Reflexive or irrevocable verb. Reflexive form of verbs

Russian morphology literary language*

VERB

Ranks of verbs

Meaning and forms of the verb

Verbs are words with the meaning of the process, i.e. words expressing the signs they designate as an action (read, chop, go) condition (sick, lie down) or becoming (be young, grow old).

Verbs have a rich system of mutually opposed each other syntactic forms, the totality of which is called conjugation. Of the syntactic forms, the most characteristic of the verb are those that serve to express the predicate in the sentence, the so-called predicative forms. The presence of these forms makes it possible to oppose the verb to the rest of the speech, which, having no form of predicate, cannot, unlike the verb, themselves act as a predicate in the sentence.

The predicative forms of the verb are expressed by mood forms, which indicate differences in the statement expressed by the predicate in relation to its reality or unreality, possibility (cf. he worked, he works And he would work, work). Predicative forms are opposed attributive forms- participle and gerund participle, which are forms in which the verb acts as minor member sentences - definitions or circumstances (working, working, working).

Contrasting with each other, predicative and attributive forms are combined in the sense that, while expressing a process, they at the same time indicate that this process belongs to a person or object (cf. he works, you would work, factory-working brother; engineer working in a factory designing a car model etc.). All these forms, i.e. predicative and attributive in their totality, in turn, is opposed by the so-called indefinite form, or infinitive (work), in which there is no indication that the process is related to a person or object. Representing in its grammatical meaning negative form, the infinitive is neither a predicative nor an attributive form.

In addition to syntactic forms of conjugation, verbs have non-syntactic forms recurrence And irreversibility and forms kind. According to the non-syntactic formal meanings expressed by these forms, verbs are divided into correlative in relation to each other grammatical ranks: first, on verbs returnable And irrevocable, secondly, on verbs perfect And imperfect species.

The division of verbs into reflexive and irrevocable depends on whether the intransitive meaning of the process is expressed grammatically or not. Reflexive verbs are verbs with a grammatically expressed intransitivity, i.e. they indicate that the process they express is not, and cannot be, reversed to the direct object expressed by the noun in wine. pad. without a preposition, for example: wash, dress, meet, get angry, knock, blacken etc. Unlike them, non-reflexive verbs do not indicate the intransitivity of the process, and therefore they can be both transitive: wash(arms), dress(child) meet(delegation) get angry(father), and intransitive: knock, blacken and etc.

Division of verbs into perfective and imperfect form determined by how they express the course of the process in relation to its completeness. Perfective verbs express the process in its completeness, at the moment the process reaches the limit or result: write, decide, start, get dressed, take a walk etc. Imperfective verbs express the process without indicating its completeness, completeness: write, decide, start, dress, walk etc.

The ways of forming verb forms are extremely diverse. The main grammatical means of their formation are various affixes: prefixes, suffixes, endings. But, in addition, in the formation of verb forms, a change in the stem is used much more widely compared to other parts of speech, expressed in various alternations of phonemes, compare, for example: assigns - assigns, asks - asks, twist - twist, draw - draw, knit - knit, plow - plow, carry - drive, wear - wear etc.

When forming conjugation forms, along with the usual for grammatical structure Russian language with syntactic forms, i.e. forms in which real and formal meanings are expressed in one word, a number of verb forms are formed analytically with the help of special auxiliary particles and words that express the syntactic formal meanings of a given form, while only real and non-syntactic formal meanings are denoted by a conjugated verb. Thus, for example, it is formed conditional mood (would work), the future tense of imperfective verbs (they will work) and some other forms.

The formation of verb forms basically corresponds to the general inflectional structure of the Russian language. Indeed, the syntactic formal meanings of verbs are indicated not only by affixes, but also by a change in the stem of the word (cf. love'-at - love'u). Affixes usually designate not one, but several formal meanings (cf. I love And love'-at, where the endings indicate the person and number of the verb), finally, the same formal meaning can be expressed various suffixes(cf. go-ut And shout-at). However, the formation of some forms of the verb is not inflectional, but agglutinative, i.e. they are formed by "gluing", stringing identical single-valued suffixes. Such, for example, is the formation of forms imperative mood(cf. learn, learn, learn, learn, learn, learn, learn, learn).

Reflexive and non-reflexive verbs

Depending on the presence or absence of verbs grammatical features, indicating the intransitivity of the process, verbs in Russian are divided into two categories: reflexive and non-reflexive verbs. In other words, the division of verbs into reflexive and irrevocable is determined by whether or not the very form of the verb indicates that the process it denotes is not reversed, not directed to a direct object, which is expressed by nouns in wine. pad. without a suggestion.

Reflexive verbs are those that, by their form, indicate that the process they designate is not and cannot be reversed to a direct object: appear, return, rush, share, call, knock and others, i.e. reflexive verbs are verbs with a grammatically expressed intransitive.

As opposed to reflexive verbs non-reflexive verbs do not contain in their form grammatical features indicating the intransitivity of the process: wash, return, rush, smoke, call, knock etc. Therefore, these are verbs with grammatically unexpressed intransitiveness.

The opposition of reflexive and non-reflexive verbs to each other, as verbs with expressed and unexpressed intransitivity, corresponds to purely external formal features. Reflexive verbs are characterized by the presence of a special suffix, the so-called reflexive particle -sya, -sya, through which the intransitivity of the process denoted by the verb is expressed: to meet, to meet. On the contrary, non-reflexive verbs do not have a reflexive particle, and at the same time there is no grammatical indication of the intransitivity of the process: meet, knock. Thus, formally reflexive and non-reflexive verbs are opposed to each other, like verbs with a reflexive particle and verbs without a reflexive particle.

Transitive and intransitive verbs

Expressing a process without indicating its intransitiveness, irreflexive verbs can have both transitive and intransitive meanings. This does not contradict their definition as verbs with unexpressed intransitiveness, since the mere absence of grammatical features indicating the intransitive meaning of the process does not mean that the process must necessarily be transitive. And indeed, although some irrevocable verbs have a transitive meaning, others have an intransitive meaning, and therefore they are divided into verbs transitional And intransitive.

The division of irreflexive verbs into transitive and intransitive is based on their meaning. Intransitive verbs express a state, becoming and action that is not and cannot, by its very nature, be directed to a direct object: A lone sail turns white.(M. Lermontov), Blacken huts here and there. (A. Pushkin), Factory chimneys are smoking, Birds are flying, A steamboat is floating on the river, Rifle shots are crackling etc. In contrast, transitive verbs express only an action, and such an action that is directly addressed to a direct object: The old man was fishing with a net, the old woman was spinning her yarn. (A. Pushkin), The people broke the chains of the king.(V. Mayakovsky), I write poetry and, dissatisfied, burn. (N. Nekrasov), Waves with white claws scrape the golden sand.(S. Yesenin), etc. This difference in the meaning of transitive and intransitive verbs is not always sharply manifested, since the action denoted by the transitive verb can be expressed in a distraction from the object to which it is directed, cf .: I write in my room, I read without a lamp.(A. Pushkin), Swede, Russian stabs, cuts, cuts.(A. Pushkin) - and then it approaches the meaning of intransitive verbs. But still, in this case, transitive verbs denote a potentially transitive action.

The meaning of transitive verbs determines the possibility of connecting with them in speech nouns in the accusative case without a preposition denoting a direct object, i.e. the object on which the action is directed. This connection is possible precisely because the verb itself denotes an action directed at an object. In other words, transitive verbs can control the accusative case of nouns with the meaning of a direct object. Intransitive verbs do not control the accusative case, they do not connect with it, since they do not have the meaning of transitivity. However, if a noun in the accusative case does not denote a direct object, but the duration of an action in time or space, then it can also be used with intransitive verbs: The storm raged all night, The whole summer was bad weather, All the way they walked in silence..

The possibility of forming passive participles in them is also connected with the meaning of transitive verbs: read - readable, read - read, build - built, love - beloved, warm - warmed etc. However, it should be noted that not all transitive verbs have passive participles. More or less regularly, they are formed only in perfective verbs, since they form passive past participles, which are productive forms. In many transitive imperfective verbs, which form only passive participles of the present tense, which are forms of little productive, passive participles no. On the other hand, although intransitive verbs as a rule, they do not have passive participles, however, they can be formed in individual intransitive verbs, cf .: threaten - threatened, neglect - neglected, depend - dependent, manage - controlled.

The difference between transitive and intransitive verbs in most cases is not indicated by any grammatical features. One can only note the opposition of transitive and intransitive verbs, which are formed from adjectives by means of derivational suffixes -et And -it. By means of a suffix -et intransitive verbs are formed denoting state and becoming (the process of gradual development of a feature), for example: to turn white, to turn black, to turn red, to turn golden and etc.; with the same suffix -it from the same adjectives verbs denoting a transitive action are formed: whiten, blacken, redden, gild etc. Most of the rest verbal suffixes is used equally to form both transitive and intransitive verbs, and therefore they cannot serve as signs of distinguishing between transitive and intransitive verbs. In some cases, with the help of prefixes from intransitive verbs, transitive ones are formed, cf .: walk And go out(sick) sit And serve time(leg) sit out(chair), sit out(chickens), etc. However, intransitive verbs become transitive only with a few prefixes (cf. to come, to walk, to enter, to go; to sit, to sit etc.), and, in addition, many intransitive verbs either rarely combine with prefixes, or, even if they are combined, retain their intransitiveness.

Due to the absence of signs that would indicate the transitive or intransitive meaning of non-reflexive verbs, in a careless colloquial speech often intransitive verbs are used in the meaning of transitive, for example: He broke the glass, don't tremble, take a walk baby, I'm sunbathing my feet etc. Although such use is usually perceived as erroneous, incorrect, as a "slip of the tongue", but it clearly indicates the grammatical indistinguishability of transitive and intransitive verbs. It is significant that this kind of "reservation" is impossible with reflexive verbs, as verbs with grammatically expressed intransitiveness.

Meaning and formation of reflexive verbs

All reflexive verbs are intransitive. This is their common grammatical property. Therefore, like other intransitive verbs (irreflexive), they cannot control the accusative case of nouns with the meaning of a direct object and do not form passive participles.

The intransitive meaning of reflexive verbs is grammatically indicated by a special affix, the so-called reflexive particle. This particle, being an inseparable element of the verb, is attached to the end of the word and is preserved in all forms that are formed in reflexive verbs. It comes in two versions - -sya And -ss. IN verb forms ending in a consonant, the variant is used -sya: wash-sya, washed-sya, wash-sya, wash-sya, my-sya(moj-sya), and in forms ending in a vowel - a variant -s: wash-s, wash-s, wash-s, wash-s, my-s. However, in participles, both in consonantal and in vowel forms, the reflexive particle is always presented in the variant -sya, compare: washable And washable, washable And washing, washing And washed etc. By adding such a particle, reflexive verbs can be formed from both transitive and intransitive non-reflexive verbs.

Attaching a reflexive particle to transitive verbs is a means by which their transitive meaning is eliminated: verbs from transitive become intransitive. At the same time, in addition to eliminating transitivity, the reflexive particle introduces additional meanings into the reflexive verbs formed from transitive verbs, which denote differences in relation to the process to the person or object it defines. These meanings largely depend on the syntactic conditions for the use of reflexive verbs, due to which the same verb in different syntactic contexts can denote different relations of the process to the person or object it defines. The most important of these values ​​are:

common-return value, indicating that the process is designated in abstraction from the object, as occurring in the object itself, as a property, the state of this object: he gets angry, languishes, pouts, rejoices, frightened, the cow butts, the dog bites, the problem is not solved, the matter is easy to wash, dye etc.

self-return value, showing that the action is addressed to the actor himself, who is, as it were, his own object of action: I wash, dress, she puts on makeup, powders, smears, he defends himself etc. With this meaning, reflexive verbs are used with nouns denoting "animate" objects.

mutual value, denoting that the action takes place between two or more actors, each of which, in relation to the other, is the object of the action: they squabble, kiss, fight, meet etc.

passive meaning, denoting that the action is reversed by some actor to the object defined by the verb, which is thus the object of the action. With this meaning, reflexive verbs are used mainly with inanimate nouns, and the protagonist in this case is expressed by animate nouns in the instrumental case: the house is painted by painters, the locomotive is controlled by the driver, the problem is solved by the students, the model is designed by engineers etc. It should be noted, however, that such phrases with the instrumental case of the actor are rather artificial book formations and are relatively unused. More commonly, the use of reflexive verbs in a passive sense without indicating the producer of the action, in abstraction from him: Soon the fairy tale is told, but the deed is not soon done, The floors are washed once a week, New cities are built etc., but in this case the passive meaning is not so clearly revealed and may be completely lost, cf.: Problem solved by students And Problem solved(can be solved) Linen is washed by a laundress And Linen doesn't wash well(does not become clean, white), etc.

Joining irrevocable intransitive verbs, the reflexive particle forms reflexive verbs, which for the most part have an impersonal meaning, expressing the process in abstraction both from the object of the action and from the person performing this action. They usually denote various states experienced by a person against his will and desire, and the person himself, experiencing this or that state, can be expressed with an impersonal verb by a noun in the dative case: I can’t sleep, I can’t sit at home, he didn’t work, didn’t walk, I felt sad etc. Most often, such impersonal verbs are used with negation (particle not). A similar kind of reflexive verbs with an impersonal meaning can also be formed from transitive verbs: I think I want to, I can't wait to find out and etc.

Of the other meanings that are introduced by the reflexive particle into reflexive verbs when they are formed from intransitive verbs, an amplifying value should be noted. With this meaning, reflexive verbs are formed from intransitive verbs into -et (-eyut), denoting a continuing state, for example: show red from blush(“to be, to be red”, but not from blush in the meaning of "become red"), turn white from turn white, blacken from turn black etc. This also includes verbs such as: smoke from smoke, brag from brag etc. In these formations, the intransitive meaning, not grammatically expressed in the main verb, is expressed through the reflexive particle -sya, which thus emphasizes and enhances the intransitivity of the process.

In a number of cases, reflexive verbs differ from the corresponding non-reflexive ones not only in the meanings that are usually introduced by the reflexive particle, but also in greater or lesser differences in the very real meaning of the verbs, cf., for example: knock, call And knock, call(“make yourself known by knocking or ringing”), look And look("look at your reflection"), forgive And say goodbye, break And tear("pursuit"), carry And mess around etc. Many reflexive verbs do not have corresponding irreflexive ones at all: to be afraid, to be proud, to be lazy, to hunt, to hope, to laugh, to doubt, to try, to boast and etc., unwell, gloomy. Some of them have irrevocable verbs only with prefixes: laugh - ridicule, fight - overcome, agree - determine, admire - fall in love with and etc.

Verb types

Depending on how the verb expresses the course of the process in relation to its completeness, verbs in Russian are divided into categories called types. There are two types: perfect And imperfect.

Perfective verbs, denoting a particular process, express it as complete, complete: finish, start, decide, build, push, take a walk etc. In contrast, imperfective verbs express a process without indicating its completeness, cf. with the above verbs: finish, start, decide, build, push, stroll. Due to the absence of an indication of the completeness of the process, imperfective verbs can express this process in its very course, as unfolding in time (he wrote, writes a letter). On the contrary, perfective verbs, expressing the process in its completeness, show this process only at the moment it reaches the limit or result in abstraction from its course. (he wrote, will write a letter). This difference between perfective and imperfective verbs is clearly seen, for example, in negative answers to a question like: "Did you write a letter?" - "No, I didn't write"(the very fact of the action is denied) and "No, I didn't write"(it is not the action that is denied, but its result, that it has achieved its goal), cf. also: write a letter(the impulse is directed to the action itself) and write a letter(the motivation is directed not to the action, but to its result), etc. The verbs of the perfect and imperfect form present a similar difference in meaning in all the forms that they form.

Verbs of the perfect and imperfect types have a number of differences in the formation of conjugation forms. So, perfective verbs form two forms of tense: past (decided, said, pushed) And future(decide, say, push), while imperfective verbs have three forms: past (decided, spoke, pushed), the present (decides, speaks, pushes) And future (will decide, will speak, will push). At the same time, for imperfective verbs, the future tense is formed analytically, by combining the personal form of the auxiliary verb to be with the infinitive of the conjugated verb (I will decide, you will decide, will decide), and for perfective verbs, the future tense is a synthetic form that coincides with the present tense form of imperfective verbs, cf. perfect view resh-u, resh-ish, resh-it and imperfect view knock-y, knock-ish, knock-it etc.

Then, imperfective verbs form two forms real participles: read - reading, reading, while perfective verbs have only one form of the past tense: read - read. There are some other differences in the formation of conjugation forms, but they will be discussed below.

As a rule, each verb belongs to any one form: either perfect or imperfect. However, some verbs in the literary language can be used in the meaning of both types, i.e. sometimes as perfective verbs, sometimes as imperfective. These are, first of all, many borrowed verbs that are introduced into the Russian language with the help of suffixes -ovate, -from-ovate, -ir-ovate, -from-irovat: attack, arrest, organize, mobilize, telegraph, subscribe, requisition, nationalize etc. (for example: “The troops attacked the bridgehead” can mean: “made attacks” and “made an attack”). In addition to them, some non-borrowed verbs have the same indefinite aspectal meaning: bestow, command, influence, marry, execute, confess, use, pass, inherit, spend the night, form, examine, injure, investigate, give birth, combine.

Since all these verbs are used in the sense of both the perfect and imperfect aspects, their personal forms (for example, arrest, organize, order, spend the night etc.) can have the meaning of both the future and the present, cf.: I order you, I order you to do it And I order the ax to sharpen and sharpen, I order the executioner to dress and dress up, I order the big bell to ring. (M. Lermontov) Therefore, in the meaning of the future tense, these verbs use two forms: attacking And I will attack, telegraph And I will telegraph, I will spend the night And I will spend the night etc. However, from some of them the analytical forms of the future tense, i.e. from auxiliary verb to be, are not formed: arrest, command, form(can't say: I will arrest, order, form).

The formation of verbs that differ in aspect

Verbs different types, no matter how close they are in meaning, are not forms of the same verb, but different words. A change in the aspectual meaning of verbs occurs when derivatives of verbs are formed from them through prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes and suffixes introduce additional semantic shades into the real lexical meaning of the verb, resulting in derivative verbs with a meaning different from the meaning of the main verb, i.e. the verb they are derived from.

There are 22 verb prefixes in the literary language. Of these, 18: in-, vz-, you-, to-, for-, from-, on-, over-, o- (ob-), from-, re-, over-, under-, at-, pro-, times -, s-, u-- are productive, with the help of which you can again form derivative verbs. The rest of the prefixes are Church Slavonic in origin: air-, bottom-, pre-, pre-,- unproductive; by means of them derivative verbs are no longer formed again.

The meanings of prefixes are very diverse. A common semantic feature of prefixes is that they complicate the real meaning of the verb with various circumstantial signs that limit the process in time and space or indicate the way and degree of manifestation of the process. Different verbs can have different meanings for the same prefix. Compare, for example, the added value that the prefix adds from-, on the one hand, into verbs go, ride, fly and, on the other hand, in verbs walk, ride, fly. From the first verbs are formed: get off, move off, fly off, denoting movement from top to bottom, from the second - verbs: go, go, fly, denoting movement somewhere with a return back ( go to Crimea means "to go and come back"). But the prefix can have a different meaning even when it is attached to the same verb, cf., for example: go to co-op And go down the stairs, go down the mountain And move out of the apartment.

Not all verbs are equally capable of connecting with prefixes. Non-derivative verbs are most easily combined with them. From many such verbs derived verbs are formed with almost any prefix; cf., for example, from the verb to take - to pick up, to pick up, to pick up, to take away, to choose, to recruit, to rob, to select, to sort out, to pick up, to tidy up, to disassemble, to assemble, to remove. On the contrary, other verbs, for example, intransitive, formed from other parts of speech, borrowed verbs, derived verbs, formed from the main ones by means of a suffix -well, or rarely connected with prefixes, or not connected with them at all: turn white, turn into a rage, dominate, rob, arrest, liquidate, knock, go around etc.

To form verbs from the verbs themselves, as already mentioned, in addition to prefixes, suffixes are also used. These are, first, the suffix -well and secondly, synonymous suffixes -iva-t (-yva-t), -a-t, -va-t. The last two are always accented.

With suffix -well usually from verbs denoting a process, which can consist of a number of separate acts following one after another, verbs are formed with the meaning of instantaneous, one-time: push - push, jump - jump, prick - prick, gasp - gasp, speculate - speculate etc. Instead, the suffix is ​​often used, mainly in oral speech, suffix -anu-th, which has, in general, the same meaning as the suffix -well, but formations with it differ in a shade of rudeness, familiarity: Let's play how he pushes me.

Through suffixes -iva-th, -ah-th, -wa-th from prefixed verbs of the perfect form, verbs of the imperfect form are formed, usually with the meaning of duration. In the modern language, of these three suffixes, only -iva-th And -a-be, the third suffix is ​​unproductive: with its help, formations of this kind no longer occur. Of the productive suffixes, the most common suffix is -ive-be: push out - push out, beat - beat, assign - appropriate, dispossess - dispossess, skip - skip etc. another suffix, -ah, as a productive one, it is currently used exclusively for the formation of verbs from prefixed verbs with an accented suffix -it, for example: to deepen - to deepen, to ground - to ground, to land - to land, to sharpen - to sharpen, to degrade - to degrade etc., but even in this case there may be formations with -iva-th. Unproductive suffix -wa-th occurs mostly in verbs formed from verbs with a non-derivative stem into a vowel, for example: for-du-be - blow-wat, shoe-be - shoe-wat, ass-be - ass-wat, from-sta-be - lag behind, get stuck - get stuck(written get stuck), sing - sing, put on - put on, push - tap - tap, swim - swim, but see also: inspire - inspire, sow - sow, master - master, stun - stun and etc.

With the same suffixes -iva-th, -ah-th And -wa-th from unprefixed verbs, so-called multiple verbs are also formed, denoting the indefinite repetition of the process, usually the repetition is not in the near past, since these verbs are used mainly in the form of the past tense: He flew to where the raven did not sew bones, We went to my sister to dispel boredom. (N. Nekrasov), I tore at his ears, yes, apparently, not enough. (A.Griboyedov), Here's a sight of mice: we caught and ruff. (I. Krylov), Often I took from the battle what in my opinion should have been rightfully mine. (A. Pushkin) Currently, only the suffix serves as a productive means of forming multiple verbs -iva-th, the other two -a-be And -wow, are unproductive.

Formation of verbs by means of suffixes -iva-th And -but-be sometimes accompanied by an alternation of phonemes in stems. So, when formed by means of a suffix -iva-th in derivative verbs there is a change of vowel about into a vowel but, compare: asks - asks, wears out - wears out, appropriates - appropriates, doubles - doubles. However, such an alternation is not necessary, cf.: outlines, postpones, reconciles etc. For verbs with a suffix -a-be in certain cases the root is a vowel and (s), which in the verb from which the verb is formed on -a-be, correspond to vowels - e(fluent), about or zero sound, cf.: pick up (take away) - pick up, tear off (tear off) - rip off, erase (erase) - wash, dry - dry out, rest - rest, oversleep - wake up, wait - wait, see also: start (start) - start, clamp (clamp) - clamp, take (take) - occupy etc. When forming verbs with suffixes -iva-th, -ah-th from verbs to -it, in which the stem of the present tense ends in a consonant, there is an alternation of consonants. Namely, the consonants in front of these suffixes are replaced: dental - with hissing: twist - twist, clear - clear, plant - plant, taste - eat, immerse - immerse; labial - on combinations of labials with l': flood - flood And to flood, to feed - to feed, to carry out - to carry out, to scatter - to splurge etc. In words of Church Slavonic origin T is replaced by SCH, but d- on the railway: turn - turn, illuminate - illuminate, plant - plant, excite - excite.

Prefixes and suffixes, in addition to changing the real meaning of the verb, resulting in a different verb with a different meaning, at the same time change its aspectual meaning. At the same time, the roles of prefixes in changing the form, on the one hand, and suffixes, on the other, are different. Prefixes are the main means of converting imperfective verbs into perfective verbs. The suffixes -iva-th, -ah-th, -wa-th, i.e., therefore, all suffixes serving verbal word formation, except -well, are a means of changing perfective verbs into imperfective verbs. The only exception, therefore, is the suffix -well, which has the same function with prefixes in this respect.

Most of the non-derivative verbs in Russian are imperfective. There are very few non-derivative perfective verbs. These are some monosyllabic verbs: give, child, lie down, fall, sit down, become; a number of verbs in -it: quit, finish, buy, deprive, forgive, let go, decide, step, grab, reveal etc. For all other perfective verbs, even for those for which it is impossible to find corresponding non-derivative verbs, a prefix can be distinguished, and, therefore, these verbs are derivatives. So, for example, the verb get stuck the prefix stands out behind- by matching it with a verb shake up, or for verbs clothe, clothe the prefix stands out about- by comparing them, on the one hand, with verbs having the same prefix with same value: dress, put on, wrap and others, and on the other hand, with such verbs as: draw in, draw in, draw in, draw in etc.

When formed from non-derivative verbs in a certain sequence of derivative verbs, verbs are obtained that differ in appearance:

1. From non-derivative verbs imperfect. species through prefixes are formed verbs perfect. type: push - push, play - beat, draw - paint, stab - stab, mark - mark, graph - graph, get wet – get wet, sing - sing etc. Also perfect. species are obtained verbs, if they are formed with a suffix -well or -anu-th: push - push(or colloquial push), prick - prick, shoot - shoot, play - play(colloquial), etc.

2. From derivative verbs perfect. species with prefixes, you can again form imperfect verbs. species through suffixes -iva-th, -ah-th, -wah-th: push out - push out, beat - beat, paint - paint, stab - stab, note - mark, scribble - scribble, get wet - get wet, sing - sing, blow - blow etc.

3. Finally, in some cases it is possible to imperfect from prefixed verbs. species with suffixes -iva-th, -ah-th, -wa-th re-form verbs perfect. view with attachments on-, re-: push - push, beat - replay.

Thus, the change in the aspectual meaning of verbs can be represented schematically in the form of a chain and a ladder, on the steps of which verbs are successively formed from each other, differing in appearance:

The formation of derivative verbs is not limited to the indicated sequence, but this is where the change in their aspectual meaning ends. With any other way of forming verbs, their appearance remains the same as it was. This follows from the very way of changing the aspectual meaning of verbs. Namely, through suffixes (except -well) perfective verbs change their form to imperfective. Therefore, if these suffixes are attached to verbs imperfect. form, then, naturally, the form of such verbs will remain the same, i.e. derived verbs will be imperfect. the same kind. So, for example, from non-derivative verbs imperfect. species can be formed by the suffix -iva-th (-yva-th) derivative verbs with multiple meanings: push - push, read - read, sit - sit, walk - walk etc. However, the form of verbs does not change: verbs with multiple meanings are imperfect. species, like those from which they are derived. In turn, prefixes (together with the suffix -well) serve as the main means by which the imperfect form of verbs is changed to perfect. Therefore, the form of verbs does not change when prefixes are attached to perfect verbs. kind, for example, to verbs of the 1st stage of verbal production with the suffix -well, compare: push And push, push, push; shout And scream, shout etc.; or to the verbs of the 1st degree, formed by means of prefixes: push out - push out, beat - outplay, outplay and etc.

Not all verbs can form the whole chain of aspectual changes. In non-derivative verbs perfect. In appearance, it begins with a form corresponding to the 1st degree of derivative verbs formed from imperfect verbs. type: quit(st. v.) - 1st stage throw(St. W.), 2nd stage throw(nsv. v.), 3rd stage throw(St. V.). A chain of aspectual changes is also formed in derivative verbs perfect. form formed from nouns or adjectives using prefixes: bazaar– 1st step squander(St. W.), 2nd stage squander(nsv. v.), 3rd stage squander(St. V.); or: 1st step to land(St. W.), 2nd stage land(nsv. v.), 3rd stage land(St. V.). In this case, therefore, the change in aspect occurs as if the formation of derivative verbs began with a non-existent non-prefixed verb market, land. On the contrary, verbs are imperfect. species formed from nouns and adjectives (with or without prefixes) form a chain of aspectual changes similar to non-derivative verbs imperfect. type: soap - wash(sv. v.) - 1st stage lather(St. W.), 2nd stage lather(NSV. V.). Finally, some verbs may often lack a form corresponding to the 1st stage of verbal production: sing– 2nd stage hum(1st stage sing along- No), dance– 2nd stage dance(verb dance- No), to swallow– 2nd stage swallow (swallow- No), bite– 2nd stage crack open (crack open- No).

Changing the aspectual meaning of verbs of motion

Some features in the formation of species are observed in verbs denoting motion. They form two parallel rows, differing in meaning. Some of them denote a movement made in a certain direction or at a certain time, for example: run, fly, ride. These are the so-called Verbs certain movement . They correspond verbs of indefinite motion: run, fly, ride, which denote movement in different directions or movement at different points in time. Verbs of definite and indefinite movement form correlative semantic pairs: run - run, wade - wander, carry - carry, drive - drive, ride - ride, go - walk, roll - roll, climb - climb, fly - fly, carry - carry, swim - swim, crawl - crawl, drag - carry.

When deriving verbs from verbs of a certain movement, as usual, perfect verbs are obtained. type: climb - climb, go - pass etc. The situation is different with verbs of indefinite motion. Derivative verbs formed from most of them by means of prefixes in the same meanings - perfect. species, in others - imperfect. For example: drive- perfect. view: spend(home), I'm driving(to the theatre); imperfect view: spend(time), I'm driving(accounts); fly- perfect. view: fly off(somewhere and back) I will fly(on an airplane); imperfect view: fly off(from the mountain), gonna fly Now(on an airplane) I'm flying by(past Moscow); walk- perfect. view: proceed(everything up and down) I'm going(to a friend) I'm leaving(someone); imperfect view: proceed(from prerequisites), I'm going(from the mountain), getting in(around the corner), going out(from home), etc.

Aspective pairs of verbs

When forming verbs imperfect. species through suffixes -iva-l/-ivaj-ut, -a-l/-aj-ut And -va-l/vaj-ut(i.e. verbs of the 2nd stage of production) from prefixed verbs perfect. type (i.e., verbs of the 1st stage of production), derivative verbs differ from the main ones only in their form, since their real meaning remains essentially the same. Thanks to this, prefixed verbs are perfect. type (1st stage) and the verbs formed from them are imperfect. species (2nd stage) are combined into relative species pairs. Each of these pairs contains verbs that have the same real meaning and differ only in aspectual meaning, cf., for example: push out(St. W.): push out(sv. v.) = beat(st. in): beat(sv. v.) = wash(St. W.): wash(sv. v.) = warm up(St. W.): warm(sv. v.) = get wet(St. W.): get wet(sv. v.) = bake(St. W.): bake(nsv. v.), etc.

The same correlative aspectual pairs are formed by a few in Russian non-derivative verbs perfect. kind<....>, because almost each of them has a corresponding imperfect verb. species with the same real value. So, to non-derivative verbs perfect. view of -it there are corresponding paired verbs in -at, compare: quit(St. W.): throw(sv. v.) = cum(St. W.): finish(sv. v.) = deprive(nsv. v.): deprive(sv. v.) = forgive(St. W.): forgive(sv. v.) = let(St. W.): let(sv. v.) = solve(St. W.): solve(sv. v.) = set foot(St. W.): step(nsv. v.), etc. To monosyllabic non-derivative verbs perfect. kind give, child, lie down, fall, sit down, become imperfective verbs act as paired in appearance. kind give, give, lie down, fall, sit down, become, i.e. give(St. W.): give(sv. v.) = child(St. W.): do(sv. v.) = lie down(St. W.): go to bed(sv. v.) = mouth(St. W.): fall(sv. v.) = sit down(St. W.): sit down(sv. v.) = become(St. W.): become(NSV. V.).

The specific pairs of verbs are mainly obtained as a result of the formation of imperfect verbs. form from verbs perfect. kind. On the contrary, when forming verbs perfect. form from verbs imperfect. the form of such pairs for the most part does not work. This is due to the fact that in the formation of verbs perfect. species (and they are formed by means of prefixes and suffix -well) not only the aspectual, but also the real meaning of the verbs changes, since prefixes and suffixes -well add additional semantic shades to the real meaning of verbs. Therefore, the verbs are imperfect. species and the verbs formed from them perfect. species differ from each other not only in their appearance, but also in their real meaning, and therefore, they are not combined into species pairs, cf., for example: push(NSV) and push out(st. v.), play(NSV) and beat(st. v.), wash(NSV) and launder(st. v.), warm(NSV) and warm(St. V.); or: push(NSV) and push(st. v.), prick(NSV) and prick(St. V.), etc.

However, in some cases, some prefixes, when attached to the verb, almost or do not change its real meaning at all, so that the verbs are perfect. species with a prefix differ from the corresponding non-prefixed verbs imperfect. species exclusively or mainly by its species. In this case, therefore, the verbs are imperfect. species and the verbs formed from them by means of prefixes perfect. species can form species pairs similar to those indicated above.

Most often they change the aspectual meaning of the verb without changing its real meaning, prefixes s-, po-, o- (about), cf., for example, aspectual pairs consisting of non-derivative verbs imperfect. type and their corresponding derived verbs with a prefix from-: do(nsv. v.): do(St. W.) = sing(nsv. v.): sing(St. W.) = hide(nsv. v.): hide(St. W.) = play(nsv. v.): play(St. W.) = sew(nsv. v.): sew(St. V.) and others; or with attachment in: sink(nsv. v.): drown(St. W.) = turn gray(nsv. v.): turn gray(St. W.) = destroy(nsv. v.): destroy(St. W.) = build(nsv. v.): build(St. W.) = lunch(nsv. v.): have lunch(St. V.) and others; or with attachment o-: numb(nsv. v.): become numb(St. W.) = stall(nsv. v.): go deaf(St. W.) = grow stronger(nsv. v.): get stronger(St. W.) = weaken(nsv. v.): weaken(St. V.), etc. Much less often they form aspectual pairs with non-derivative verbs imperfect. perfective verb form species having some other attachments, for example, the attachment for- (to stir up - to stir up, to mold - to grow moldy), from - (to torment - to torment, to spoil - to spoil), at- (to steal - to steal, to drown - to drown, to sting - to sting), to - (enrage - enrage, boil - boil ), on- (write - write, print - print).

Since all these verbs with prefixes form aspect pairs with non-derivative verbs, imperfect. species, from them, as a rule, derivative verbs imperfect are not formed. type (2nd stage), which would otherwise be simple synonyms for non-derivative verbs imperfect. kind.

In some cases, verbs with completely different roots in the stem are combined into aspect pairs. So, to the verb perfect. kind take the imperfective verb acts as a pair in appearance. kind take(or the obsolete verb used mainly in the clerical language charge). Similar pairs, differing only in form, form verbs: to catch(st. v.) and catch(nsv. v.), put(st. v.) and put(nsv. v.), say(st. v.) and talk(NSV. V.).

Differences in the meaning of verb forms are associated with the difference in types in Russian. Due to the presence in the Russian language of a huge number of verbs that differ only in their form, it is possible to express the same process in the entire set of forms with their features in the meaning that are characteristic of perfect verbs. and imperfect. species separately. So, for example, in verbs perfect. There are two forms of tense (decided, decided) and the verbs are imperfect. types - three (decided, decides, will decide), each with its own special connotation in meaning. With the help of verbs that have the same real meaning and differ only in their aspectual meaning, the process denoted by these verbs is expressed with the temporal meanings that the tense forms of verbs of both types have. (decided, decided, decides, decides, will decide). The same can be said about other forms of the verb.

In a number of languages, for example, in some Western European ones, verbs have a significantly larger number of forms, for example, tense forms, than verbs in Russian. Thanks to this, in them the same verb can express and more formal meanings. In Russian, as, indeed, in some other Slavic languages, similar (although not identical) meanings are expressed not by the forms of the same verb, but by the forms of different verbs. This is possible due to the fact that in Russian most of the verbs are combined into aspect pairs.

To be continued

* From the book: Avanesov R.I., Sidorov V.N. Essay on the grammar of the Russian literary language. Part I. Phonetics and morphology. Moscow: Uchpedgiz, 1945.

Irrevocable verbs are called verbs without the postfix -sya; returnable- verbs with the postfix -sya. Historically, the formation of reflexive verbs is associated with the pronoun Xia, which was originally attached only to transitive verbs ( wash + sya ("yourself") = to wash).

All verbs in Russian can be divided into several groups:

irrevocable verbs, from which returnable	irrevocable	returnable
a) wash build + xia education return forms meet + xia b) turn white + sya darken + sya - morphological synonyms c) look - look at verbs work - work out SD d) write - impersonal is not written sleep - can't sleep verbs	respond lunch	fight laugh balk

Thus, we can conclude that the postfix –sya in Russian can perform several functions:

Form reflexive forms of verbs ( wash, bleach);

Form reflexive verbs that differ from producing non-reflexive verbs in lexical meaning ( to forgive - to say goodbye, to finish off - to achieve).

It should be noted that some -sya verbs have a synonymous reflexive combination ( to lose - to deprive oneself, to cover - to cover oneself).

The division of verbs into irrevocable and reflexive was established in the Russian language, regardless of the division of verbs into transitive and intransitive, voice and non-voice. It does not completely coincide with either one or the other, although it is associated with the categories of transitivity and voice: the affix -sya is an indicator of the intransitivity of the verb, and only reflexive forms of the verb give voice correlation.

Collateral category

The category of voice is one of the most difficult problems of Russian grammar. Linguistic scholars define the content of this category in different ways, and therefore solve the issue of the number of collaterals in different ways: some count up to 17 collaterals, others generally deny the existence of collaterals.

In Russian linguistics, there are the following definitions of voice:

1) pledge means “an act that passes from one thing to another, and an act that does not pass from one thing to another” (Lomonosov);

2) voices are such verb forms that denote a difference in relation to the verbal action to its subject. On this basis, it is possible to allocate a refundable deposit ( the book is being read) and non-refundable deposit ( to read a book) - Aksakov, Fortunatov;

3) pledge is the relation of the action to the object (Buslaev, Shapiro);

4) pledge is an expression of the asset and liability of the subject (Isachenko, AG-70);

5) pledge - is the relation of action to subject and object(Vinogradov, Golovin, Gvozdev, Shansky).

In all these definitions of voice, there is a common criterion - the relation of the action to the subject and object. This feature is indeed important in the voice content, since the voice, like other verbal categories, manifests itself primarily as a certain grammatical relation - the relation of the action to its source and to the object. The category of pledge reflects objectively ongoing processes, the implementation of which is possible in the presence of an actor and an object of application of the action.

The mother (subject) washes (action) of the child (object).

The child (subject, object) washes (action).

But in Russian there are verbs that name such actions, for the implementation of which only the doer, the subject of the action is needed:

Clouds (subject) float silently across the sky.

Thus, all verbs in Russian can be divided into two groups:

1) verbs capable of conveying voice relations (voice verbs);

2) verbs that do not convey voice relations (non-voice verbs).

A verb is a word denoting an action and answering the question "What to do?" The last clarification is very important, because the word "walking", for example, also denotes an action, however, it cannot be classified as a verb.

The action is always directed towards some object. It may be the same object that does it, or some other. In the first case, we will talk about a reflexive verb, and in the second - about an irrevocable one.

Identification feature of reflexive verbs

The fact that the action performed by a certain subject is directed at himself can be evidenced by a reflexive pronoun. In Russian, there is only one such pronoun, which does not even have a nominative case - “self”.

The language always strives for brevity, so the reflexive pronoun in combination with verbs was reduced to “sya”, and then turned into a part of these verbs - the postfix, i.e. suffix that after the end. This is how reflexive verbs arose, the identifying feature of which is the postfix “-sya”: “dress yourself” - “”, “wash yourself” - “wash yourself”. Verbs that do not have such a postfix are called non-reflexive.

Types of reflexive verbs

Not always the semantic content of the reflexive verb is so simple. The action that someone directly performs on himself is only one reflexive verb - proper reflexive.

A verb of this kind can also imply some action that the object performs not on itself, but in its own interests. For example, if people are said to be “building”, this can mean not only “building themselves in a line” (proper reflexive verb), but also “building a house for themselves”. In the latter case, the verb will be called indirectly reflexive.

The joint actions of several objects are also indicated by reflexive verbs: “meet”, “talk” are mutually reflexive verbs.

However, not having the postfix "-sya" is reflexive. It is impossible to classify as such verbs that have a passive voice, i.e. implying that the action on the object is performed by someone else: “the house is being built”, “microbes are being destroyed”.

A verb cannot be reflexive if it is transitive, i.e. denotes an action directed at another object, although in the impersonal form such verbs may have the postfix "-sya": "I want to buy a car."

reflexive verbs called verbs that have a postfix – sya (–s): return, dream, get carried away, get started. The rest of the verbs are called irrevocable: watch, read, eat, run.

Transitive and intransitive verbs.

Transitive verbs are verbs that indicate an action that passes to another object or person. This object or person can be expressed:

A noun in the genitive case without a preposition: cut sausages, drink compote.

A noun (or pronoun) in the accusative case with an unprepositional connection: read a book, see the sun, count sheep.

A noun or pronoun in the genitive case with negation, but also without a preposition: not to have the right .

The remaining verbs are considered intransitive: lie on the bed, look into the darkness, sunbathe under the sun.

Perfective and imperfective verbs.

Perfect verbs indicate the completion, effectiveness, end of the action or its beginning and answer the question “what to do?”: run, run away, sing, sing, jump, gallop. Perfective verbs have two tense forms: past (what did they do? - galloped) And the future is simple (what will they do? - they will jump). Perfect verbs Dont Have present tense forms.

Imperfect verbs indicate the course of an action, but do not indicate its completion, result, beginning or end and answer the question "what to do?": run, jump, sing. Imperfective verbs have three tense forms:

Past (what they were doing? - watching, listening);

The present (what do they do? - watching, listening);

The future is complex (what will they do? - will read, will watch).

Syntactic role verb.

The verb in the sentence most often performs the role of the predicate. But verb infinitive can act as different members of the sentence:

Subject: Live- means to breathe;

Compound predicate: I going to do to the Faculty of Philology;
Definition: I have a strong desire go out into the air;
Addition: Mother asked me come up closer.
Purpose condition: Grandma sat down take a break.

Define an application.

Appendix- this is a definition expressed by a noun, consistent with the word being defined in the case, for example: A golden cloud spent the night on the chest of a giant cliff. Applications can indicate various qualities of an object, indicate age, nationality, profession and other signs, for example: An old grandmother looks out of the window. In case next to the application - common noun there is a defined word, which is also a common noun, they are usually combined with a hyphen: a flying carpet, an ascetic monk.

When a common noun is followed by a proper name, the hyphen is not put (boxer Ivanov), but there are combinations in which the common noun follows the proper name, then there is a hyphen between them: Mother Volga, Moscow River, Ivan the Fool, Nightingale the Robber. The application, as a rule, is consistent in case with the word being defined. There are exceptions in which the application can be put in a case other than the word being defined: these are names - proper names and nicknames. If the application before the main word can be replaced by a single-root adjective, then the hyphen is not put after the application. For example: “old watchman” (application - old man, main word watchman, old man can be replaced with “old” - old watchman), and watchman-old man (the hyphen is put because the application and the main word are common nouns). Examples of typical applications (highlighted in italics): Volodya, an excellent student, was the first to raise his hand. Ivan the shepherd drove the cows across the field.

Exception examples:

Names are proper names, usually enclosed in quotation marks. The nominative case is used here, regardless of the form of the word being defined.

Names of press organs, literary works. In the newspaper "Kommersant". In the novel "Young Guard".

Names of enterprises. At the Krasnoye Sormovo plant. Capture of the Yukos enterprise.

Nicknames. Charge brought against Misha Two Percent. Vsevolod the Big Nest had eight sons.

Do not put a hyphen after the words that are generally accepted appeals: Citizen financial inspector! I'm sorry to trouble you.

The main postfix values ​​\u200b\u200b-sya

IN depending on the presence or absence of the return postfix -sya- verbs are divided into returnable and non-refundable.

Refundable are verbs with a postfix -sya- (-s-).

For example:

swim, smile, hope

Non-refundable are verbs without a postfix -sya- (-s-).

Some verbs in the modern Russian language have correlative pairs according to the category of reflexivity - irrevocability.

The task:

Compare:

dress - dress, bathe - swim, see - see

Other verbs do not have such correlative pairs.

The task:

Compare:

smile, hope, somersault;

go, sit down, freeze

Return postfix -sya- (-s-) can give the verb form different semantic meanings :

1) self-return value when the subject and the object to which the action is directed coincide in one person ( wash, bathe, dress).

For example:

I wash my face

2) Reciprocal value when each of the two actors acts both as a subject and as an object.

For example:

1. Friends met and fraternally embraced.

2. And new friends, well, hugging, well, kissing

3) Return value when the action does not pass on to anyone, but closes in the subject himself.

For example:

He got angry.

We were offended

Such verbs, as a rule, express the internal mental state of a person.

4) Objectless return value e, when the action referred to is a property of the subject.

For example:

The dog bites.

The cow butts.

The cat scratches.

Nettle stings

End of work -

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Grammatical classes of words in modern Russian

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Explanatory note
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Their signs
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Their signs
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And their signs
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Possessive adjectives and their signs
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Topic plan
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Infinitive as the initial form of the verb
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Reflexive and non-reflexive verbs.
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Transitive and intransitive verbs
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Verb aspect category
Exercise 25 The grammatical meaning of the species will become clearer if it is associated with the phenomena of reality. The student (student) will understand what the meaning of the perfect form is, if it is clear to him

Verb tense category
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An adverb is a part of speech that expresses the grammatical general categorical meaning of a sign of an action, state or other sign (write quickly and beautifully,

Lexico-grammatical categories of adverbs
When classifying adverbs, two features are taken into account: - function in a sentence; - the type of meaning of the adverb.

Degrees of comparison of adverbs
As with adjectives, the category of degrees of comparison of adverbs is formed by contrasting three forms: positive, comparative and superlatives. Forms of degrees of comparison

Exercises for independent work
Note: exercises are performed at the choice of the teacher, can be used on practical exercises and recommended for homework. Pack

An adverb is a part of speech that expresses the grammatical general categorical meaning of a sign of an action, state or other sign (to write quickly and beautifully, the child is very

Features of the category of state as a part of speech
The category of state (impersonally predicative words) is a part of speech expressing the general categorical meaning of the state of living beings, nature, environment in grammar

Status categories
Qualitative impersonal predicative words denote the state of living beings and the environment: the emotional and mental state of a person (sad,

Invariable parts of speech
In modern Russian, along with the previously considered seven changeable independent parts of speech, which have a more or less developed inflectional paradigm (including

Pretext

Particles
Particles are usually called the service part of speech, which conveys shades of lexical and syntactic meanings, clarifying and concretizing the meaning of lexical and

Pretext
Exercise 1 Think about why the words but, or cannot be considered prepositions. Exercise 2 Prepositions are used with the dative case:

Particles
Exercise 14 Read. Highlight the particles that serve: a) to form word forms; b) to transfer various shades the meaning of the whole sentence or its member

A preposition is a service part of speech used as a means of syntactic subordination of nouns (as well as pronouns) to other words in a sentence and phrase

Unproductive part of speech
Interjections are called a relatively unproductive part of speech, which in itself constitutes, like modal words, a special structural-semantic type of words and expresses (n

Modal words- this is a special part of speech, the general categorical meaning of which is reduced to the transfer of various subjective-modal relations of the speaker to what and how

students
The final form of control of knowledge, skills and abilities in the discipline "Modern Russian: Morphology" is an exam. The exam is conducted orally, the student is offered two

Fund of control tasks by discipline
"Modern Russian language: Morphology" (for students of the specialty "Journalism") Note: The fund of control tasks is intended for control

List of conditional abbreviations
Abr. - F. Abramov Azh. – V. Azhaev Aks. – S.T. Aksakov A.K.T. – A.K. Tolstoy Andr. – L. Andreev A.N.S. – A.N. So

Information about the researchers of the Russian language
BUSLAEV Fedor Ivanovich (13 (2514.1818, Kerensk, now the village of Vadinsk, Penza region, - 31.7 (12.8). 1897, the village of Lyulino, Moscow province, now within the boundaries of Moscow) - Russian philologist, academician of St. Petersburg. Academy of Sciences

The main stages of the study of morphology
In the study of the morphological structure of the Russian language, four periods can be conventionally distinguished. The first period (mid-18th - mid-19th century) is associated with the name

V. V. Vinogradov
"Russian language (Grammatical doctrine of the word)" (excerpt) 1. It is necessary to pay attention to the subordination of some parts of speech to others, which in school

Parts of speech problem
(From the book by P.S. Kuznetsov “On the Principles of Studying Grammar”) 1. An essential issue in morphology is the question of parts of speech,

adjective
I. In modern Russian short forms quality adjectives used only in the nominal part of the compound nominal predicate and are belonging

Yuri Dolin
The “insidious” part of speech in the speech of TV journalists First, it should be said that in recent decades the very problem of “Russian on the air” has become one of the most urgent

The problem of pronouns as a special part of speech
Given the obvious grammatical heterogeneity of pronouns, F.F. Fortunatov, A.M. Peshkovsky, L.V. Shcherba and many other scholars came to the conclusion that pronouns did not form at all.

How many categories of persons in modern Russian
1. In the system grammatical categories, in their content and structure, in the ways and forms of their expression, the essence and specificity of the grammatical structure of the language is reflected.

Yu.T. Dolin
On the question of the grammatical nature of forms such as "clap" in modern Russian Forms such as clap, grab, bam, both in Russian and in other Slavic languages, etc.

Some tips on how to improve your
literacy Both jokingly and seriously 1. Check your literacy according to the talkative slavarian. 2. Between us speaking, case of place