circumstances in which professional secrecy is not respected. Confidentiality cannot be elevated to an absolute principle. More often we have to talk about its boundaries.
There are several basic rules, following which you can set such boundaries.
1. Be sure to observe confidentiality not absolutely, but relatively, since there are certain conditions that can change such an obligation.
2. Confidentiality depends on the nature of the information provided by the client, however, the confidentiality of the client binds the consultant incomparably more strictly than the "secrecy" of the events reported by the client.
3. Materials of consultation meetings that cannot harm the interests of the client are not subject to confidentiality rules.
4. Materials of consultation meetings necessary for the effective work of the consultant are also not subject to confidentiality rules (for example, it is possible to provide an expert with consultation materials by agreement with the client.
5. Confidentiality is always based on the client's right to good name and secrecy. The consultant is obliged to respect the rights of clients and, in certain cases, even to act illegally (for example, not to provide information about the client to law enforcement agencies, if this does not violate the rights of third parties).
6. Confidentiality is limited to the consultant's right to preserve his own dignity and the safety of his person.
7. Confidentiality is limited by the rights of third parties and the public.
Among the most frequently cited circumstances under which the confidentiality rules in counseling may be limited, the following deserve mention:
1. Increased risk to the life of the client or other people.
2. Criminal acts (violence, corruption, incest, etc.) committed against minors.
3. The need for hospitalization of the client.
4. Participation of the client and other persons in the distribution of drugs and other criminal activities.
Having found out during counseling that the client poses a serious threat to someone, the consultant is obliged to take measures to protect the potential victim (or victims) and inform her (them), parents, relatives, law enforcement agencies about the danger. The consultant must also inform the client of his intentions.
When faced with a dilemma, what should be preferred: to maintain confidentiality, according to a code of ethics, or to follow legal norms? Practice shows that preference should be given to the latter option.
3. Exclusion of professional abuse (client awareness)
One of the forms of professional abuse should include the patient's lack of awareness of the goals, nature and meaning of the technique used. The client must be thoroughly informed about what and why the consultant is going to do with him, what are the results of the psychological status study and what is his basic problem.
Meeting clients outside the office, making personal requests to the client, or forming any informal relationship with the client nullifies the work of the consultant.
It is not advisable to consult relatives, friends, employees studying with a student consultant; sexual contact with clients is not allowed. Such a prohibition is quite understandable, since counseling gives the specialist an advantageous position and there is a danger that in personal relationships this advantage can be used for the purpose of exploitation.
The problem of sexual relations of consultants and psychotherapists with clients is very important, however, it is often hushed up. Sexual relations between counselors and clients are neither ethically nor professionally acceptable because they represent a direct abuse of the counselor's role. Sometimes the client strongly idealizes the consultant, he wants a close relationship with such an ideal person who deeply understands him. However, when the counseling contact turns into a sexual relationship, clients develop extreme dependence and the counselor loses objectivity. This is where any professional counseling or psychotherapy ends.
4. The principle of "Do not evaluate" (non-judgmental attitude)
The principle “Do not evaluate” is considered one of the most difficult to achieve in the work of a consultant. Usually, each judgment, along with the cognitive content, also carries an attitude - the emotional component of the judgment. It is often not possible to separate these components, but this is what constitutes the essence of the therapist's relationship with the client.
At the forefront of the relationship should be not evaluation, but understanding, even if the information coming from the client to the consultant is monstrous from the point of view of morality. By evaluating and condemning, the consultant closes access to the understanding of the personality and, therefore, cannot find the best way to work with him. to judge and evaluate within oneself up to the subconscious. It is possible to observe this principle only after gaining experience and only under the condition of conscious efforts to ensure that all modal relations to the client are silenced in one's own soul. The consultant is not required to "like" or "dislike" the client; he is obliged, personally and silently, to place his problem in the broad context of the world experience of psychology and to find a mode through which it will be possible to strengthen and expand his consciousness and the ability to develop it. The latter will be an adequate form of respect for the rights of the individual instead of empty talk about rights.
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1. The concept of psychologicalcounseling.Goals andtasks, principlescounseling,
Psychological counseling- Applied branch of modern psychology. In system psychological science, its task is to develop the theoretical foundations and applied programs for providing psychological help mentally and somatically healthy people in situations when they face their own problems.
The specificity of psychological counseling is the emphasis on dialogue, circulation information, on the exchange of information between a psychologist-consultant and those people for whom psychological counseling is used. Tasks: Listening to the client. Relief of the emotional state of the client. Acceptance by the client of responsibility for what is happening to him. Assistance from a psychologist in determining what exactly and how can be changed in a situation. Target psychological counseling is defined as providing psychological help, that is, a conversation with a psychologist should help a person in solving his problems and establishing relationships with others. The purpose of psychological counseling according to R. Kociunas:
to promote a change in the behavior of the client or a change in attitude to the situation, to help client enjoy life and live productively; develop skills to overcome life's difficulties; ensure effective decision-making;
develop the ability to establish and maintain interpersonal relationships;
facilitate the realization and increase of the potential of the individual.
Principles psychological counseling: benevolent and invaluable attitude towards the client; focus on the norms and values of the client; careful attitude to advice; distinction between personal and professional relationships; the involvement of the client and the psychologist in the counseling process.
3. Basic tricksreferenceconversations. The personality and professional ethics of a psychologistconsultant.
Conventionally, the conversation between a consultant and a client can be divided into four stages: Acquaintance with the client and the beginning of the conversation. Questioning the client, formulating and testing advisory hypotheses.
corrective impact. End of conversation. The duration of the reception, during which the conversation actually takes place, varies significantly depending on the goals and objectives of counseling, the organizational forms within which it is carried out, as well as the theoretical orientation of the consultant. Start of a conversation. The first thing the consultant needs to do during the appointment is to meet and seat the client. The success of the conversation largely depends on how, from the very first minutes, the psychologist will be able to prove himself to be a friendly and interested interlocutor. A very important point in the beginning of the conversation is getting to know the client by name. In principle, the client may refuse to identify himself, but forget or not invite him to introduce himself - this means in many ways dooming the consultation to failure.
Client inquiry. We will conditionally divide this stage of the conversation into two sub-stages, at the first of which the psychologist still does not know anything about the client and therefore is most interested in the latter telling as fully as possible about himself and his situation. The second stage begins when the consultant already has enough information to formulate psycho-correctional hypotheses and begin testing them. The first phase of questioning the client. Since the main goal of the consultant in this phase is to "talk" the client, its implementation will be best helped by questions and remarks that maximally stimulate his story. “Tell me about your relationship...”, “What is your family like?” Naturally, while the client is talking, the psychologist is not just listening, but working. It is conditionally possible to single out several areas of work at this stage of counseling. The consultant 1) maintains contact with the client; 2) stimulates him to continue the story; 3) contributes to the purposeful development of the conversation; 4) makes sense of what the client is saying. In order to fully participate in the dialogue with the client, the consultant should remember the names, titles, dates, various details mentioned by the client. The questioning process takes 25-30 minutes, but 15-20 minutes after the start of the conversation, the consultant should already understand the client's problems and situation well enough to be ready to move on to the second phase of the questioning - formulating and testing advisory hypotheses. Hypotheses in psychological counseling. Each hypothesis is the consultant's attempt to understand the client's advice.
Hypotheses in psychological counseling are, in fact, options for more constructive positions in a situation, probable ways of reorienting the client in his attitude to his problems.
The counselor's hypotheses are based on what the client says about himself and his problems. The second phase of questioning the client. In the second phase, the nature of the questions fundamentally changes. The wording becomes more subtle, aimed at clarifying the consultant's ideas. “How many times a week does he come back after twelve?”, “When exactly did you first have the feeling that she was unwell?” The main approach to work at the 2nd stage of the questioning is the analysis of specific situations from the life of the client Working with specific situations is one of the most reliable ways for a consultant to test his hypotheses. After two or three such specific situations have been discussed, the consultant can say with certainty which of the hypotheses turned out to be the most appropriate. Provision of psychocorrectional influence. The impact is based on the analysis of a specific situation. The tasks of psycho-correctional influence can be considered realized only in the case when a peculiar chain of events is built not only in the mind of the consultant, but also in the mind of the client. The goal of the consultant is to help the client formulate as many possible behaviors as possible, and then, carefully analyzing them, choose what is most appropriate for this person in his situation. End of conversation. 1. Summing up the conversation (a brief summary of everything that happened during the reception; 2. Discussion of issues related to further relations
client with a consultant or other necessary specialists; 3. Consultant's farewell to the client.
2. Stages of the consultative process. Stage 1. Acquaintance with the client and the beginning of the conversation. The duration of this stage is 5-10 minutes, with the average duration of one consultative conversation 45 minutes - 1 hour 10 minutes. During this stage, the psychologist-consultant performs the following actions: You can stand up to meet the client or meet her at the door of the office, which will be perceived by the client as a demonstration of goodwill and interest. It is advisable to encourage the client with words like “Come in, please”, “Sit down comfortably”.
After the first minutes of contact with the client, it is recommended to give him a pause of 45 - 60 seconds so that the client can collect his thoughts and look around. After a pause, it is desirable to begin the actual acquaintance. As Kociunas R.-A. B. (1999), the client must make a decision about his entry in the counseling process is quite conscious, therefore, before the start of the counseling process, the counseling psychologist
is obliged to provide the client with maximum information about the consulting process, namely: about the main goals of consulting, about His qualifications, fees for consulting, about the approximate duration of counseling, the appropriateness of counseling in this situation, about risk
temporary deterioration of the client's condition in consultation process, about privacy boundaries. G) It is important to coordinate with the client in advance the possibility of audio and video recording. g) It is important not to allow the client to use the consultant for his own purposes, far from consulting, h) After addressing all of the above above questions, you can proceed to questioning the client, which will mark the beginning of the second stage of psychological counseling. Stage 2. Client inquiry, formation and verification of consultative hypotheses The duration of this stage is 25 - 35 minutes with an average duration of a consultative conversation of 45 minutes - 1 hour 10 minutes. This stage can be conditionally divided into two sub-stages: Formation of advisory hypotheses.
Testing advisory hypotheses. The activity of a psychologist-coisulypant at the first sub-line "Formation to advisory hypotheses":
a) Empathic Listening. Usually, when talking about empathy in psychology, they mean the ability to sensitively perceive the inner world another man with all his semantic and emotional nuances. This corresponds to an active response consultant for then. what the client says, frequent utterance of words like “Of course”, “Uh-huh”, “Yes, yes.”
4. The specifics of remote counseling.
The goal is to prevent the further development of acute crisis states, to help resolve a traumatic situation.
Principles: Respect for the anonymity of the applicant - it strengthens
the patient's sense of security, increases confidence when discussing personal problems; Establishing a “compassionate partnership” relationship; Compliance with the availability of a psychotherapist; awareness of the availability of help relieves feelings of loneliness and helplessness; Compliance with the sequence of stages of therapy. two stages: on the 1st, assistance is provided in mastering the situation. On the 2nd - correction of suicidogenic attitudes. The first conversation is crucial in preventing a further development of the crisis. In the helpline - this conversation lasts from 1.5 to 2 hours, it requires maximum effort from the employee. stage: establishing contact - the main task is to convince of emotional acceptance and sympathy - emotional tension decreases. Emotional acceptance stops the experience of loneliness expressed in suicidal reactions.
stage: intellectual mastery of the situation. sympathetically
listening to the patient, the therapist reduces the emotional
tension, asking appropriate questions the therapist forms
in the mind of the subscriber an objective and consistent picture
psychotraumatic situation in its development - the method of "structuring
situations." Helpline employee emphasizes that the subscriber
have time to think about the situation. Talking about your life
way, the patient reports his successes, difficulties. Therapist tactfully
emphasizes these successes, forming the interlocutor's idea of him
as a person capable of realizing a productive life
ways and overcoming difficulties - reception success therapy and
achievements." Repetition of the content of statements by this technique
the subscriber is informed that he is being listened to carefully and correctly
understand. Stage III: planning the actions necessary to overcome the critical situation. The main techniques of stage III:
Interpretation - the helpline employee makes hypotheses about possible ways to resolve the situation. Planning - an incentive to verbalize plans for future activities.
Holding a pause - The purpose of a pause is to give the client an opportunity to take the initiative. Active psychological support - increases the confidence of the applicant in his ability to overcome
difficult situation, highlighting past achievements. Techniques: logical argumentation, persuasion, rational suggestion.
5. Humanistically oriented counseling.
In person-centered or client-centered theory
emphasizes the importance of the self-concept of people, depending on
the ways in which they understand and define themselves. The desire for actualization, inherent in the body and making it possible for its self-preservation and self-reinforcement, is the only motivating stimulus for people. The self-concept develops very early in people. Many of the self-images that form the self-concept are likely based on the organism's own evaluative process. However, other self-concepts reflect the values of others, seen as concepts based on one's own organismic evaluative process. Thus, a conflict arises between the desire for actualization and the self-concept, which is a subsystem of the desire for actualization. This conflict prevents the correct perception of both internal and external experience. Pre-perception is the mechanism by which the organism senses where the experience is inconsistent with the self-concept. Depending on the degree of threat that the experience brings with it, the organism can defend its self-concept by rejecting the experience or distorting its perception. People are psychologically well to the extent that their self-concepts allow them to perceive essential sensory and visceral experiences. Rogers and Maslow's goals in counseling and in life. Six key characteristics of self-image of fully functioning or self-actualizing people are identified: openness to experience, rationality, personal responsibility, self-esteem, the ability to establish and maintain good personal relationships, and leading an ethical lifestyle. In the practice of person-centered counseling, the emphasis is on the quality of interpersonal relationships. The central starting point is that if consultants create a certain atmosphere in building relationships with clients, then the personality of those clients is constructively changed. No preliminary assessment is given. The person-centered counselor provides all clients with relationship congruence, unconditional positive regard, and empathy. Creating such an atmosphere contributes to the fact that clients have increased congruence in relationships, increased self-esteem and empathy. Thus, clients are in the process of becoming a person and regulating their own lives.
7.Behaviorally oriented counseling.
Behavioral theory can also be seen as
comprehensive theory, and as an attempt to describe on the basis of
experiments laws or principles by which
human behavior is studied and supported. Pavlov conducted large-scale studies, during which he studied the functioning of the cerebral hemispheres of dogs. Pavlov discovered the conditioned reflex, which is known as classical or respondent conditioning. Watson considered behavioral psychology, otherwise called "behaviorism", as an objective experimental branch of natural science, which deals mainly with human behavior. Watson distinguished between acquired and non-acquired responses. Most human reactions are acquired. On the basis of conditioning, systems of habits are formed: a) visceral or emotional; b) manual; c) laryngeal or verbal. Skinner believed that behavior is shaped and sustained by its consequences. The theory of operant conditioning emphasizes that behavior affects the environment, generating consequences. Reinforcers are events that increase the likelihood of a response. The components of reinforcement that describe the interaction between the organism and the environment are: a) the circumstance in which the reaction takes place; b) the reaction itself; c) reinforcing consequences. Behavioral counseling begins with a behavioral assessment, which is carried out to determine the goals and methods of treatment. Evaluation involves the collection of data, which may be obtained from interviews or other sources such as the client's self-observation. Counselors can help clients by increasing the number of reinforcers available and diversifying incentives. This approach is very effective in treating people who are depressed. a) deep muscle relaxation training; b) creation of thematic hierarchies of stimuli that cause anxiety; c) presenting the points of the hierarchy to the imagination of deeply relaxed clients. Counselors can teach clients how to manage stimuli associated with adaptive and inappropriate responses and how to use positive and negative self-reinforcement. Goals: eliminating deficits in behavioral repertoires; strengthening adaptive behavior; weakening or eliminating inappropriate behavior; elimination of debilitating anxiety reactions, development of the ability to relax; development of the ability to assert oneself; development of effective social skills; achieving adequate sexual
functioning; developing the ability to self-regulate.
6. Gestalt-oriented counseling.
The founders of Gestalt therapy are Frederick S. Perls, Ralph F. Heffrline, Paul Goodman. Therapy consists in analyzing the internal structure of actual experience, regardless of the inherent degree of contact, in studying not so much what is experienced, remembered, done, etc., but how it is remembered, how it is said, etc. All the directions described works contribute to the integration of the client's personality, help to overcome neurotic defense mechanisms and find the "true self". The main theoretical provisions of Gestalt therapy: Each organism strives to achieve a state of full functioning, which means completeness
internal organs. A person in the process of perceiving the external world does not perceive individual elements
reality as isolated and not interconnected, but organizes them into a whole or into gestalts that have for him
values. The functioning of the individual is carried out through a process of self-regulation, through which the organism satisfies its needs (or incomplete gestalt) and maintains a balance in constantly changing
conditions. An individual can exist only within the boundaries of the environment, which is an integral field that includes him and
environment, and its behavior is a function of the entire field.
A characteristic element of Gestalt therapy is attention to the processes and phenomena occurring in the body as a whole, and not in individual elements of its structure. The main process integrating the functioning of the body is consciousness. Gestalt recognizes and restores balance in consciousness, thereby helping a person to find his completeness (comfort). Within the framework of the concept of Gestalt therapy, the following variants of protective mechanisms are described: PROJECTION. Attributing own undesirable qualities and motives for the client to other people. INTROJECTION. The client acts in accordance with the principles, attitudes, rules, etc. learned from significant people (especially in childhood).
DEFLECTION. Avoiding real action to overcome obstacles or solve problems by
endless and hopeless talk about the problem.
CONFLUENCE. Blurring the boundaries of one's Self and merging with the Self of another person without a clear delineation of one from the other. The client in such cases, describing his experiences, uses the pronoun "we". RETROFLEXION. Instead of focusing energy on overcoming external difficulties and obstacles, a person turns it on himself, so he often becomes inappropriately aggressive or acquires psychosomatic
disorder. Principles gestalt therapy:
The principle of "now", or the idea of focusing on the present moment, is the most important principle in Gestalt -
therapy. The principle of "I and You". This principle expresses the desire for open and direct contact between people.
Those. not just transfer the conversation to the therapist, but directly talk to the person about the problem. The principle of subjectivization of the utterance. This principle is related to the semantic aspects of the responsibility and involvement of the patient. For example: “Something is pressing me”, “something is preventing me from saying this” Continuity (continuum) of awareness - intentional concentration on the spontaneous flow of the content of experiences,
being aware of what and how is happening at the moment.
8. The subject, goals and objectives of cognitive-oriented counseling.
The cognitive approach is based on theories describing personality in terms of the organization of cognitive structures. It is with them that the psychologist works in a corrective plan, and in some cases we are talking not only about violations of the cognitive sphere itself, but also about the difficulties that determine communication problems, internal conflicts, etc. Cognitive psycho-correction is focused on the present. This approach is directive, active and focused on the client's problem, used both in individual and group form, as well as for the correction of family and marital relations. The following features can be distinguished: The focus is not on the client's past, but on his present - thoughts about himself and the world. It is believed that knowledge of the causes of disorders does not always lead to their correction: for example, if a person comes to the doctor with a broken bone, then the task of the doctor is to heal the fracture, and not to study the causes that led to it. Correction is based on learning new ways of thinking. Widespread use of the homework system aimed at transferring the acquired new skills to the environment of real interaction.
3. The main task of correction is changes in self-perception
and the surrounding reality, while recognizing that
knowledge about oneself and the world influences behavior, and behavior and its
the consequences affect the perceptions of oneself and the world.
The cognitive approach can be divided into two directions:
1. Cognitive-analytical.
2. Cognitive-behavioral.
Cognitive-analytical direction.
The main task is to create a model of a psychological problem that would be understandable to the client and with which he could work independently. The task of the psychologist D. Kelly considered to be the clarification of unconscious categories of thinking (which are the source of categories of thinking) and teaching the client new ways of thinking. To do this, he created techniques for the direct correction of inadequate ways of thinking. The main concepts used in the cognitive-analytical direction: "traps", "dilemmas", "obstacles".
The goal of cognitive counseling is to “encourage the reality-testing system anew” (Beck. 1990). Cognitive counselors “teach patients to correct cognitive processing defects themselves and reinforce assumptions that enable them to cope” (Beck, Weishaar, 1989). In addition, cognitive counselors seek to develop in clients behavioral skills that are relevant to their problems. When working with cognitions, counselors teach clients to: control negative automatic thoughts; awareness of the connection between cognitions, emotions and behavior; research and verification of arguments for and against, distorted automatic thoughts; replacing prejudice-based cognitions with more rational interpretations; identifying and changing beliefs that contribute to a predisposition to
distortion of experience
9. A. Beck's cognitive theory. cognitive distortions. Strategies for cognitiveoriented counseling.
A. Beck expresses a fundamentally new approach to the correction of emotional disorders, different from the traditional schools of psychoanalysis and behavioral therapy. A cognitive approach to emotional disorders changes a person's view of himself and his problems. The client is taught to see himself as an individual who is prone to generate erroneous ideas, but who is also able to reject or correct erroneous ideas. Only by identifying or correcting thought errors can the client create a life of higher self-fulfillment for themselves. The main idea of A. Beck's cognitive psycho-correction is that the decisive factor for the survival of the organism is the processing of information. As a result, programs of behavior are born. A person survives by receiving information from the environment, synthesizing it and planning actions based on this synthesis, i.e. developing their own program of behavior. each person in cognitive functioning has its own weak point - “cognitive vulnerability”. It is she who disposes a person to psychological stress. Cognitive Distortions- These are systematic errors in judgments under the influence of emotions. These include: 1.Personalization- the tendency to interpret the event in terms of personal meanings. The client overestimates both the frequency and extent of the negative feelings he causes in other people. 2. Dichotomous thinking. A person perceives the world only in contrasting colors, rejecting halftones, a neutral emotional position. H. Selective abstraction (extraction). at a noisy party, a young man becomes jealous of his girlfriend, who bowed her head to another person in order to better hear him. 4. Unsubstantiated inferences- unsubstantiated or even contradictory inferences. For example, a working mother at the end of a hard day's work concludes: "I am a bad mother." 5. Overgeneralization 6. Exaggeration (catastrophization)- exaggeration of the consequences of any events Cognitive Oriented Counseling Strategy1. Troubleshooting- identification of problems based on the same causes and their grouping. 2. Awareness and verbalization of non-adaptive cognitions, distorting the perception of reality. 3. estrangement- the process of objective consideration of thoughts, in which the client considers his maladaptive thoughts as psychological phenomena isolated from reality. 5. Change of attitude to the rules of self-regulation. b. Checking the truth of the rules, replacing them with new ones, more flexible. correction goals. The main goal is to correct inadequate cognitions, realize the rules of inadequate information processing and replace them with correct ones. The tasks of a psychologist. To teach the client to be aware of the connections between cognitive schemas, affects and behavior. Learn to replace dysfunctional thoughts with more realistic interpretations. Identify and change beliefs that predispose to experience distortion. position of the psychologist. Since A. Beck believes that the psychologist and the client are co-workers in the study of facts. Which reinforce or refute the client's cognitive schemes, then this is a two-way process and it is a partnership. Therefore, a partnership should develop between the client and the psychologist. Interpretations or assumptions of the client are considered by the psychologist as hypotheses that need to be tested and confirmed.
11. The main stages of cognitive-oriented counseling. Cognitive and Behavioral Techniques Used in Cognitive-Oriented Counseling.
1. Acquaintance. 2 Identification of problematic interfering behavior, (using empathic listening.) 3. Identification of forms of distortion in behavior and in reaction to the situation, (distortions: personalization, dichotomous thinking - thoughts in extremes, selective abstraction, arbitrary inferences, over-communicativeness,
exaggeration). 4. Development of a new behavior model (through new forms of behavior, homework, etc.) 5. Checking the new selected behavior, working on errors, working out point 3 again.
1-3 COGNITIVE TECHNIQUES, S-BEHAVIORAL TECHNIQUES.
1.
Identification automatic thoughts. Void filling is applied - this method helps the client with disorders of excessive shame, anxiety, anger or sadness in interpersonal situations. Fills the void (B) between "A and C": A - an exciting event, C - a moderate, inadequate reaction, B - a void in the patient's mind, which
serves as a bridge between A and C. The void is filled through elements of the patient's belief system. 2. Correction automatic thoughts includes decatastrophizing, reattribution, reformulation,
decentralization. Decatastrophization - refers to the reduction of catastrophization (the client's tendency to exaggerate everything to
catastrophes). This technique - "what if" - is intended for the study of actual, actual events and
consequences that, in the mind of the client, cause him psychological damage and cause a feeling of anxiety.
Technique helps to prepare for the consequences associated with fear. The technique itself: the client describes one of his super fears and the psychologist equates, together with the client, his fear on a 100-point scale, for example, with the loss of a loved one, etc. Reattribution- verification of the correctness of automatic thoughts and beliefs, alternative causes of events are considered. Reattribution is especially useful in cases where the client perceives himself as the cause
events in the absence of evidence. The reattribution technique involves a reality check and an examination of all the factors that influenced the occurrence of the situation. Reformation- the technique is designed to mobilize a person who believes that the problem is not under their control. Decentralization- with various psychological disorders (anxiety, depression, paranoid states) - the main distortion of thinking stems from the client's tendency to personify events that are not related to him. Identification and correction dysfunctional beliefs are very difficult to work with and isolate. Work with them is carried out through a cognitive experiment and the study of beliefs. Homework- provides an opportunity to apply and consolidate cognitive principles between consultations. AT
Cognitive counseling, like any other DZ, is given without fail, its implementation is checked, new forms of behavior and attitudes to the situation are honed through DZ. Behavior rehearsal and role play - used to train skills that will later be applied in behavior. Distraction techniques - to reduce strong emotions and negative thinking. This includes physical activity, social contacts, work, play.
Activity planning is the implementation of the daily routine, as well as the assessment of the performance of a particular activity.
10. Maintheoreticalaspects of rational-emotive therapy by A. Ellis.
A. Ellis believes that every person is born with a certain potential, and this potential has two sides: rational and irrational; constructive and destructive, etc. According to A. Ellis, psychological problems appear when a person tries to follow simple preferences (desires for love, approval, support) and mistakenly believes that these simple preferences are the absolute measure of his success in life. In addition, a person is a being extremely subject to various influences at all levels - from biological to social. Therefore, A. Ellis is not inclined to reduce all the changeable complexity of human nature to one thing. RET distinguishes three leading psychological aspects of human functioning: thoughts (cognitions), feelings and behavior. A. Ellis identified two types of cognition: descriptive and evaluative. Descriptive cognitions contain information about reality, about what a person has perceived in the world, this is “pure” information about reality. Evaluative cognitions reflect a person's attitude to this reality. Descriptive cognitions are necessarily connected with evaluative connections of varying degrees of rigidity. Important in RET is the concept of "trap", i.e. all those cognitive formations that create unreasonable neurotic anxiety. A.Ellis proposed his own personality structure, which he named after the first letters of the Latin alphabet "ABC-theory": A - activating event; B - client's opinion about the event; C - emotional or behavioral consequences of the event; D - subsequent reaction to the event as a result of mental processing; E - the final value conclusion (constructive or destructive). This conceptual scheme has found wide application in practical correctional psychology, since it allows the client himself to conduct effective self-observation and self-analysis in the form of diary entries.
12. Sociometric techniques of the psychologist's work with the family.
sociometric techniques
Sociometric techniques are methods for observing, measuring and changing social interaction. The relationship of roles and functions in a particular social system is the main object of study here.
Based on the sociometric approach, social and clinical psychologists have invented many new techniques.
1. Family sociogram
- method of describing preferences and
role-playing choices.
2. Hemogram - method of describing family history.
3. Ecomap -
method of describing the place of a given family in
extended family system and social
community great attention is paid to those internal
and external resources that are available to the family.
4. Family space -
description method
relationships of space, place and emotions in a given
family system.
5. Family sculpture
-
location method
individual in the intra-family system of relationships, in
current situation, or
presented perfectly.
6. Games -
metaphors for playing role-playing behavior in
family on the basis of some kind of joint activity.
7. Role playing card game
-
role determination method
behavior expected of family members and
perceived by other family members as adequate.
Sociometric techniques provide the family therapist with many options.
1. They take the psychotherapeutic process away from intellectual and emotional discussion towards real interaction. They place the present, the past and the foreseeable
the future into the operating system "here and now".
They contain important elements of personal
projection and identification. They vividly represent and dramatize the role play.
behavior. They are very unexpected for customers, not
fit the way they imagine
work at a psychotherapeutic session
2. They are interesting
They are a form
metacommunications. They focus on the social system and the process of social interaction.
13. Structural model of psychological counseling of the family (S. Minukhin,
B. Montalvo, B. Gurney).
In this model, the family is interpreted as a continuous experiment, in which they balance on the verge of stability and change. The family will make mistakes, conflicts will arise because of mistakes, they will be resolved and thus the family will develop. From these rather obvious provisions, the basic concepts of the structural model are derived: the structure of the family, the subsystems of the family, the boundaries of the structure. The structure of the family, according to S. Minukhin (1974), “forms an invisible network of requirements and functions that forms the ways of interaction in the family.” This is a constant, repetitive, predictable behavior that makes it possible to judge whether the family is functioning. And in order to function, it creates its own structure. Consequently, the structure of the family includes sets of conscious and unconscious rules that determine the interaction in the family. For this mechanism to work, a maintenance system is needed. It consists of two parts. The first is genetic, which is present in all families. This is a hierarchical system based on the authority of parents, which is always and everywhere higher than the authority of children. And the second - family complementary roles (for example, one of the parents is the most competent, the other is more emotional). Hierarchy and roles are not always clearly understood, often the reasons for their appearance are forgotten, but they are certainly balanced and complement each other. If this is not the case, the family does not function; actually broke up. A successful choice of roles by a couple, and this is the main condition for a successful marriage, according to S. Minukhin, involves coordination and adaptation. In addition to these basic concepts, in the structural model, an important place is given to the change of the family over time. Here, the so-called transition points are distinguished, in which the structure of the family changes. These points are as follows: marriage, the birth of children, the beginning of schooling, the youth of children, the departure of children from home. It is argued that in the countries of Western culture, these transitional points in the normal development of the family are symptoms of expected crises. S. Minukhin points out that it is easiest for a psychologist to influence a family during crises, especially deep ones.
15. Communication model of psychological counseling of the family (V. Satir, J. Grinder, R. Bandler, P. Vatslavik).
The most important provisions of P. Vatslavik on the rules of communication include the following: no one can not do things, therefore, no one can not communicate; communication has two levels - messages and commands (the command reveals the essence of the relationship); a separate act (communication) is understandable only in the context of behavior; problems arise in a certain context due to broken feedback. If the feedback is not broken, then the meaning of behavior is recognized identically and the family system can function and maintain its stability. This is a sign of a healthy, or normal, family. Such a family does not break up, having experienced stress. Shifts in it occur when there is a need for it. Communication by family members is clear and logical. Thus, the norm in this model is identified with functioning. A dysfunctional family does the opposite. She tries to avoid changes that would meet changing circumstances. For this reason, refuses information about these circumstances. Therefore, communication between its members does not occur, and if it does, then according to the patterns of double communication, when a verbal message denies a non-verbal one, and the sender of the message is not a psychologist, becomes a family teacher and a demonstrator of various forms of communication. At meetings with the family, he must discuss unconscious secret messages. He also suggests evaluating the effectiveness of assistance not during consultations or immediately after their completion, but several months after the last meeting with a psychologist. Another model of communication assistance to the family is offered by V. Satir. As V. Satir points out, while working with the family, she realized that a new family situation is created depending on the four most important phenomena: thoughts and feelings with which a person expresses his attitude towards himself, i.e. self-esteem; the ways in which people communicate information to each other, i.e. communications; the rules that people follow in their lives, i.e. family system; ways to maintain relationships with other social systems. Regardless of the family difficulties that prompted to turn to a psychologist, the way to influence the family is the same - you need to evaluate and correct all four of the phenomena mentioned. Healthy, prosperous families, which V. Satir calls mature families, are characterized by such properties: high self-esteem, direct, clear and honest communication, flexible and humane rules of conduct. In such a family, its members are oriented towards change (growth), social ties are open, full of positive attitudes and hopes. From the point of view of V. Satir, the natural need of every person is to grow. Each person has the necessary resources to achieve this goal. Using these resources, he can increase his potential. The task of the psychologist is to facilitate growth, to ensure that it meets the needs of the family as much as possible. V. Satir points out that in her system, psychological counseling of the family is carried out in five stages. During 1 stage a threat is revealed that prompted him to turn to family counseling. Establishing a diagnosis of the emerging threat and its expansion, linking it with communication in the family is the content of the first stage. On the 2 stage it turns out that someone (for example, a psychologist) must get involved in the relationships of family members and change them. However, at this time, the family tries to reject extraneous influence on it, to reject psychological help. 3 stage- the stage of chaos, incomprehensible communications and contradictory behavior. If there is no third stage, if everything is clear to the psychologist and the family, there will be no changes in the family. The stage of chaos obviously shows that the family can no longer live the way it used to. This is the most difficult stage for a psychologist, because. it begins the growth of the family, and its members are not yet active enough. At this stage, it is still inappropriate to make decisions that are significant for further relationships, but emotions are expressed and needs are revealed, and the desire for personal growth is strengthened. This allows you to proceed to the tasks of the fourth stage, i.e. to practice. The purpose of the stage is a new practice in the application of communication skills. Since a person gravitates towards old habits, only understanding the new communication situation does not guarantee a shift. Therefore, practical exercises and training are needed to help consolidate new communication. Here the family as a whole supports the psychologist. The fifth stage is the stage of a new family situation. It may be similar to the first one, and on it you can begin to implement a new cycle of psychological counseling for the family. A feature of further cycles is that the stage of chaos is shorter and not so contradictory. A family that has gone through three or more cycles of psychological counseling is usually free of threatening symptoms and approaches the model of a harmonious, balanced, open family. During the meeting with the family, the psychologist demonstrates balanced, harmonious communication and reveals, reveals to family members the inconsistency of their mutual communication.
14. Psychological counseling of the family based on the theory of family systemsM. Bowen (psychodynamic model).
No other psychological theory has been as widespread or as influential as psychoanalysis. The fundamental provisions and concepts (for example, the Oedipus complex) of this theory are closely related to family relationships. The main provisions of M. Boven: a family is a small group of people living in a common house. At the same time, the family is also an emotional system that includes all family members (both the living and the deceased, and those outside the family). This emotional system exists in the present.
16. The concept of an ideal family in the concept of K. Rogers. The role of the family therapist In the competence of K. Roger, each person has a desire to activate himself, to preserve, complicate his internal organization and adapt to the environment.
There is also a strong desire to meet the desires of others (to conform to them). Each person develops a self-esteem - an image, a representation of himself. A person begins to focus more not on his own self-esteem, but on the expectations of others. This deformation of personal development, which takes place in the modern family, inhibits the process of personal development and can lead to neurosis.
One of the main functions of the family is to create conditions for the development of the individual and all its members. The question is relevant - how family members communicate, perceive each other. Rogers identified 3 conditions under which the client begins to focus on his tendency to actualize himself, rather than on the opinions and assessments of others. This is the Rogers triad.
1. The therapist is congruent with the client
to our own experience (congruence - those reactions that we have - we try to follow them). Don't lie to the client.
2. He performs (experiences) the unconditional
positive acceptance towards the client. So that the client does not do or says something bad, the consultant accepts him.
3. Empathically perceive the client, i.e.
the ability to accept it and express to the client his feelings so that he can better understand himself. These 3 conditions can be realized in the following ways:
1. Verbalization - return to the client what he said.
2. The ability to be silent so that the client feels the unconditional
positive acceptance.
3. Actualization of the language of feelings.
The functions of creating conditions for the development of the personality of all family members correspond to the role of a family psychotherapist. Each member of the family should be a psychotherapist to another - this will correspond to their growth. The family will perform: the function of a refuge in a heartless world; providing psychological comfort. Rogers described 2 ways parents function.
1. Well functioning parents are
parents who are characterized by a high level of self-acceptance, which determines the high level of acceptance of their children and their organic evaluation.
2. Poorly functioning parents with low
a level of self-acceptance that prevents them from accepting their children and encourages them to often formulate a condition of value in relation to their children. The task of psychotherapy is to revive the role of the family therapist. There are questionnaires for the analysis of communication in the family. Scales: mutual understanding between spouses; degree of psychotherapy in communication.
17. The work of a psychologist-consultant with marital conflicts.
Let us dwell in more detail on some of the advantages of working with two spouses, as well as on certain difficulties associated with this option for clients to come to the consultation.
1. First of all, a conversation with two, and not with one spouse, is more diagnostic, allows you to immediately see the problems and difficulties that clients complain about.
2. Referring to what is happening "here and now" is more convincing and effective than the analysis of what is happening outside the consultant's office.
3. The presence of both clients allows you to successfully use a number of special techniques and techniques.
4. while working with both partners, it is possible, if necessary, to maintain the working motivation of one of them “at the expense” of the other.
5. Couple counseling is often more effective.
But, in addition to these and some other advantages, working with both spouses has a number of additional difficulties and disadvantages.
1. First of all, it is usually more difficult to conduct a reception in which two clients, rather than one, are usually more difficult, especially in the early stages of the consultation process, since the presence of the second member of the couple affects the course of the conversation in one way or another
2. Work with two spouses, although it is more effective, is often less deep, superficial. In this case, serious personal problems underlying certain marital disagreements are less often addressed.
3. Working with both spouses is more vulnerable in a way. The unwillingness of one of them to move on, the character traits of one of the partners that impede more in-depth work, can seriously interfere with counseling
Organization of work with a married couple. If both spouses came to the reception and both express their readiness to discuss family problems together, it is simply a “sin” for the consultant not to take advantage of this.
There is a fear of clients that the consultant will support only one of them. Psychologist's answer: “I have a big request for you: as soon as you notice that I took the side of one of you to the detriment of the other, immediately point it out to me. It will help me a lot in my work, and I will be sincerely grateful to you.” Such an answer is, as a rule, especially convincing. It happens that one of the spouses “brings” the other to counseling, and, accordingly, the orientation of one of them to psychological help is much less, and often it is not at all. In such cases, the "unmotivated" spouse often from the very beginning expresses a desire to talk with a counselor in private, without a partner. The counselor should show some perseverance, trying to convince clients of the possibilities and benefits of joint marital therapy. Work organization With one spouse. But most often it happens that the spouse comes to the consultation alone, not wanting, and most often not being able to bring a partner with him. In such a situation, it is necessary first of all to support him, assuring that work with one member of the couple is by no means meaningless or fruitless. The situation of working with one spouse, and not with two, is “dangerous” due to inequality, since the person who comes to the appointment, in a sense, takes the burden of family problems on himself alone. In expressing such doubts in a counseling situation, the client is generally right, since the main condition for constructive psychological work is the client's acceptance of guilt (or responsibility) for what happens in the family, although it is obvious that both spouses contribute to the problems. Even a single successful conversation with one of the spouses can lead to the fact that the next time both will come to the reception. There is another possibility for the development of the consultation process, which in no case should not be overlooked. This is a situation where the consultant himself becomes the initiator of separate meetings with partners. This usually happens when the work does not move forward and the obstacle that has arisen - the unwillingness of the spouses to discuss anything, the obvious stubbornness of one of them, reinforced by the reactions of the other - becomes a serious obstacle to the counseling process. constructive negotiation technique. One of the effective techniques for establishing interpersonal communication between spouses is a face-to-face conversation between them, especially when something really important for both is touched upon or discussed. In this case, the counselor may ask them to address each other directly, looking into their partner's eyes and describing their feelings in detail.
19. The work of a psychologist-consultant with parent-youth conflicts.
Problems: . Normal relationships do not develop between parents and children of adolescence. Parents of high school students are not entirely satisfied that their children are friends with peers who, for one reason or another, do not suit their parents. Parents with young children are not happy with how their children choose their future procession. The choice of children does not quite suit the parents. Conflicts arise between a mother who is divorced from her father and a child of senior school age due to the fact that a stranger has appeared in the family (stepfather-stepmother). Normal relationships do not develop between children of different parents who are forced to live together in the same family. Let us consider successively the cases corresponding to these options from the point of view of the practice of psychological counseling. Consider the problem of vocational guidance for a teenager. If, while studying in high school, a boy or girl intends to choose a profession for themselves, which for one reason or another does not quite suit their parents, then in this case it is most reasonable for parents to do the following. First, try to understand why their child made such a decision, and not the one suggested by the parents. Secondly, try to find such weighty arguments in favor of the protected profession that would correspond to the needs and interests of the child. The mistake that many parents often make in solving this issue is that they talk to high school students as if the parents are absolutely right in everything, and the children are wrong in everything without exception. This position is incorrect in principle: one person cannot be right in everything, without exception, and the other is always wrong. Parental arguments and facts with which they try to convince their child when choosing a profession should be just as motivated as the arguments of children. Then they will be better able to understand the correctness of their parents.
Before evaluating another person's behavior,
all the more so - to condemn him, you need to try
understand him.
Never and under no circumstances
insult each other.
Wherever possible, go towards each other,
look for a compromise.
If compromise is not possible, then judiciously and
calmly explain your position to another and then
stick to it.
When in a state of irritation, do not try
figure out relationships with each other.
18. The work of a psychologist-consultant withthe problem of educationin family.
Relationships between parents and preschool children.
In the practice of psychological counseling, the following problems are encountered: The child is overly active or, on the contrary, unusually passive, apathetic, indifferent to everything. Both extremes in a child's behavior can, of course, cause justified concern for parents. Normal relationships do not develop between their children and conflicts quite often arise. . Spouses with a child still at an early age cannot agree on how they should educate and educate the child. A child who is already seven years old does not want to go to school. In the psyche and behavior of a preschool child, parents discovered something that worries them. Parents of a child of preschool age are preparing him for school and want to do everything in their power to prepare the child as best as possible for schooling. However, they have problems with this. Parents want to start teaching their child from an early preschool age, but they do not know if they are doing the right thing by loading the child with serious studies from an early age. between parents and children junior school age, the following variants of problems may arise that require psychological counseling. 1. Parents whose child is already in the first grade of school are worried that he is not studying well. 2. The child does not develop normal relationships with other children and teachers. For parents who have teenage children, and at themselvesteenagers Between parents and children who have reached adolescence, conflicts constantly arise on a variety of issues. For some reason, teenage children do not want to study, behave provocatively, perform their household duties in bad faith, do not fulfill promises made to their parents, etc. . It seems to parents that teenage children are hiding something from them. At the same time, parents notice that children often spend time outside the home and avoid communicating with them. A teenager is not interested in anything serious, from the point of view of his parents, and does not want to engage in his development. Consider the practice of conducting psychological counseling using an example:
Conflicts between teenagers and parents in the family are a common phenomenon. Such conflicts are usually associated with the transition of the child to a higher level of psychological development. It is necessary to have the following practical recommendations as possible: 1. Try to stop emotionally reacting negatively to defiant actions and deeds
teenager, his resistance to the reasonable arguments of adults. You should try to objectively understand what is really happening, why a teenager behaves this way and not otherwise.
2. Think about how best to convince a teenager
change your behavior. 3. Make a decision and act solely by the method of persuasion, without resorting to coercion.
4. Persistently continue to get your way by acting like this
until the problem is resolved. 5. Stop reacting negatively to a teenager's refusal to talk about himself and his affairs. Treat with understanding and respect the desire of a teenager to spend a lot of time outside the home in communication with peers. 6. Stop ignoring, dismissing serious discussion of those issues that concern a teenager. Stop scornfully reacting to the judgments of a teenager. 7. Imperceptibly, unobtrusively, but sincerely and
benevolently, on an equal footing, join in the conversations of adolescents, ensuring that they accept adults into their society and confidentially discuss with them issues of concern to them. With patience, parents should use only positive communication experiences. Here they will most likely need systematic consultations with a psychologist.
20. Domestic and foreign concepts of career guidance.
In 1983 - the concept of professional suitability (a set of psychological and psychophysiological characteristics of a person, as well as the presence of special skills and abilities necessary for the successful performance of professional activities. Two components of the structure: - mental characteristics 2 - professional skills. 1991 - Levitov - “A person who, in terms of his individual qualities, corresponds to this profession, should be considered fit for a profession.” 1996 - Markova A.N. - the totality of a person’s mental qualities, necessary and sufficient to achieve high labor efficiency (the approach is aimed at the individual qualities of a person). of these features has its own structure and among the most significant components it is necessary to include professional abilities.Based on the classification of abilities Teplov - all abilities can be divided into 2 groups: 1-general abilities (characterized by the quality of human thinking and processes of perception (perception, speed of thinking). 2 - special abilities - the ability to a certain type of activity (musical, artistic, mathematical, organizational skills). Yu.A. Orlov - he proposed (according to Teplov's scheme) to single out professional abilities as a combination of general (directed ability to be a teacher) and special (to be a teacher of physics). 2 component - professional motivation. A person considers this profession to be his vocation, he believes that he should be engaged in this particular type of activity. Professional motivation can be stable, forming the main connections of the profession, and unstable (random). 3 component - knowledge and skills. 4th component - certain character traits (hard work, independence, responsibility - these are the qualities that encourage a person to work). 5th component - satisfaction with work and results of work (work of a teacher, psychologist, doctor, manager). Types of professional suitability.
L.Yu.Gilbukh - 1981 - proposed to divide professional suitability into two types: 1 - absolute professional suitability (it meets the requirements of the profession in all its features). Ex. professions where prof. risk, so there must be full compliance, for example, an airport dispatcher (should be careful). 2 - relative professional suitability - a partial coincidence of the characteristics of a person and the requirements of the profession. Relative should be more than 50%. Assessment of professional suitability can be carried out on the following grounds: self-assessment of oneself as a professional; expert assessment of a specialist, colleagues and managers (professional examinations or professional attestations). First of all, checking professional knowledge, skills, and the quality of labor results. Theories of professional suitability. How should the characteristics of a person relate to the requirements of the profession. They are divided into two groups: Group 1 - typological (division of people into types). Spranger identified the following types of individuality: theoretical person, economic person, aesthetic person,
social man, political man, religious man,
Goland proposed a division into 6 types: realistic, intellectual, social, entrepreneurial, artistic.
Eric Burke identified 3 main life scenarios: adult, parent, child. Parental professions - teach, cook, care. Children's professions - all professions of politics, art, sports, artistic.
Children's professions - all professions related to control (police).
In 1995, Isabelle Meyers and Katharina Briggs proposed a typology based on 4 main characteristics that regulate human life. 1 base - this is how a person focuses his attention and interacts with the outside world (extrovertive and introvertive people are visible on this basis). 2 basis - the ability to make a decision (for this
sensing or intuitive people stand out on the basis). 3 base - collection of information (highlight mental or
emotional type). 4 foundation is how a person interacts with the outside world (he wants to rebuild the world around / procedural or resultant /). Each type has a list of professions that corresponds to it. Introverted - psychologist - self-centered. The second type of theory is presented in the Russian typology (active approach). Gilbukh - proposed the concept of absolute and relative professional suitability and proposed diagnosing the degree of suitability of a person for a profession (for this you need to know the characteristics of a person and highlight the requirements that a given profession can present). Klimov's 2nd theory - his idea is based on 4 degrees of suitability. 1 - unsuitability for the profession (inconsistency with the profession) 2 - fitness for the profession (almost complete compliance with the profession) 3 - conformity with the profession and is expressed in the fact that a person has no obvious contraindications and obvious indications 50x50. 4- vocation (when a person fully meets all the requirements of the profession and considers it his vocation).
21. The main directions and stages of career guidance work at school. Main directions:
1. familiarization of students with the features of various professions in the classroom and outside of school hours.
2. demonstration of practical work during excursions to the enterprise.
3. meeting with interesting people (politicians, scientists, school graduates, etc.)
4. acquaintance with the fan of the profession (demand for the profession in the regions)
5. teaching students the initial skill of industrial professions in labor lessons
6. use of media
7. professional games
Stages of career guidance. There are 3 stages associated with periods of age development
1. Primary school age - interest in the profession is peripheral. At this stage, talk about
professions.
2. middle school age. The main task is to form your own I, help the student to learn
themselves, analyze their interest in school subjects.
3. senior school age. It is necessary that the student understands the need for a profession. Value orientations serve as the main selection criterion. The work plan of a psychologist to provide career guidancehelp.1). 7-8 cells At this stage, the professional intentions of students are studied (psychodiagnostics, etc.).
2). 9 cells Individual vocational advice for those who want to enter secondary vocational institutions.
3). 10-11 cells. Oktant confidently chose a profession, outlined a plan for obtaining it and began the stage of pre-professional training - this is training in a specialized class, attending courses for applicants, the stage of a professional test (when a student tries to check whether he has the qualities of those professions that he wants to go after school).
23. Vocational education: tasks and methods of work. Decision making model forcareer choice. The purpose of education is to help in professional self-determination The methods of education proposed by Pryazhnikov and Ovchara. Main groups of methods. Conversation (the goal is to reveal the idea of the optant about the world of the profession). Discussions are done by the teacher, the head teacher for educational work and the psychologist. The main goal is to activate professional intentions and expand professional ideas of octants. For example, the topic is a person’s work path (easy or forgive, difficult -
hard, whether you need it today or not). 1.Excursion - obtaining information about a group of professions.2. Writing essays and essays by students about professions (for example, “The profession of my parents”). 3. Reading literature on professions. 4. Meeting with professionals (parents of students) 5. Carrying out career guidance games and trainings (participation of a professional consultant, psychologist). find 2-3 solutions in the form and indicate which one he himself would use. For example, 1) Your friend asks for advice on what decision to make. He is offered a job in an insolvent, "dishonest" company. 2) They are invited to work with a long probationary period and without compulsory employment. The goal is to expand ideas about the aspects of human activity and activate the independence of the octant when choosing a profession. Type 2 - card professional consulting methods. model of the future profession. For example, the game "I am in the profession." Octant is invited to write down his most important qualities. For example: purpose, decency; further cards with empty cells are offered, on which the most important names of professions are written. From his capabilities, he must choose what he can implement in this profession. Type 3 - career guidance game or trtenig (Pryazhnikov, Samoukin). A person is invited to analyze and feel the advantages and disadvantages of certain professions, which
are brought into this game. It is proposed to create an ideal version of the company.
The main goal is to expand the understanding of the modern world
professions. And also to understand what features in it are
stable, and he must take them into account when choosing
profession.
22. Group and individual professional consultation: types, methods.
Vocational consultation is one of the areas of career guidance. Vocational counseling aims to assist in choosing a profession. Models can be different. Vocational consultation can be carried out both in group and in individual form.
group involves expanding the ideas of the optant about the world of the profession of their choice and training or games are held. training- exercises that help a teenager understand his inclinations, learn the inclinations of group members, form his own strategy in choosing a profession. Individual- diagnostics are revealed, assistance is provided in making a decision in choosing a profession. Group consultation: Kinds:
1. Information - an introduction to the world of the profession;
2. Diagnostic - using questionnaires (diagnostics of professional
intentions of schoolchildren) diagnosing interests and
inclinations. You can do your own data processing
pupils. The optant questionnaire allows you to identify
professional intentions and the degree of their sustainability.
Differential diagnostic questionnaire, questionnaire
professional readiness - it is advisable to carry out in
group, it is important to properly set up students for this
work (may be negativism, misunderstanding among
schoolchildren). These doubts must be removed.
3. Educational - it is advisable to consider the process model
making a decision on the choice of profession, talk about
classification of the profession according to Klimov.
4. Developing - games, group development trainings
general abilities. Means - conversation, discussion,
trainings, games, questionnaires, interviews. Individual professional consultation. Problems that are addressed to professional consultations. 1. Ignorance of the world of professions - use. DDO, OCG, to identify the class of profess, offer the optant to identify this class of profess
2. Ignorance of oneself - psychological strategy - tests for
intellect, comprehension, cognitive sphere, Eysenck.
3. Inadequate self-esteem is the reason for the wrong choice
profession or a person underestimates the bar of claims or overestimates
+ the problem of lagging behind in personal development.
4. Identification of the profession with the academic discipline.
Establishing rapport between consultant and optant. What brought you to the consultation? What do you want to know about yourself or your profession? It is necessary to obtain a lot of information about the optant, to achieve cooperation - the psychological readiness to choose a profession is the result of the work of the optant. How do you envision your future? Clarify the ideal and the real. - Connecting the future with the present. Klimov's professional counseling method.
1. Identification of professional intentions (where
the student is going to go after school).
2. Identification of interests (name your favorite educational
items).
3. Inclinations, favorite activities in your free time.
4. Abilities (for which subjects
abilities were shown; Do his inclinations match?
career choices).
24. Professional information: structure, sources of information, methodswork. Professional information is a type of assistance that allows you to expand a teenager's understanding of the world of professions and obtain specific information about the chosen profession. The main ways in which a teenager receives information about the world of the profession. one source - peers (incomplete source). 2 source - parents (incomplete source).
3rd source - information that he receives at school from a conversation with teachers (+, -). 4 source - mass media (+,-). 5source - professional advice (+ full
source). The psychologist himself should have the following groups of knowledge:
1. The idea of the profession, how the profession differs from
specialties, specializations, qualifications. In what area
this specialty appears.
2. Have an idea about the profession as a system
professionally important qualities, professional tasks and
results of labor., i.e. professionalism. Have
idea of the possibility of professional development and
degree of demand for a particular profession.
3. Have an idea about the classification of professions and its
main structural components.
Author Strumilin S.G. - 1983 - he divides all professions into the following groups: 1 group - automatic t ores (strictly regulated with the same type, small operations during the day (assembler not in a watch factory, work related to the conveyor).
Group 2 - semi-automatic labor (labor operations
monotonous, but there may be a variety in the rhythm and style of activity
/working specialties that work on piecework conditions
wages/). Group 3 - template performing work (labor operations are determined by instructions, they are diverse and their rhythm depends on the person himself / seamstress, cook /). Group 4 - independent work within a specific labor task, freedom to choose methods of work and terms is provided (for example, the task is to do something: a psychologist, teacher, doctor). Group 5 - free, creative work (writers, composers - there are no specific labor tasks and ways to overcome them). And there is also a classification of Klimov's professions.
25. Methods for studying professional inclinations and orientation. 1993 Klimov divides professions according to the content of labor. I type of professions - distinguishes by the difference of object systems. 5 types: 1st type - human wildlife (forester, gardener, florist).
Type 2 - human technician, inanimate technique (programmer,
designer, engineer). Type 3 - a human sign system, the object is natural and artificial languages, conventional signs and symbols, numbers (accountant, statistician, translator). Type 4 - a person is an artistic image. Work with phenomena and factors of artistic reflection of reality (artists,
painters). Type 5 - man - man. The object of labor is the recognition, service, transformation of population groups or specific people. II - into classes on the basis of the goals of the professions (identified 3 classes). 1 - Gnostic professions (to recognize) (teacher-scientist, teacher-educator). 2 - transforming professions (transformation of the original object of labor) (primary school teacher - from a non-reader you need
teach everything, subject teacher). 3 - survey professions are their essence in finding new, reserve sides of the objects of labor (teachers-innovators). III - departments are distinguished on the basis of the main tools and means of labor. There are professions: manual labor (car washer), machine-manual labor (car driver), professions associated with the use of automatic systems (locksmith), professions associated with the predominance of means of labor (singer, pianist).
This classification allows you to expand the teenager's understanding of the world of professions and the structure of professions. The study of professional inclinations using DDO, Golomshtok's interest map. DDO (differential diagnostic questionnaire) - identification of professional inclinations and professional interests of students. The questionnaire was developed on the basis of Klimov's classification (5 types of profession division) on the basis of an object or object with which a person interacts in the labor process.
The study of inclinations is carried out by analyzing the students' self-assessment of their professional preferences. DDO are used at all levels of the school, as well as in work with adults. Purpose: to obtain information about the interests, inclinations and professional orientation of the individual. Mark your choice with a "+" sign. The questions are selected and grouped so that in each column they refer to different groups of professions that differ in the main object of labor. Maxim, the sums of "+" in certain columns indicate the predominance of the interests and inclinations of the individual to certain groups of professions, i.e. to a specific professional area. Map of interests of Golomshtok- development based on the classifier of professions Klimov (by 5 types) and is intended for the study of professional inclinations. It is used in work with schoolchildren, students of middle classes and with adults. Professional inclination is a stable prof. interest. Contains 174 questions, which are grouped into 29 types of prof. activities. Unlike DDO and OPG, the card allows you to determine the profession or industry. Instructions: To help choose a profession, answer the question on the answer sheet under the same question number. put: if you just like it - one "+", if you really like it - "++", if you don't know - 0, if you don't like it - "-", if you really don't like it, then - "--".
After completion of the work, a quantitative and qualitative assessment is carried out. OPG methodology, D. Holland questionnaire. OPG (professional readiness questionnaire). Purpose: to determine the predisposition of a person to a certain professional field, taking into account desire, attitude and existing skills. Designed by Kabardova. Consists of 50 questions. We answer each question twice (I can, I wish). Made on the basis of the Klimov classifier and on the basis of self-esteem, skills and desires to perform one or another prof. activity. 1st answer - can I do it? 2nd answer - do I want to do it? Their answers are evaluated in a 3-point system: 0 - negative answer; 1 - indefinite; 2 - positive.
Processing: the number of points in each column is calculated - the total number of points. Then the most preferable sphere of the considered professional spheres is interrogated. OPG is used with DDO and CI (map of interests). Holland's checklist (classifier of professional personality types). Allocated 6 prof. types: realistic type - a guide to the present (mechanic,
electrician, photographer); intellectual - analytical, rational (botanist, physicist, scientist); social - social skills: teachers, doctors, schoolchildren; conventional - practical, conservative: accountant,
auditor, accountant. enterprising - leader (journalists, director); artistic - reliance on emotions, fantasy: music,
writer, decorator Instruction: Various professions are presented in pairs. In each pair, you need to find the profession that he prefers. Sum up "+". The largest number of "+" gives the result of belonging to a particular type.
27. Selection: search and selection of personnel. The selection consists in creating the necessary reserve of candidates for all positions and specialties, from which the organization selects the most suitable employees for it. This work should be carried out literally in all specialties - clerical, industrial, technical, administrative. Selection is usually carried out from external and internal sources. External recruitment tools include: publishing advertisements in newspapers and professional magazines, contacting employment agencies and management supply firms, sending contracted people to special courses at colleges. Some organizations invite local people to apply to Human Resources for possible future vacancies.
Most organizations prefer to conduct recruitment primarily within their organization. Promoting your employees is cheaper. This increases their interest, improves morale and strengthens the attachment of employees to the firm.
Personnel selection.On the At this stage, in the management of personnel planning, management selects the most suitable candidates from the pool created during the selection process. In most cases, the person who is best qualified to do the actual work in the position should be selected, not the candidate who appears to be the most suitable for promotion. An objective decision on the choice, depending on the circumstances, may be based on the education of the candidate, the level of his professional skills, previous work experience, personal qualities. For leadership positions, especially at a higher level, the skills of establishing interregional relations, as well as the compatibility of the candidate with superiors and with his subordinates, are of primary importance. Effective selection of personnel is one of the forms of preliminary quality control of human resources. The three most widely used methods for collecting information required for making a selection decision are tests, interviews, and evaluation centres. Interviews. Interviews are still the most widely used recruitment method. Even non-management employees are rarely hired without at least one interview. The selection of a high-ranking leader may require dozens of interviews that take several months. Research shows that structured interviews with standardized and recorded questions and answers increase the accuracy of this method.
26. The main activities of the personnel management service. The personnel manager acts as a protector of the interests of employees in front of other managers; adviser for the latter on problems of relations with subordinates; staff interaction coordinator. The most important element of personnel services is the personnel departments that manage its movement.
Their main functions are: personnel accounting; forecasting and planning the need for personnel; organization of recruitment, selection, training, retraining, relocation, dismissal of employees; studying and evaluating the personnel of managers, specialists and presenting recommendations to management on filling vacant positions by certain persons; formation of a personnel reserve and work with it according to special programs; participation in the certification of personnel and activities following its results. There are several blocks in the structure of personnel management.
1. block of personnel formation (staffing, study,
preparation, dismissal);
2. block of distribution and redistribution of personnel
(primary placement, dismissal);
3. block for creating conditions for the use of personnel (security
labor, organization of medical and social
services, development of incentive methods);
4. development of standards for personnel (productivity,
time consumption, wages);
5. divisions for creation and improvement
structures and management systems that implement them
design and management of formation processes.
But today in Russia With personnel is dispersed mainly between different services and divisions. The work of personnel services has two directions: tactical and strategic. The first carries out current personnel work: analysis of the state and planning of staffing needs, development of staffing tables, recruitment. Evaluation and selection of personnel; testing; planning of the next personnel transfers and layoffs, current accounting and control, training, retraining and advanced training, formation of a reserve for promotion, promotion of organizational values and education of personnel in their spirit. Today, the main activity of personnel services is the formation of labor resources: planning the need for them and organizing practical recruitment activities, conflict resolution, and social policy. The essence of personnel work is to determine what exactly, by whom, how and with the help of what should be done in practice at the moment in the field of personnel management. The solution of these daily tasks is based on administrative methods. The strategic direction of the work of personnel services is focused on the formation of the personnel policy of the organization - a system of theoretical views, ideas, requirements, practical measures in the field of work with personnel, its main forms and methods.
28.Motivation of personnel activity and technology of its formation. In order to connect a person to the solution of a particular problem, one must be able to find the motivation that would prompt him to action. In the management of the household activity for the first time the problem of motives and incentives was posed by Adam Smith, who believed that people are controlled by selfish motives, the constant desire of people to improve their financial situation. Smith had in mind the motivation of the entrepreneur, the motivation of the workers did not interest him. The American theorist Taylor filled this gap. He believed that the workers are controlled only by the instincts of satisfaction. physiological needs. Everyone works out of necessity, strives to work less. He believed that the coercive power of the administrator is the main engine of production and the main motivation for work. Time wages do not allow the employee to manage his time, while the administrator sets the pace of work, prohibiting unauthorized stops. The surplus of the labor force, underemployment of the population were a powerful stimulus for increasing labor productivity and influenced the motivation of workers. In the 1950s and 1960s, this method exhausted itself. In the 1930s, a humanistic direction in management (Elton Mayo) emerged in the United States, which was enriched with research. Maslow. Maslow proposed a classification of needs.
1. Basic physiological needs - food, water, sleep, housing, sexual satisfaction. basic needs. An important stimulus to satisfaction is money; prospect of economic viability.
2. The need for security - avoidance of injury, illness.
They respond to incentives such as guaranteed work, social.
insurance, pensions.
3. Social needs - constant contact with yourself
similar - sociality - Mayo.
4. The need for respect - status, prestige, self-respect,
self confidence.
5. The need for self-realization - full realization
potential, creativity.
The English scientists Woodcon and Francis built tables where they said that there would be no effect from "the main motivators, if it is not decided with" motivation regulators ". Motivation Regulators: Working environment (workplace, noise level, cleanliness,
design, canteen), Remuneration (salary, other payments, additional benefits, medical care). 3. Feeling of security (respect, approval of others). Main motivators: Personal development (responsibility, experimentation, new experiences, learning opportunities, careers).
Feeling of belonging (shared decision-making,
consultations, feeling of usefulness at work). "Interest and challenge" (interesting projects, developing experience, age, responsibility).
Factors 1,2,3 can act as demotivators if employees are not satisfied with them, factors 4,5,6 can increase the interest of employees and provide the organization with major achievements.
29.Corporate culture. The main ways and methods of its formation. Organizational culture is the shared principles, behaviors, values, attitudes of people that they adhere to. The content of organizational culture Harris, Moran 10 characteristics: awareness of oneself and one's place in the organization; communication system and language of communication; appearance, clothing and presentation of oneself for work; analyzes what and how people eat; awareness of time, attitude to it and use of it; relationship between people; values and norms; belief in something and relationship or disposition towards something; the process of employee development and learning; work ethic and motivation.
The manifestation of organizational culture occurs through communication. The content of organizational culture influences the way behaviors, conversations, emotions, etc. are developed. Culture depends on the culture of the leader. Forms of maintaining organizational culture. Perhaps by including the management style, redesigning roles in the organization, changing incentive criteria, changing the emphasis of personnel policy, changing symbols and rituals, changing the objects of attention from managers (the rite of reinforcement is the best turner, the rite of unity is the celebration of dates, holidays, going to barbecues etc.)
Approaches to Formation of organizational culture.
30. Types of conflicts in the enterprise, ways to prevent and resolve them. one type - conflict between departments or subdivisions of the enterprise - this is a conflict of functional responsibilities
- solved by job descriptions. Type 2 - conflict within departments or intragroup - most often arises over issues of power or salary - is resolved by working with an informal leader, and transparency of financial reporting (but more often reporting is not
transparent (commercial secret) and becomes the property of all). Type 3 - interpersonal conflict, features - the transition of business communication to a personal level (did not have time to do it - you are a lazy person), solution - the transition from mutual attachments to the main problem. Types of conflict
personalities :
Type 1 - rude - tank - rushing to the breach, does not hear others, rude forms of communication. Type 2 - rude - screamer - solves all issues with the help of a cry (angry, frightened and upset). Type 3 - grenade - it is not known when it will explode (it will explode when a feeling of helplessness). Type 4 - a pessimist - gets the fact that he sees everything in a bad light. Type 5 - overly accommodating - promises a lot, but very often offers his help, but does not. Type 6 - the complainant - constantly informs management about everything. Type 7 - know-it-all - feels superior to others. Type 8 - false altruist - does good and deep down regrets it (the most dangerous type). Prevention of conflicts. Conflict prevention as and its prevention as a whole is served by such measures as: the correct selection and placement of personnel;
continuous improvement of wages in accordance with the changing situation; the rhythm of work, attention to the working conditions and life of workers; improving the methods of managing the organization, taking into account the changing situation; timely provision of resources, their rational and fair distribution;
compliance with the rights and obligations of employees, especially managers, strict control over respect for rights and fulfillment of duties, maintaining high labor discipline;
clear distribution of production tasks, powers and responsibilities; creation of formal and informal authority
leader; formation of favorable interpersonal relationships;
strengthening the collective norms of self-regulation of the behavior of employees, team building; paying special attention to rumors, gossip, petty quarrels, which are usually indicators of unloaded workers and create fertile ground for conflicts; Ensuring uniform workload for all employees. the leading role in dealing with conflicts is played by the immediate supervisor of the unit in which the conflict is brewing or already developing.
("id":20591,"title":"Russian","name":"ru")
Undergraduate 2019/2020Basic approaches in psychological counseling
Russian language
Credits: 4
discipline program
annotation
This discipline belongs to the cycle of elective disciplines. The study of this discipline is based on the following disciplines: General psychology. To master the academic discipline, students must have the following knowledge and competencies: know the basics of general psychology; have skills in handling scientific literature, including HSE electronic resources; have the skills of writing essays, homework; The main provisions of the discipline should be used in the future when studying the following disciplines: all disciplines of the specialization "Psychological counseling and research of personality and family".
Formation of ideas about the specifics of the main areas of psychological counseling and psychotherapy
The objectives of mastering the discipline "Basic approaches in psychological counseling" is to familiarize students with the key areas of psychological counseling and the development of basic knowledge in this area.
Know the basic ideas about a person that underlie various approaches to psychological counseling; goals, expected results of work, techniques used in various schools; the specifics of building contact with clients in psychoanalysis, transactional analysis, cognitive-behavioral approach, existential analysis, family systems and client-centered approaches.
To be able to analyze various areas of psychological counseling, to model possible approaches to psychological support for individuals.
Be aware of the advantages and limitations of various approaches to psychological counseling.
Be aware of the advantages and limitations of various approaches to psychological counseling
Topic 1. Introduction to psychological counseling
The goals and content of psychological counseling, the professional position of a psychologist-consultant. The ratio of psychological counseling and psychotherapy in different approaches. Specificity of approaches to psychological counseling: philosophy of approach, models of personality and interpersonal interactions in the counseling process. Goals and expected results of psychological counseling, performance criteria, setting features, psychological counseling techniques.
Topic 2. Transactional analysis
Brief history and main directions of modern transactional analysis. Transactional-analytical understanding of the goals and stages of the process of psychological counseling. Key philosophical and practical principles of transactional analysis. The idea of ego states and ways to recognize them; application of ego-state analysis in the practice of psychological counseling. Types of transactions and ways to build effective communication. A brief overview of the stages of counseling and relevant techniques: ego state analysis, transaction analysis, game analysis.
Topic 3. Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis as the first "conversational psychotherapy". The main categories of psychoanalysis: consciousness, unconsciousness, libido, infantile sexuality, ego. Topographic and structural models of personality. Ontogeny of ego development: formation of mental structures, stages of psychosexual development, primary and secondary defense processes. Methods of psychoanalysis. Analysis and supportive psychotherapy. The specifics of working with a neurotic, psychotic and borderline personality. An analysis of the case of the rat-man.
Topic 4. Cognitive-behavioral approach
A brief history of the development of the approach. The main directions of CBT. Aims, key ideas and concepts of CBT. Studies on the effectiveness of CBT in dealing with various types of problems. Types of cognitive distortions and techniques for dealing with them. Modern directions of development of CBT.
Topic 5. Existential analysis
Categorical system of existential psychology. Interpretive, systemic, natural science and phenomenological hermeneutics. The place of existential psychotherapy among other psychotherapeutic directions. Existential analysis as an integral model of psychotherapy. Fundamental existential motivations (FM) as prerequisites for the implementation of existence: 1st FM - motivation to endure and accept the conditions of being in the world; 2nd FM - motivation to perceive values and experience the joy of life; 3rd FM - motivation for justice and authenticity; 4th FM - motivation to search for meaning. Recognition of the contents of fundamental existential motivations in the practice of self-knowledge, counseling and psychotherapy. Content and procedural aspects of existential-analytical therapy. Phenomenological diagnosis of mental disorders. Personal existential analysis. Effective factors of existential-analytical psychotherapy. Fundamentals of existential-analytic therapy of anxiety, depressive and hysterical disorders.
Topic 6. Family systems approach
Prerequisites for a systematic approach to family psychotherapy. Family as an open social system. Basic parameters of the family system. Family communication. Family structure: composition, hierarchy, coalitions, roles, cohesion, flexibility, boundaries. Functional and dysfunctional family structures. Stereotypes of interaction. Rules of family interaction. Circularity of family interactions. Linear and circular approaches to the description of family processes. Family life cycle, normative and non-normative family crises. Family history. Methodological principles of systemic family psychotherapy. Basic principles, approaches and techniques of systemic family psychotherapy. The general scheme of psychotherapeutic work with the family. Construction and testing of system hypotheses. Analysis of the interaction cycle. Circular interview. Feedback in family psychotherapy. Psychotherapeutic contract with the family. Direct and paradoxical prescriptions. Working with family history Criteria for the effectiveness of psychotherapy, the completion of family psychotherapy. A brief overview of the main classical and postmodern approaches to systemic psychotherapy, a demonstration of the main techniques.
Topic 7. Client-centered therapy
Necessary and sufficient conditions for psychological counseling: empathy, nonjudgmental acceptance, congruence. The process and types of hearing. Basic principles of active listening. Non-directiveness and return of responsibility to the client. Interaction with "difficult" clients. The counselor's monitoring of their feelings and bringing them into the counseling process (“counselor transparency”). From client-centered therapy to a person-centered approach (social work, education, medicine, design, etc.). Modern directions and areas of practice of the person-centered approach (skills and abilities).
non-blocking Homework
non-blocking Classroom work
Blocking Exam
The method of rounding the resulting grade for the academic discipline: arithmetic (for example, a grade of 4.4 is rounded up to 4, and a grade of 4.5 is rounded to 5).
Intermediate certification (2 module)
0.3 * Classroom work + 0.3 * Homework + 0.4 * Exam
Dryden, W. (1996). Developments in Psychotherapy: Historical Perspectives. London: SAGE Publications Ltd. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=edsebk&AN=292320
Stewart, I. (1996). Developing Transactional Analysis Counselling. London: SAGE Publications Ltd. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=edsebk&AN=309843
Radyuk, O. M. (2014). Cognitive-behavioral therapy UD-2014-1725r. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=edsbas&AN=edsbas.6929BAFA
Freud Z.; Per. Hollerbach L. - "I" AND "IT". SELECTED WORKS-M.: Yurayt Publishing House, 2019-165-Anthology of thought-978-5-534-06132-1: -Electronic text // EBS Yurayt - https://biblio-online.ru/book/ya-i- ono-izbrannye-work-441861
Jarvis, M. A., Padmanabhanunni, A., & Chipps, J. (2019). An Evaluation of a Low-Intensity Cognitive Behavioral Therapy mHealth-Supported Intervention to Reduce Loneliness in Older People. International Journal Of Environmental Research And Public Health, 16(7). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16071305
Lister-Ford, C. (2002). Skills in Transactional Analysis Counselling & Psychotherapy. London: SAGE Publications Ltd. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=edsebk&AN=258426
Stankovskaya, E. (2014). Emotional experience: applying person-centered approach to the practice of existential analysis / Experiência emocional: aplicando a abordagem centrada na pessoa para a prática da análise existencial / Experiencia emocional: aplicando el enfoque centrado en la persona a la práctica del análisis existencia. Revista Da Abordagem Gestaltica, 20(1), 77–85. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=edssci&AN=edssci.S1809.68672014000100011
Sugarman, L. (2004). Counselling and the Life Course. London: SAGE Publications Ltd. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=edsebk&AN=251790
Freud, 3. Psychology of the unconscious: a guide / Z. Freud. - 2nd ed. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2010. - 400 p. - (Masters of Psychology). - ISBN 978-5-49807-498-6. - Text: electronic. - URL: https://new.znanium.com/catalog/product/[### DO NOT CHANGE!!! ###] - Text: electronic. - URL: http://znanium.com/catalog/product/1054593
Freud, A. Child psychoanalysis: reader / A. Freud. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2003. - 477 p. - (Reader in psychology). - ISBN 5-94723-048-8. - Text: electronic. - URL: https://new.znanium.com/catalog/product/[### DO NOT CHANGE!!! ###] - Text: electronic. - URL: http://znanium.com/catalog/product/1054562
Is it necessary to rely on any psychological theory in psychological counseling? This issue is still quite controversial and debatable. Those specialists who oppose a strict separation of counseling and psychotherapy consider counseling to be the initial stage of psychotherapy and, therefore, defend the point of view that a consultant, like a psychotherapist, must specialize in one of the theoretical areas in psychotherapy, receive an appropriate certificate and then work in within this approach. Those who consider psychological counseling to be a separate type of professional activity from psychotherapy hold the point of view that counseling has its own system of techniques, while psychotherapeutic techniques, usually designed for long-term work with a client, are not suitable for counseling.
What is the role of the theoretical approach in counseling?
Even if the psychologist uses an eclectic approach in terms of counseling technology, i.e. uses a variety of techniques to achieve a result on a specific problem, his theoretical ideas set the direction of the search for the sources of the client's problem, act as a "map" indicating effective ways to solve this problem. Without the support of theory, counseling will be done intuitively and will become more like everyday conversation than professional work.
Theory helps to formulate advisory hypotheses, allows you to feel safe when confronted with the chaotic inner world of the client.
So, the functions of the theory in psychological counseling can be the following:
- 1) generalization of accumulated information;
- 2) makes complex mental phenomena more understandable, explains the operation of their mechanisms;
- 3) predicts the consequences of various circumstances;
- 4) contributes to the search for new facts, the promotion and testing of advisory hypotheses.
The theory helps the psychologist to generalize the experience of working with a variety of clients, to understand the nature of their problems, and contributes to the effective application of specific methods.
Each psychologist, based on his own practice, constructs his own theory, which is based on one of the known paradigms. With the accumulation of experience, adjustment, expansion, and strengthening of the theoretical base are constantly taking place.
What determines the choice of theory? Basically - from the consultant's view of human nature. What is a person? What innate tendencies does he have? Is he free to choose? Can he change? It is the answers to these questions that will help to choose a theoretical approach.
In the practice of counseling, with an orientation to any theoretical direction, one can achieve a similar effectiveness of counseling. Of decisive importance is not so much the theory itself, but the maturity of the consultant's personality and his professional training, which implies a high integration of theoretical knowledge and practical skills.
Many psychologists believe they are using an eclectic approach. However, as a rule, a closer analysis reveals that eclectic counseling relies on the system integration of several theoretical approaches in an effort to find a common beginning and test how the new system works in practice. Creating your own eclectic approach is the result of all the professional activities of a psychologist-consultant.
Case Study
A. F. Bondarenko's research was devoted to the professional identification of a psychologist. The researchers tried to find out what theories are used in Russia by counseling psychologists and psychotherapists. 46 psychologists with practical experience from one to 20 years were interviewed, including 18 foreign ones.
The most prominent approaches were:
- eclecticism (80% of the respondents who gave such an answer turned out to be domestic psychologists);
- gestalt therapy;
- Rogerianism;
- behavioral therapy;
- I don’t know (100% of those who gave such an answer were domestic psychologists, there were no such answers among foreign psychologists).
The following approaches turned out to be less pronounced:
- existential psychology;
- transactional analysis;
- Adler psychotherapy;
- rational-emotive therapy (RET).
The most poorly represented psychoanalysis.
Classification of theoretical approaches used in psychological counseling. In modern psychology, there are many theories and approaches. And every day there are new ones. For modern counseling, eclecticism, a mixture of theories, and the use of a wide variety of techniques are becoming more and more characteristic. It is possible to single out the following main theoretical approaches.
classical approaches.
- 1. Depth psychology (psychoanalysis) and its modifications, including modern neopsychoanalysis (Horney, Fromm, Sullivan).
- 2. The behavioral approach and its modern form - the cognitive-behavioral approach (Bandura, Beck, Ellis).
- 3. Existential-humanistic approach (Rogers, Maslow, Allport, Perls, Frankl).
- 4. Eclectic approaches that combine the principles of various main classical approaches - transactional analysis (Bern), psychosynthesis (Assagioli), neurolinguistic programming (NLP).
Non-classical directions.
- 1. Body-oriented psychotherapy (Reich, Lowen, Alexander, Yanov, Feldenkrais, etc.).
- 2. Hypnotherapy.
- 3. Meditative therapy.
- 4. Transpersonal therapy (S. Grof).
- 5. Art therapy, including many variations.
A detailed analysis of all approaches in counseling and psychotherapy is not possible within the framework of this textbook. For this information, refer to the specialized literature. Let us consider only the main classical theoretical approaches that are most often used in psychological counseling. At the heart of each approach is an understanding of human nature, as well as the role of a consultant (therapist). Therefore, the nature of the consultative contact and the consulting process itself largely depend on the choice of one or another theoretical approach.
- Bondarenko A.F. Personal and professional self-determination of a domestic practicing psychologist // Moscow Journal of Psychotherapy. 1993. No. 1. S. 63-77
- See: Nelson-Jones R. Theory and practice of counseling. SPb.: Peter, 2000: Bondarenko A. Psychological assistance: theory and practice. M. : Publishing House of the Institute of Psychotherapy, 2000 and others
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