Artistic style: what it is, examples, genres, language tools. The language of the work of art

Lecture #8

Methods and techniques for analyzing works of art

1. Literary language and language fiction.

It is necessary to distinguish between two similar, but different in scope and essence (specificity) phenomena - the literary language and the language of fiction. This is difficult to do, but necessary. Historically primary literary language. It appears in the countries of Europe and Asia in the era of the slave system, along with the advent of writing, as an addition to the usual oral speech. In the era of nationalities and nations, the written and literary variety becomes the leading form of the existence of the language. It pushes aside other non-literary forms, namely: territorial dialects, social dialects, then vernacular and even ritual (ecclesiastical) language. Literary languages ​​perform fairly broad functions: they are usually the languages ​​of office work, science, culture and religion. The functional language of fiction is also formed on the basis of the literary language. But, having been formed on the basis of the literary language, it behaves bolder, more relaxed than the literary language, its norms are less strict, it is more liberal, and in this respect it surpasses the normalized literary language in terms of means of use. For example, dialectisms can be used in it:

Letter from my Ural

Try to understand:

She sent boots to the front,

And he writes that pima ...

In Sergei Alymov’s poem (“The glory of these days will not cease, / It will never fade. / Partisan aftermath / Occupied cities ...”) the dialectism of “otava” turned out to be incomprehensible to a wide range of readers, so the song for these words was performed with the replacement of “otava” with “detachments ", with a violation of the rhyme.

Can be used jargon, neologisms, not very welcome in literary language(a poem by Evgeny Baratynsky “I don’t know, dear I don’t know ...”), archaisms, historicisms, professionalisms, etc.

1. The language of fiction is wider than the literary language in terms of the use of lexical expressive means; superimposed on the literary language, gives additional sectors.

2. Literary language is a form of existence of the language of either a nationality or a nation, along with territorial dialects, vernacular, etc. The language of fiction is not a form of language existence, entering the literary language as a component, but at the same time it has a wider and richer arsenal of its own means.

3. The composition of the literary language has several independent styles(macrostyles, functional styles): book - official business, scientific, journalistic and fiction style - and everyday colloquial everyday style. The language of fiction does not shy away from and does not despise the material of any of the styles, using them for its artistic, aesthetic, expressive purposes.

For example, the journalistic style is used by Maxim Gorky in the novel "Mother" (speeches by Pavel Vlasov), the scientific style is used by Leonid Leonov in the novel "Russian Forest" (speeches by Professor Vikhrov), formal business style- Bronislav Kezhun in one of his poems, which mentions the inscription on the monument to the deceased: "Fighter of a special detachment / Red Army soldier L. Kezhun."

The language of fiction is "omnivorous", it takes everything that is needed. For example, Demyan Bedny in Baron Wrangel's Manifesto uses the macaronic style to emphasize the enemy's "strangeness": "Ikh fange an. I am sewing…”

The peculiarity of the language of fiction is:

1) the unity of communicative and aesthetic functions;

2) multi-style;

3) widespread use of figurative and expressive language means;

4) manifestation of the creative individuality of the author.

To this we add that the language of fiction has a great influence on the development of the literary language.

Not all orders

These features are a specific feature of the artistic style. As has already been said, only the aesthetic function is wholly relevant to it. As for other features, they are found to a greater or lesser extent in other styles. Thus, figurative and expressive means of language are found in many genres of journalistic style and in popular science literature. The individual style of the author is found both in scientific treatises and in social and political works. Literary language is not only the language of fiction, but also the language of science, periodicals, public institutions, schools, etc.; colloquial speech has a strong influence on its development.

Being only a part of the general literary language, the language of fiction at the same time goes beyond its limits: to create a "local color", a speech characteristic actors, as well as dialect words are used as a means of expression in fiction, the social environment is characterized by slang words, professional, vernacular, etc. For stylistic purposes, archaisms are also used - words that have fallen out of the asset of the language, replaced by modern synonyms. Their main purpose in fiction is to create the historical flavor of the era. They are also used for other purposes - they give solemnity, pathos to speech, serve as a means of creating irony, satire, parody, color the statement in playful tones. However, in these functions, archaisms find application not only in fiction: they are also found in journalistic articles, newspaper feuilletons, in the epistolary genre, etc.

Noting that in fiction the language acts in a special, aesthetic function, we mean the use of the figurative possibilities of the language - the sound organization of speech, expressive and visual means, expressive and stylistic coloring of the word. The figurativeness of a word is conditioned by its artistic motivation, purpose and place in the composition of a work of art, and the correspondence to its figurative content. The word in the artistic context is two-dimensional: being a nominative-communicative unit, it also serves as a means of creating artistic expression, creating an image.

A feature of the style of a work of art is the “image of the author” (“narrator”) that appears in it, not as a direct reflection of the writer’s personality, but as its original reincarnation. The choice of words, syntactic constructions, intonation pattern of a phrase serves to create a speech “image of the author” (or “image of the narrator”), which determines the whole tone of the narration, the originality of the style of a work of art.

Often the artistic style is opposed to the scientific one. This opposition is based on different types thinking - scientific (with the help of concepts) and artistic (with the help of images). different forms knowledge and reflection of reality find their expression in the use of various linguistic means.

To confirm this position, two descriptions of a thunderstorm can be compared - in a scientific article and in work of art

Conversational style

The colloquial style is opposed to the book styles; he alone has the function of communication, he forms a system that has features on all "tiers" of the language structure: in phonetics (more precisely, in pronunciation and intonation), vocabulary, phraseology, word formation, morphology, syntax.

The term " colloquial style' is understood in two ways. On the one hand, it is used to indicate the degree of literary speech and is included in the series: high (bookish) style - medium (neutral) style - reduced (conversational) style. Such a subdivision is convenient for describing vocabulary and is used in the form of appropriate labels in dictionaries (words of a neutral style are given without a label). On the other hand, the same term refers to one of the functional varieties literary language.

The colloquial style is a functional system so separate from the book style (it is sometimes called the literary language) that this allowed L.V. Shcherba to make the following remark: “Literary language can be so different from spoken language that sometimes one has to talk about two different languages". Literary language should not be literally contrasted spoken language, i.e. take the latter out of the literary language. This refers to two varieties of the literary language, each with its own system, its own norms. But in one case, it is a codified (strictly systematized, ordered) literary language, and in the other, it is not codified (with a freer system, a lesser degree of regulation), but also a literary language (outside of which there is something that is partly included in literary speech, partly beyond it). the framework of the so-called vernacular). And in the future we will adhere to this understanding. And to distinguish between the available options within the literary language - lexical, morphological, syntactic - the terms "bookish" and "colloquial" will be used.

The colloquial style finds its expression both in writing (remarks of characters in plays, in certain genres of fiction and journalistic literature, entries in diaries, texts of letters on everyday topics), and in oral form. This does not mean oral public speech (report, lecture, speech on radio or television, in court, at a meeting, etc.), which refers to a codified literary language, but unprepared dialogical speech in the conditions of free communication of its participants. For the latter case, the term "colloquial speech" is used.

Conversational speech is characterized by special conditions of functioning, which include:

1) the lack of preliminary consideration of the statement and the related lack of preliminary selection of linguistic material;

2) immediacy speech communication between its participants;

3) the ease of the speech act, associated with the lack of formality in relations between speakers and in the very nature of the statement.

An important role is played by the context of the situation (the environment of verbal communication) and the use of extralinguistic means (facial expressions, gestures, the reaction of the interlocutor).

To purely linguistic features colloquial speech relate:

1) the use of non-lexical means: intonation - phrasal and emphatic (emotionally expressive) stress, pauses, speech rate, rhythm, etc.;

2) the widespread use of everyday vocabulary, and phraseology, emotionally expressive vocabulary (including particles, interjections), various categories of introductory words;

Language is the "primary element of literature". Language exists in life independently of literature, but depending on its specific features, it acquires special properties that make it possible to speak of the "language of fiction" (or a similar "poetic language"127). Literary criticism often operates with the term artistic speech, which is understood as one of the sides of the content form.

Any literary work uses a special, "poetic language", and "... the charm of the picture, images infects every person, at whatever stage of development he is"128. Poetic language, or the language of fiction, is one of major languages spiritual culture along with the language of religion and the language of science. This is the language of verbal art. The poetic language is open, i.e., constantly oriented towards the search for new expressive possibilities,

it has an attitude towards conscious and active “language-creation”129. G.O. Vinokur calls the language of fiction "figurative language"130.

Poetic language is the result creative activity many artists of the word. The originality of poetic language depends on its genre. The writer in search of new means of representation may violate language norms. Poetic language of the late XX century. different from the poetic language of the late nineteenth century.

Poetic vocabulary considers "the question of the choice of individual words that make up artistic speech»131. A.A. Potebnya noted the inextricable link between literary criticism and linguistics in Russian philology. According to his theory, “initially, every word consists of three elements: an external form (i.e., a sound shell), a meaning, and an internal form”132, which are needed to create a verbal image. The Symbolists increased their interest to the utmost in the shell of the word, in what they called its musicality; they put forward suggestive (emotionally affecting the reader) words to the fore. Both Symbolists and Futurists set themselves the task of creating a new poetic language.

Philologists distinguish between speech and language. “Language is that stock of words and those grammatical principles of their combination in a sentence that live in the minds of people of one or another nationality and with the help of which these people can always communicate with each other. Speech is language in action, it is the very process of verbal communication between people, which always arises in certain conditions of life and consists in the expression of certain thoughts, colored by certain feelings and aspirations.

The choice of words and syntactic constructions depends on the characteristics of their emotional and mental content. The speech of oratory, clerical documents, philosophical works differs from the speech of works of art.

The speech of works of art has features. The main properties of artistic speech are figurativeness, allegoricalness, emotionality, author's originality. Its originality is determined by the tasks facing writers and poets who study human life in its various manifestations. They can use different language styles in a work of art: scientific, business, colloquial, intimate speech, etc.; this is motivated by the fact that one or another sphere of life is depicted in a work of art.

Of great importance is the principle of reflecting life in works - realistic, romantic, etc. The development of realism in Russia in early XIX in. opened new doors for literature creative possibilities. The heroes of Griboyedov, Pushkin, Gogol spoke in a language corresponding to their social status, because "language is also motivated by the fact that it is associated with its specific carrier, conveys the originality of the character of a person's personality, expressed in the originality of speech"134.

Poetic language plays an important role in shaping the writer's style, which is expressed in vocabulary and in the intonational-syntactic organization of speech. Prose A.C. Pushkin and prose L.N. Tolstoy - sharply different artistic-individual structures.

The question of the properties of artistic speech was sharply discussed in the works of A.A. Potebni, A.N. Veselovsky, P.O. Jacobson, B.V. Tomashevsky, G.O. Vinokura,

V.V. Vinogradov. Along with scientists, poets and writers took part in the discussion of this problem (V.

Shklovsky, Yu. Tynyanov, B. Pasternak, O. Mandelstam and others) - Later this work was continued in the works of B.M. Eikhenbaum, A.Ya. Ginzburg, A.I. Timofeeva, M.L. Gasparova, V.G. Grigoriev and many others.

The dictionary of writers is a manifestation of the richness of the language in which they wrote, evidence of a deep knowledge of this language and linguistic talent. To create artistic images, literature primarily uses the figurative and expressive means available in the dictionary and in the stable turns of speech characteristic of a given language. The vocabulary of a language is called its vocabulary, and fixed phrases are called phraseology. The choice of words and phrases is the most important aspect of the writer's work on the language of the work. And difficult. V. Mayakovsky admitted: "You are exhausting a single word for the sake of a thousand tons of verbal ore ...".

Of all lexical means, synonyms have the greatest stylistic possibilities (synonimos - the same name). They are divided into ideographic, i.e., differing only in meaning (horse - horse - mare - stallion) and stylistic, i.e., differing in stylistic and emotional coloring (taste - eat - crack).

The elements that make up the language - language units - act as a means of expressing a certain content and may not be used as linguistic artistic means. Due to the variety of meanings and emotionally expressive coloring in language means the possibilities of their purposeful use, calculated on a certain impact on the reader and listener, are concluded. Usually these possibilities are called stylistic possibilities of language means.

Polysemy, or polysemy, or polysemy (Greek poly - many, sema - sign) of the word can be used to solve complex artistic problems.

Choosing a single word from a number of words that are identical or very close in meaning, or resorting to stringing synonyms, the artist achieves vivid imagery and the utmost accuracy of expression. The writer, replacing one word with another, achieves the most accurate transfer of meaning. So, M.Yu. Lermontov, in a draft of the poem "The Death of a Poet", called Dantes first an "opponent" and then a "murderer", defining the role that he played in a duel with Pushkin. Synonyms give this or that emotional and stylistic coloring to the statement. For example, the word "face" is stylistically neutral, "face" has a tinge of solemnity:

But the light is struck by a glimpse

Her face is not a common expression.

(E. Baratynsky)

You bow your face, mentioning it,

And blood ascends to your forehead...

(A.K. Tolstoy)

The word "eyes" is also stylistically neutral, and the word "eyes" has a tinge of tenderness, solemnity (this is a bookish word, Slavicism):

A tribute to you eyes and hearts, a living song to you lyre

And the tremulous babble of shy praises!

(P. Vyazemsky)

And he sang about clear eyes.

About the eyes of a girl-soul.

(F. Glinka)

Possession of synonymy helps the writer to avoid repeating the same words, to diversify speech. For example, in Gogol's Dead souls Sobakevich ... joined the sturgeon and in a quarter of an hour with a little finished it all. Having finished the sturgeon, Sobakevich sat down in an armchair and blinked his eyes.

Greater expressiveness of artistic speech is given by antonyms - words that are opposite in meaning. With their help, the author can contrast the depicted characters, phenomena, events:

You are powerful.

You are also powerless.

Mother Russia!

(NA. Nekrasov)

Don't fall behind you. I am a guard.

You are a convoy. Fate is one.

(M. Tsvetaeva)

On the use of antonyms, a description of Chichikov's appearance in Gogol's "Dead Souls" is built: A gentleman was sitting in the britzka, not handsome, but not bad-looking, not too fat, not too thin; one cannot say that he is old, but it is not so that he is young either.

Antonyms help characterize inner essence character. Here is how Y. Trifonov describes one of his heroes: He was somehow suitable for everyone. And this, and that, and with those, and with these, and not evil, and not kind, and not very greedy, and not very generous, and not exactly an octopus, and not quite a glutton, and not cowardly, and not a daredevil, and seemingly not a cunning, and at the same time not a simpleton ... He was absolutely no, Vadik Baton ("House on the Embankment").

LANGUAGE OF ART LITERATURE, poetic language, the language of verbal art is one of the languages ​​of spiritual culture, along with the language of religion (cult) and the language of science. Together with them over the past several centuries in cultures European type the language of fiction opposes, first of all, the standard literary language as the language of official life. Like other languages ​​of spiritual culture, poetic language is focused on conscious and active change, on the search for new expressive possibilities, and in other cases - on originality, while "linguistic changes in the mass" happen completely "regardless of any intentional creativity.

The languages ​​of spiritual culture and the literary language to some extent share the functions of expressing meaning and its transmission. The aesthetic “attitude towards expression” was comprehended by J. G. Gaman, J. G. Herder, W. von Humboldt, and German romantics. They gave impetus to linguistic poetics, primarily in Germany (among the German followers of B. Croce: K. Vossler, L. Spitzer) and in Russia (A. A. Potebnya and his school, and later - the theorists of the Moscow Linguistic Circle and the Petrograd OPOYAZ ). Spitzer wrote: "Language is primarily communication, art is expression ... only with the high sophistication that the respective disciplines have achieved, language began to be considered also as expression, and art as communication." Russian "formalists" expressiveness, understood as a special ("emotive") function of the language, was separated from its own "poetic function", manifested in the "reflectivity" of the word, in its "turning on itself", or, what is the same, in "focusing on the message for its own sake".

Unlike the literary language, the language of fiction (like other languages ​​of spiritual culture), due to its “orientation to expression”, is organically connected with the content, directly contains it. In verbal art, a unity of form and content is achieved, if not complete, then at least partial: here any element of the external linguistic structure can be semantized. Not to mention vocabulary and phonetics, "among grammatical categories, used for correspondences by similarity or contrast, all categories of changeable and unchangeable parts of speech, numbers, genders, cases, tenses, types, moods, pledges, classes of abstract and specific words, negations, finite and non-personal verb forms, definite and indefinite pronouns or members and, finally, various syntactic units and constructions. In poetic language, except for official, grammatical role, all these forms can play the role of figurative means. Let us recall, for example, L.V. Shcherba’s observations on the semantics of gender and pledge, dating back to A. Grigoriev and Potebna, in G. Heine’s poem about pine and palm tree (“Ein Fichtenbaum steht einsam ...”) and in his Russian translations: “It is quite obvious ... that the masculine gender (Fichtenbaum, not Fichte) is not accidental ... and that in its opposite feminine Palme, he creates an image of a man's unsatisfied love for a distant, and therefore inaccessible woman.

The close relationship between content and expression is also due to the semiotic nature of the most significant differences between the language of fiction and other languages ​​of spiritual culture. If the religious-mythological symbol in the limit gravitates towards omniscience, and the scientific term towards unambiguity, then the artistic (poetic) image is generally ambiguous, “figurative”, because it combines “direct” and “figurative” meanings. Since all verbal art is, to one degree or another, fiction, actual meaning artistic word is never closed in its literal sense. But poetic fiction is almost always more or less plausible, and therefore the possibility of its real interpretation never completely disappears. And since to express a poetic meaning, “wider” or “more distant”, the artist of the word freely uses the forms of everyday language, so far the direct, primary, common language meaning is sometimes considered as “ internal form”, as a link between the external forms of language and poetic semantics.

The simultaneous actualization of the "poetic" (artistic) and "prosaic" (everyday) understanding of the text creates the prerequisites for the potential ambiguity of almost any language form: lexical, grammatical, phonetic. This is clearly seen in the example of word order in a poetic work. Inversion in general literary language is a strong emphatic means, but in poetry the word order is syntactically much freer, and therefore its violation is less significant, especially since grammatical freedom in verse is strictly limited by size and rhyme. The location of this or that word is predetermined by its rhythmic form and often cannot be changed without damaging the given line or stanza. In Pushkin's "Stone Guest" (1830), Don Juan asks a monk about Don Anna: "What a strange widow? And not bad?" - “We, Hermits, should not be seduced by the beauty of women ...” From the point of view of the standard syntax (“We, hermits, should not be seduced by feminine beauty”), in Monk’s remark, all the words are not in place, but from this they are distinguished no more than the word "not bad", the rhythmic position of which does not in the least contradict the grammatical one.

This feature of many poetic contexts was absolutized by B.V. Tomashevsky. He considered that "verse is speech without logical stress”: all the words in it are equally stressed and therefore “much more weighty”. However, even where the order of words is strictly related to the metric structure, inversion, if it does not diverge from the meaning, can be read in an expressive way, especially when supported by a transfer: “The first step is difficult And the first path is boring. I overcame early hardships. I set the craft as a pedestal to art ... ”(A.S. Pushkin. Mozart and Salieri. 1830). It is hardly possible to categorically protest against phrasal stresses on the words “overcame”, “craft”, but it is also impossible to insist on such phrasing, because the order of words is quite explainable by the pressure of a meter. On the other hand, as noted by G.O. Vinokur, inversions in the poetic language “were not always generated by versification conditions, for example, in Lomonosov’s line: “the gentle waters are heated by the south” - the rhythm does not prevent the rearrangement of the words “gentle” and “water” . In such cases, it is tempting to look for a semantic background: “As if I had done a heavy duty” (“As if I had done a heavy duty”); “Although I feel deeply offended, Even though I love life a little” (here is an undoubted inversion that destroys parallelism: “Although I feel deeply offended, Even though I love life a little”), etc. (“Mozart and Salieri”). However, even in these examples one cannot see an unambiguous emphasis, since lines of this kind are perceived against the background of many verses in which inversions are only a concession to the meter or even ornamental poetism, a tribute to literary tradition. This is how grammatical ambiguity is realized: through the “poetic” meaning of the inversion, the “prosaic” flashes through, and vice versa.

The originality of the language of fiction is not only functional-semantic, but also formal. So, in the field of phonetics of the Russian poetic language, there may be abnormal shifts, shifts of stress, as well as differences in sound distributions or in sound composition, in particular, the inclusion of sounds from other languages ​​as a "quote": "Before the Genius of Fate, it's time to reconcile, sor" - rhyme to the word "carpet" (A.A. Blok. " Autumn evening was. Glass under the sound of rain…”, 1912). Of particular note is the phenomenon of complete poetic reduction of vowels, the possibility of which was pointed out by V.K. From contemporary authors D.A.Prigov often uses this technique: “But justice will come And the free peoples of the Gibraltar neck will reunite with their homeland” (“The Isthmus of Gibraltar ...”, 1978).

Features of syntax in the language of fiction may be the use of different kind non-literary constructions: foreign, archaic or colloquial. The syntax of colloquial and artistic speech is brought together, in particular, by frequent omissions of grammatically implied forms, but the functions of the ellipsis in literature and beyond often do not coincide: in poetic speech restoring missing members is often impossible and undesirable, since vaguely polysemantic semantics is more in line with the poet's intention. In 12 lines of M.I. Tsvetaeva’s poem “On the hills - round and dark ...” (1921) there is not a single subject and predicate: “On the hills - round and dark, Under the beam - strong and dusty, Boot - timid and meek - For cloak - red and torn. But the absence verbal predicates not only does the poem not deprive the poem of dynamics, but, on the contrary, pedals it: in place of one omitted verb there are four dashes, emphasizing the swiftness and steadiness of the movement of women's boots following the men's cloak.

The area of ​​poetic syntax also includes all deviations from standard language norms, expressed in violation of grammatical connection. The deformation of the general language grammar can be expressed in such figures as ellipsis, anacoluf, sylleps, enallaga, parcellation, etc. special kind solecism - the omission of pretexts, as in the poems of D.D. Burliuk or V.V. Mayakovsky: “He once approached the plague with the throne” (V. Mayakovsky. I and Napoleon, 1915), - if desired, this and similar examples can be interpreted as ellipsis, and as an anacoluf. A separate category of cases are inversions; sometimes the poetic order is so free that it obscures the meaning: “His longing bones, And by death - alien to this land Not reassured guests” (A.S. Pushkin. Gypsies. 1824; instead of “guests of this alien land, not reassured by death”). Finally, in poetry, syntax can be overcome and semantics can be released from the connection of formal relations. Vinokur discovered movement in this direction in Mayakovsky: “Morgan. Wife. In corsets. It won’t move” (“Proletarian, nip the war in the bud!”, 1924). This is not parcellation: "words that could be ... subject and predicate", the poet "separates ... with inserted phrases."

Poetic morphology is all kinds of violation of standard inflection. This is, firstly, the change of immutable words and, secondly, the conversion, i.e. word transition to another grammatical category: change of gender or declension, singular for nouns that in the literary language have only the form plural, and vice versa, the transition relative adjectives into qualitative ones, change of the verb form (for example, the simple future tense of imperfect verbs), reflexivity irrevocable verbs, transitivity of intransitives and much more. Plus, poetic morphology allows colloquial, dialectal or archaic inflection: "I am - of course you are!" (G.R. Derzhavin. God. 1784).

Along with poetic form-creation, there is poetic word-creation. If it is carried out in accordance with general language word-formation models, it should be attributed to poetic lexicology, but if the writer's word-creation puts into action models that are unproductive or unproductive outside of fiction, then we are dealing with poetic word formation. The most radical inventor of occasional methods of word production, admittedly, was V. Khlebnikov, who expanded the poetic vocabulary by, for example, “shortening” consonants (by analogy with declension and conjugation): “creators”<- «дворяне», «могатырь» <- «богатырь», «можар» <- «пожар». Если у Маяковского большинство неологизмов строится из готовых, легко вычленяемых морфем, то у Хлебникова «смехачи» и «гордешницы» - это ранний этап его словоновшества, от которого он ушел к неологизмам типа «резьмо» и «мнестр».

Perhaps the most noticeable differences between the poetic language and the language of official life are concentrated in the field of vocabulary: a work of any genre can organically include Slavicisms and historicisms, archaisms and occasionalisms, barbarisms, professionalisms, argotisms, dialectisms, vernacular, slang, which are outside the scope of the commonly used dictionary, as well as cursing and swearing. Less attention is usually paid to poetic phraseology, in the sphere of interests of which is not only the formation of more or less stable turns of speech inherent in a given author, direction or era, but also the transformation of general language phraseological units in the language of fiction. Of the Russian writers, N.V. Gogol most likely resorted to the “decomposition of phraseological fusions into component parts”. In just one sentence from Taras Bulba (1835), he contaminates four clichés: “And the gray-haired ones, who stood like gray doves, nodded their heads and, blinking their gray mustaches, quietly said: “A well-spoken word!”. Pigeons are gray, and geldings are gray, they usually twist their mustaches, and blink with their eyes.

In addition to creative deviations from the literary language, writers often enjoy the right to a random, unintentional mistake. Their language also allows any distortion of national speech in order to convey a state of mind or indicate the ethnic or social affiliation of the speaking subject: “My work, my ears are stuffed up; Skashi a little more ... ”(A.S. Griboyedov. Woe from Wit). A literary text easily includes foreign language inserts that appear with any frequency (for example, in macaronic poetry) and almost any length (phoneme, morpheme, word, combination of words, phrase, etc.). At the same time, multilingual elements can be clearly demarcated, as in A.K. Tolstoy’s “History of the Russian State” (1868), or they can be “fused” so that the “language-superstratum” becomes inseparable from the “language-substratum” (classical sample - "Finnegans Wake", 1939, J. Joyce). In some cases, a work of national literature is entirely created in another language: for example, the language of Russian fiction was French and German, Latin and Church Slavonic.

As a result of the ordering and semantization of the external form, a new level arises in the language of fiction - compositional. Of course, texts compiled according to the rules of the literary language also have their own composition. But the composition of the composition is different. In the language of official life, the composition is determined mainly by pragmatics, and in the languages ​​of spiritual culture, by semantics: a change in the composition directly affects the content (it is easy to imagine what will happen if we rebuild the composition of the novels by L. Stern or M. Yu. Lermontov in accordance with the plot). In this regard, the "reverse" order of phrases, paragraphs, chapters, parts, in principle, does not differ from the reverse order of words. In the normal case, the topic (what is known) precedes the rheme (what is reported). Similarly, in a narrative work, what happens earlier usually precedes what happens later; the opposite sequence is compositional inversion, which, like syntactic inversion, is stylistically and semantically marked.

The content of the compositional level of the language of fiction is made up of semantic structures that do not fit into a simple sentence. Such, for example, is the plot: it as a whole or its individual links can be common to a number of works, authors, literary eras, i.e. belonging not to the text, but to the language (in fact, it was the linguistic nature of the plot of a fairy tale that was established by V. Ya. Propp). In poetic language, the main unit of the compositional level is . The same strophic form, occurring in many works, has its own meaning, its own “semantic halo”, which makes its use here and now more or less appropriate. A stanza can not only enhance the semantics of other linguistic forms, but also impart to the text its own semantics associated with the history of its use: for example, the odic ten-line, whose "high" semantics is due to its connection with a solemn and spiritual ode, falling into the "low" works of I. S.Barkova, N.P.Osipova and others, gave their compositions an iroikokomic coloring.

There are truly countless examples of how compositional forms accompany general semantics. It is more difficult to demonstrate how composition forms meaning on its own, without the support of other linguistic means. The simplest example of this kind is provided by N.M. Karamzin’s poem “Cemetery” written in two voices (1792). The first voice draws the picture of the sepulchral dream exclusively in gloomy tones, the second - exclusively in light ones. Symmetrical replicas alternate through one, occupying three lines each. It would seem that the polar points of view on "life after life" are equally represented - no one is preferred. However, the “gloomy voice” in this duet begins, and the “light one” ends, and therefore the poem becomes a hymn to eternal rest: “The wanderer is afraid of the dead vale; Horror and trembling feeling in the heart, Past the cemetery in a hurry. - "The weary wanderer sees the abode of the Eternal world - throwing the staff, It remains forever." The author's position is stated only with the help of compositional forms, and this is one of the fundamental differences between the aesthetic language and everyday language: in everyday dialogue, unlike poetic, the one who has the last word does not always win. Thus, behind the imaginary dialogic composition, the monologue of artistic expression is hidden.

Artistic speech is a specific form of verbal art, different from ordinary literary (normative) speech. In particular, it may include non-literary speech, if this is required by a certain artistic task.

The artistic style of speech as a functional style is used in fiction, which performs a figurative-cognitive and ideological-aesthetic function. V.V. Vinogradov noted: "... The concept of" style "as applied to the language of fiction is filled with a different content than, for example, in relation to business or clerical styles, and even journalistic and scientific styles ... The language of fiction is not quite correlative with other styles, he uses them, includes them, but in his own-shaped combinations and in a transformed form ... "

1. Fiction, like other types of art, is characterized by a concrete-figurative representation of life, in contrast, for example, to an abstract, logical-conceptual, objective reflection of reality in scientific speech. A work of art is characterized by perception through feelings and the re-creation of reality, the author seeks, first of all, to convey his personal experience, his understanding and understanding of a particular phenomenon.

2. For the artistic style of speech, attention to the particular and the accidental is typical, followed by the typical and the general. Remember the well-known "Dead Souls" by N.V. Gogol, where each of the shown landowners personified certain specific human qualities, expressed a certain type, and all together they were the "face" of Russia contemporary to the author.

3. The world of fiction is a "recreated" world, the depicted reality is, to a certain extent, the author's fiction, which means that the subjective moment plays the main role in the artistic style of speech. All the surrounding reality is presented through the vision of the author. But in a literary text we see not only the world of the writer, but also the writer in this world: his preferences, condemnations, admiration, rejection, etc. This is connected with emotionality and expressiveness, metaphoricalness, meaningful diversity of the artistic style of speech. Let's analyze a small excerpt from N. Tolstoy "Foreigner without food": To the exhibition

Lera went only for the sake of the student, out of a sense of duty. "Alina Kruger. Personal exhibition. Life is like a loss. Admission is free." A bearded man with a lady wandered in the empty hall. He looked at some of the work through a hole in his fist, he felt like a professional. Lera also looked through her fist, but did not notice the difference: the same naked men on chicken legs, and in the background the pagodas were on fire. The booklet about Alina said: "The artist projects a parable world onto the space of the infinite." I wonder where and how they teach to write art history texts? They are probably born with it. When visiting, Lera loved to leaf through art albums and, after looking at a reproduction, read what a specialist wrote about it. You see: the boy covered the insect with a net, on the sides the angels are blowing pioneer horns, in the sky there is a plane with the signs of the Zodiac on board. You read: "The artist considers the canvas as a cult of the moment, where the stubbornness of details interacts with an attempt to comprehend everyday life." You think: the author of the text rarely happens in the air, keeps on coffee and cigarettes, intimate life is complicated by something.

(Star. 1998. No. 1).

Before us is not an objective representation of the exhibition, but a subjective description of the heroine of the story, behind which the author is clearly visible. The text is built on a combination of three artistic plans. The first plan is what Lera sees in the pictures, the second is an art history text that interprets the content of the pictures. These plans are stylistically expressed in different ways, bookishness and abstruseness of the description are deliberately emphasized. And the third plan is the author's irony, which manifests itself through the display of the discrepancy between the content of the picture and the verbal expression of this content, in the assessment of the bearded man, the author of the book text, the ability to write such art history texts.

4. As a means of communication, artistic speech has its own language - a system of figurative forms, expressed by linguistic and extralinguistic means. Artistic speech, along with non-artistic speech, make up two levels of the national language. The basis of the artistic style of speech is the literary Russian language. The word in this functional style performs a nominative-figurative function. Let us cite the beginning of V. Larin's novel "Neuron Shock": Marat's father Stepan Porfiryevich Fateev, an orphan from infancy, was from the family of Astrakhan bandits. The revolutionary whirlwind blew him out of the locomotive vestibule, dragged him through the Michelson plant in Moscow, machine-gun courses in Petrograd and threw him into Novgorod-Seversky, a town of deceptive silence and goodness

(Star. 1998. No. 1).

In these two sentences, the author showed not only a segment of an individual human life, but also the atmosphere of an era of great changes associated with the revolution of 1917. The first sentence gives knowledge of the social environment, material conditions, human relations in the childhood years of the father of the hero of the novel and his own roots. The simple, rude people who surrounded the boy (a bindyuzhnik is a colloquial name for a port loader), the hard work that he saw from childhood, the restlessness of orphanhood - that's what stands behind this proposal. And the next sentence includes private life in the cycle of history. Metaphorical phrases (The revolutionary whirlwind blew ..., dragged ..., threw ...) liken human life to a certain grain of sand that cannot withstand historical cataclysms, and at the same time convey the element of the general movement of those "who was nobody". Such figurativeness, such a layer of in-depth information is impossible in a scientific or official business text.

5. The lexical composition and functioning of words in the artistic style of speech have their own characteristics. The number of words that form the basis and create the imagery of this style, first of all, includes the figurative means of the Russian literary language, as well as words that realize their meaning in the context. These are words with a wide range of uses. Highly specialized words are used to a small extent, only to create artistic authenticity in describing certain aspects of life. For example, L.N. Tolstoy in "War and Peace" used special military vocabulary when describing battle scenes; we will find a significant number of words from the hunting lexicon in I.S. Turgenev and in the stories of M.M. Prishvin, V.A. Astafiev; and in "The Queen of Spades" A.S. Pushkin a lot of words from the lexical card game, etc.

6. In the artistic style of speech, the speech polysemy of the word is very widely used, which opens up additional meanings and semantic shades in it, as well as synonymy at all language levels, which makes it possible to emphasize the subtlest shades of meanings. This is explained by the fact that the author strives to use all the riches of the language, to create his own unique language and style, to a bright, expressive, figurative text. The author uses not only the vocabulary of the codified literary language, but also a variety of figurative means from colloquial speech and vernacular. Let's give a small example: In Evdokimov's tavern, they were about to turn off the lamps when the scandal began. Scandal began like this. At first, everything in the hall looked fine, and even the tavern clerk Potap told the owner that, they say, today God has passed - not a single broken bottle, when suddenly in the depths, in the semi-darkness, in my very core, it buzzed like a swarm of bees.

Fathers of light, - the owner was lazily amazed, - here, Potapka, your evil eye, damn it! Well, it was necessary to croak, damn it!

7. The emotionality and expressiveness of the image come to the fore in a literary text. Many words that appear in scientific speech as clearly defined abstract concepts, in newspaper and journalistic speech as socially generalized concepts, in artistic speech act as concrete sensory representations. Thus, the styles functionally complement each other. For example, the adjective lead in scientific speech realizes its direct meaning (lead ore, lead bullet), and in artistic speech it forms an expressive metaphor (lead clouds, lead night, lead waves). Therefore, in artistic speech, phrases play an important role, which create a certain figurative representation.

8. Artistic speech, especially poetic, is characterized by inversion, i.e. changing the usual word order in a sentence in order to enhance the semantic significance of a word or to give the whole phrase a special stylistic coloring. An example of inversion is the well-known line from A. Akhmatova's poem "Everything I see is hilly Pavlovsk ..." The variants of the author's word order are diverse, subject to a common plan.

9. The syntactic structure of artistic speech reflects the flow of figurative and emotional author's impressions, so here you can find the whole variety of syntactic structures. Each author subordinates linguistic means to the fulfillment of his ideological and aesthetic tasks. So, L. Petrushevskaya, in order to show the disorder, "troubles" of the family life of the heroine of the story "Poetry in Life", includes several simple and complex sentences in one sentence: Mila’s two-room apartment no longer protected Mila from her mother, her mother lived separately, and there was no telephone either there or here - Mila’s husband became himself and Iago and Othello and, with mockery from around the corner, watched how to Mila men of his type pester on the street, builders, prospectors, poets, who do not know how heavy this burden is, how unbearable life is if you fight alone, because beauty in life is not a helper, so those obscene, desperate monologues could be roughly translated , which the former agronomist, and now a researcher, Mila's husband, shouted both on the night streets, and in his apartment, and when he got drunk, so Mila hid somewhere with her young daughter, found shelter, and the unfortunate husband beat furniture and threw iron pots.

This proposal is perceived as an endless complaint of an uncountable number of unfortunate women, as a continuation of the theme of the sad fate of women.

10. In artistic speech, deviations from structural norms are also possible, due to artistic actualization, i.e. the author highlighting some thought, idea, trait, important for the meaning of the work. They can be expressed in violation of phonetic, lexical, morphological and other norms. Especially often this technique is used to create a comic effect or a bright, expressive artistic image: Oh, dear, - Shipov shook his head, - why is that so? No need. I can see right through you, mon cher... Hey, Potapka, why did you forget a man on the street? Bring him here, wake up. And what, mister student, how does this tavern seem to you? It's dirty indeed. Do you think he’s good for me? .. I’ve been to real restaurants, I know .. Pure Empire style, sir ... But you can’t talk to people there, but here I can find out something

(Okudzhava B. The Adventures of Shipov).

The speech of the protagonist characterizes him very clearly: not very educated, but ambitious, wanting to give the impression of a gentleman, master, Shipov uses elementary French words (mon cher) along with colloquial awakening, ndrav, here, which do not correspond not only to literary , but also the colloquial norm. But all these deviations in the text serve the law of artistic necessity.

In terms of diversity, richness and expressive possibilities of language means, the artistic style stands above other styles, is the most complete expression of the literary language.

№ 17 Figurative and expressive means of language

trails- words and phrases used in a figurative sense.

1.Epithet - a definition emphasizing the characteristic property of an object:

shaggy clouds; carelessly the oriole laughs; I remember marvelous moment.

2.Metaphor (hidden comparison) - figurative meaning words based on the similarity of objects or phenomena: fire sunset dialect waves.

3.personification (a kind of metaphor) - transferring human properties to inanimate objects: wind howls; stars dozed off.

4.Metonymy -replacement of one word by another based on the relationship of their meanings by adjacency: « the theater applauded" instead of "the audience applauded"; " the kettle is boiling instead of "the water in the kettle is boiling".

5.Synecdoche (a kind of metonymy) - the name of the part instead of the whole:

"My small head' instead of 'I'm lost'.

6.Comparison- comparison of two objects or phenomena using:

a) comparative unions like, like, like, like: like a plowman, the battle is resting;

b) a noun in the instrumental case: the road winds tape.

7.paraphrase (paraphrase) - an expression that in a descriptive form conveys the meaning of another expression or word: “ king of beasts" instead of "lion"; " Peter's creation" instead of Petersburg.

8.Hyperbola - excessive exaggeration of the properties of the depicted object:

whole sea moths; rivers blood.

9.Litotes - excessive underestimation of the properties of the depicted object:

peasant with a fingernail

Stylistic figures- special turns of speech used to enhance the expressiveness of the utterance.

1.Antithesis - opposition: me sad, because fun you.

2.Oxymoron (oxymoron) - a combination of words opposite in meaning:

« living Dead»; « cold boiling water narzan".

3.gradation -consecutive strengthening or weakening of artistic means:

streams, rivers, lakes, oceans of tears.

4.Parallelism - identical or similar arrangement of speech elements in adjacent parts of the text:

Waves crash in the blue sea

The stars are shining in the blue sky.

5.Anaphora - the same beginning of lines or sentences:

Wait for the snow to come

Wait when it's hot

Wait when others are not expected

Forgetting yesterday.

6.Epiphora - the same end of lines or sentences:

We are not old let's die,-

From old wounds let's die.

7.pickup - repetition of the final word or phrase at the beginning of the next line:

Oh spring without end and without edge-

Without end and without edge dream!

8.Refrain (chorus) - repetition of a line or series of lines at the end of a stanza.

9.Ellipsis ( ellipse) - omission of an utterance element, which is easily restored in this context:

Powder. We get up, and immediately [sit down] on a horse,

And trot [jump] across the field in the first light of day. (Pushkin)

10.Inversion - change in the usual word order: "The lonely sail turns white" instead of

"A lonely sail turns white."

11.Default - interruption of the begun speech, counting on the guess of the reader, who must mentally finish it:

Where was he to get [money], a sloth, a rogue?

Stole, of course; or maybe,

There on the high road, at night, in the grove…

12.Rhetorical figures -turns designed to enhance the expressiveness of speech:

but) rhetorical appeal : Fields! I am devoted to you in soul.

b) rhetorical exclamation : What a summer! What a summer! // Yes, it's just witchcraft.

in) rhetorical question : Where, where have you gone, my golden days of spring?

13.Asyndeton - enumeration of phenomena or objects without the use of unions:

Swede, Russian-cut, cuts, cuts,

Drum beat, clicks, rattle.

14.polyunion - construction of a phrase in which homogeneous members are connected by the same union: “ and sling, and arrow, And sly dagger years spare the winner.

15. Parceling - division of a phrase into parts or into separate words:

…But the mountains are close.

And snow on them. We'll spend time

At the stove. in Imereti. in winter. (V. Inber)

Synonymy is a set of synonyms of a language that arose as a result of repeated synonymous convergence of words in the past. Created over a number of centuries, the synonymy of the literary language regulates synonymy, makes individual synonymous approximations and substitutions understandable, increasing the accuracy and expressiveness of speech. The words of the synonymic series differ in the shade of meaning and emotional and stylistic coloring. Consider a series with the reference word eyes. The series is based on the synonymous pair of eyes - eyes; it is adjoined by the words eyelids, pupils, burkaly, walleye, peepers, flashing lights, zenki, balls, as well as the compound name of the organ of vision (it is used in special scientific and popular science literature). Between synonyms eyes - eyes there is a semantic, stylistic and emotional difference. The word eye is the organ of vision in people and animals: the eye hurts, cat's eyes, etc. Eyes are the eyes of only a person, most often beautiful female eyes. The words of the vezhda and the eyeball are also poetic, but they are, moreover, archaic. The remaining words of the synonymous series are colloquial, vernacular. If book words carry a positive, high assessment, then colloquial words - negative, reduced. So, the words peepers and thorns have the meaning of disapproval and neglect. There is also a semantic difference between synonyms for a reduced emotional assessment: burkals and balls are large, usually bulging and inexpressive eyes of a person, and flashing lights and peepers are small, also expressionless eyes. Synonyms differ from each other in many components of the content of the word. However, one of the components may be more visible and relevant. According to the predominance of one or another type of distinguishing feature, three types of synonyms are distinguished: 1. Conceptual or ideographic synonyms. They differ from each other primarily in lexical meaning. This difference is manifested both in varying degrees of the indicated sign (frost - cold, strong - powerful and mighty, hefty and healthy), and in the nature of its designation (quilted jacket - quilted jacket - quilted jacket, crimson - purple - bloody), and in the volume of the expressed concept ( banner and flag, foundations and firstfruits, bold and bold), and in the degree of connectedness of lexical meaning (brown and brown, black and black). For example, the adjective black refers to the color of the hair, while black refers to the black color of the horse. 2) Synonyms are stylistic or functional. They differ from each other in the scope of use. First of all, these are words of different styles of the literary language; among stylistic synonyms, synonyms - poeticisms and synonyms - vernacular words oppose each other. For example, the poetic synonyms of the adjective combat are the traditional poetic words swearing and military, and the noun money is the vernacular word pennies. Among functional synonyms there are also dialectisms, archaisms and barbarisms (foreign words). Foreign words, as already noted, are especially frequent among terminological and technical vocabulary: sinologist (sinologist) - sinologist, plane - airplane, vacant - free, classify (systematize) - group. Among synonyms-dialectisms, it is necessary to distinguish between commonly used dialectisms and narrowly regional words. The first group includes words such as kochet (rooster), peplum (beautiful), helluva (very). Regional words are pima (felt boots), yell (plow), kohat (love), at once (immediately). 3. Synonyms are emotional and evaluative. The peculiarity of emotional-evaluative synonyms lies in the fact that, differing from neutral synonyms in a shade of meaning and scope of use, they openly express the speaker's attitude to the designated person, object or phenomenon. This assessment can be positive or negative, and is usually accompanied by emotional expression. For example, a child can be solemnly called a child, affectionately a boy and a boy, contemptuously a boy and a sucker, and also emphatically-contemptuously a puppy, a sucker, a jerk.

Antonyms and their classification

One of the clear manifestations of systemic relations in vocabulary is the correlative opposition of two or more words that are opposite in the most general and most significant semantic feature for their meaning. Such words are called lexical antonyms (Greek anti - against + onyma - name). Antonyms according to the type of concepts expressed are:

Contradictory correlates are such opposites that mutually complement each other to a whole, without transitional links; they are in relation to the privative opposition. Examples: bad - good, false - true, alive - dead. - counter correlates - antonyms expressing polar opposites within one essence in the presence of transitional links - internal gradation; they are in relation to the gradual opposition. Examples: black (- gray -) white, old (- elderly - middle-aged -) young, large (- medium -) small. - vector correlates - antonyms expressing different directions of actions, signs, social phenomena, etc. Examples: enter - exit, descend - rise, ignite - extinguish, revolution - counter-revolution. Converses are words that describe the same situation from the point of view of different participants. Examples: buy - sell, husband - wife, teach - learn, lose - win, lose - find. - enantiosemy - the presence of opposite meanings in the structure of the word. Examples: to lend money to someone - to borrow money from someone, to surround with tea - to treat and not to treat. - pragmatic - words that are regularly opposed in the practice of their use, in contexts (pragmatics - "action"). Examples: soul - body, mind - heart, earth - sky. According to the structure, antonyms are: - heterogeneous (forward - backward); - single-root - are formed with the help of prefixes that are opposite in meaning: enter - exit, or with the help of a prefix added to the original word (monopoly - antimonopoly). From the point of view of language and speech, antonyms are divided into: - linguistic (usual) - antonyms that exist in the language system (rich - poor); - speech (occasional) - antonyms that occur in a certain context (to check for the presence of this type, you need to reduce them to a language pair) - (golden - copper half, i.e. expensive - cheap). They often appear in proverbs. From the point of view of action, antonyms are: - dimensional - action and reaction (get up - go to bed, get rich - get poorer); - proportional - action and lack of action (in the broad sense) (ignite - extinguish, think - think over). Among the antonyms there are no proper names, pronouns, numerals.