Measurement - there is a definition of the ratio of one (measured) quantity to another, taken as a standard. Since the results of observation, as a rule, take the form of various signs, graphs, curves on an oscilloscope, cardiograms, etc., the interpretation of the data obtained is an important component of the study. Observation in the social sciences is especially difficult, where its results largely depend on the personality of the observer and his attitude to the phenomena being studied. In sociology and psychology, a distinction is made between simple and participatory (included) observation. Psychologists also use the method of introspection (self-observation).

Experiment , as opposed to observing is a method of cognition in which phenomena are studied under controlled and controlled conditions. An experiment, as a rule, is carried out on the basis of a theory or hypothesis that determines the formulation of the problem and the interpretation of the results. The advantages of the experiment in comparison with observation are, firstly, that it is possible to study the phenomenon, so to speak, in its “pure form”, secondly, the conditions for the process can vary, and thirdly, the experiment itself can be repeated many times. There are several types of experiment.

• 1) The simplest kind experiment - qualitative, establishing the presence or absence of the phenomena proposed by the theory.
• 2) Second, more complex view is a measuring or quantitative an experiment that establishes the numerical parameters of some property (or properties) of an object or process.
• 3) A special kind of experiment in the fundamental sciences is mental experiment.
• 4) Finally: a specific kind of experiment is social an experiment carried out in order to introduce new forms of social organization and optimize management. The scope of social experiment is limited by moral and legal norms.

Analysis - the process of mental, and often real, dismemberment of an object, phenomenon into parts (signs, properties, relationships). The reverse procedure of analysis is synthesis.
Synthesis - this is a combination of the sides of the subject identified during the analysis into a single whole.

Comparison — cognitive operation that reveals the similarity or difference of objects. It makes sense only in the totality of homogeneous objects that form a class. Comparison of objects in the class is carried out according to the features that are essential for this consideration.
Description — a cognitive operation consisting in fixing the results of an experience (observation or experiment) with the help of certain notation systems adopted in science.

A significant role in generalizing the results of observations and experiments belongs to induction(from lat. inductio - guidance), special kind generalizations of experience data. During induction, the researcher's thought moves from the particular (private factors) to the general. Distinguish between popular and scientific, complete and incomplete induction. The opposite of induction is deduction movement of thought from the general to the particular. Unlike induction, with which deduction is closely related, it is mainly used at the theoretical level of knowledge. The process of induction is associated with such an operation as comparison - the establishment of similarities and differences between objects and phenomena. Induction, comparison, analysis and synthesis set the stage for the development classifications - associations different concepts and the phenomena corresponding to them into certain groups, types in order to establish links between objects and classes of objects. Examples of classifications are the periodic table, classifications of animals, plants, etc. Classifications are presented in the form of schemes, tables used for orientation in the variety of concepts or corresponding objects.

For all their differences, the empirical and theoretical levels of cognition are interconnected, the boundary between them is conditional and mobile. Empirical research, revealing new data with the help of observations and experiments, stimulates theoretical knowledge, which generalizes and explains them, puts before him new, more challenging tasks. On the other hand, theoretical knowledge, developing and concretizing its own new content on the basis of empirical knowledge, opens up new, wider horizons for empirical knowledge, orients and directs it in search of new facts, contributes to the improvement of its methods and means, etc.

Science as an integral dynamic system of knowledge cannot develop successfully without being enriched with new empirical data, without generalizing them in a system of theoretical means, forms and methods of cognition. At certain points in the development of science, the empirical becomes theoretical and vice versa. However, it is unacceptable to absolutize one of these levels to the detriment of the other.

There are two levels in the structure of scientific knowledge: empirical and theoretical. These two levels should be distinguished from the two stages of the cognitive process as a whole - sensual and rational. Sensory knowledge is close, but not identical, to empirical, rational differs from theoretical.

Sensual and rational are forms of human knowledge in general, both scientific and everyday; empirical and theoretical knowledge is characteristic of science. Empirical knowledge is not limited to sensory knowledge, it includes moments of reflection, understanding, interpretation of observational data and the formation of a special type of knowledge - a scientific fact. The latter is the interaction of sensory and rational knowledge.

Theoretical knowledge is dominated by forms of rational knowledge (concepts, judgments, conclusions), but visual model representations such as an ideal ball, an absolutely rigid body are also used. A theory always contains sensory-visual components. Thus, at both levels of cognition, both feelings and reason function.

The difference between the empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge occurs for the following reasons (Table 2):

The level of reflection of reality,

The nature of the subject of study,

Applicable study methods,

Forms of knowledge,

Language tools.

table 2

The difference between empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge

Empirical and theoretical research is aimed at cognition of the same objective reality, but its vision, reflection in knowledge occurs in different ways. Empirical research is basically focused on the study of external relations and aspects of objects, phenomena and dependencies between them. As a result of this study, empirical dependencies are clarified. They are the result of an inductive generalization of experience and represent probabilistically true knowledge. This is, for example, the Boyle-Mariotte law, which describes the correlation between the pressure and volume of a gas: РV= сonst, where Р is the gas pressure, V is its volume. Initially, it was discovered by R. Boyle as an inductive generalization of experimental data, when a relationship was found in the experiment between the volume of gas compressed under pressure and the value of this pressure.

At the theoretical level of cognition, there is a selection of internal, essential connections of the object, which are fixed in the laws. No matter how many experiments we make and generalize their data, a simple inductive generalization does not lead to theoretical knowledge. Theory is not constructed by inductive generalization of facts. Einstein considered this conclusion to be one of the important epistemological lessons of the development of physics in the 20th century. Theoretical law is always reliable knowledge.

Empirical research is based on the direct practical interaction of the researcher with the object under study. And in this interaction, the nature of objects, their properties and features are known. The truth of empirical knowledge is verified by direct appeal to experience, to practice. At the same time, the objects of empirical knowledge should be distinguished from the objects of reality, which have an infinite number of features. Empirical objects are abstractions that have a fixed and limited set of features.

In a theoretical study, there is no direct practical interaction with objects. They are studied only indirectly, in a thought experiment, but not in a real one. Theoretical ideal objects are studied here, which are called idealized objects, abstract objects or constructs. Their examples are a material point, an ideal product, an absolutely rigid body, an ideal gas, etc. For example, a material point is defined as a body devoid of size, but concentrating in itself the entire mass of the body. There are no such bodies in nature, they are constructed by thinking to reveal the essential aspects of the object under study. Verification of theoretical knowledge by referring to experience is impossible, and therefore it is associated with practice through empirical interpretation.

The levels of scientific knowledge also differ in functions: at the empirical level, a description of reality takes place, at the theoretical level, an explanation and prediction.

The empirical and theoretical levels differ in the methods and forms of knowledge used. The study of empirical objects is carried out with the help of observation, comparison, measurement and experiment. The means of empirical research are devices, installations and other means of real observation and experiment.

At the theoretical level, there are no means of material, practical interaction with the object under study. Special methods are used here: idealization, formalization, thought experiment, axiomatic, ascent from the abstract to the concrete.

The results of empirical research are expressed in natural language with the addition of special concepts in the form of scientific facts. They record objective, reliable information about the objects under study.

The results of theoretical research are expressed in the form of law and theory. For this, special language systems are created in which the concepts of science are formalized and mathematized.

The specificity of theoretical knowledge is its reflexivity, focus on oneself, the study of the very process of knowledge, its methods, forms, conceptual apparatus. In empirical knowledge, this kind of research, as a rule, is not conducted.

In real cognition of reality, empirical and theoretical knowledge always interact as two opposites. The data of experience, arising independently of theory, are sooner or later covered by theory and become knowledge, conclusions from it.

On the other hand, scientific theories, arising on their own special theoretical basis, are built relatively independently, without a rigid and unambiguous dependence on empirical knowledge, but obey them, representing, in the final analysis, a generalization of experimental data.

Violation of the unity of empirical and theoretical knowledge, the absolutization of any of these levels leads to erroneous one-sided conclusions - empiricism or scholastic theorizing. Examples of the latter are the concept of building communism in the USSR in 1980, the theory of developed socialism, Lysenko's antigenetic doctrine. Empiricism absolutizes the role of facts and underestimates the role of thinking, denies its active role and relative independence. The only source of knowledge is experience, sensory knowledge.

Methods of scientific knowledge

Consider the essence of general scientific methods of cognition. These methods originate in the bosom of one science, and then are used in a number of others. Such methods include mathematical methods, experiment, modeling. General scientific methods are divided into those applied at the empirical level of knowledge and at the theoretical level. The methods of empirical research include observation, comparison, measurement, experiment.

Observation- systematic purposeful perception of the phenomena of reality, during which we gain knowledge about the external aspects, properties and their relationships. Observation is an active cognitive process, based primarily on the work of the human senses and its objective material activity. This, of course, does not mean that human thinking is excluded from this process. The observer consciously searches for objects, guided by a certain idea, hypothesis or previous experience. Observation results always require a certain interpretation in the light of existing theoretical positions. The interpretation of observational data enables the scientist to separate essential facts from non-essential ones, to notice what a non-specialist can ignore. Therefore, nowadays in science it rarely happens that discoveries are made by non-specialists.

Einstein in a conversation with Heisenberg noted that the possibility of observing a given phenomenon or not depends on the theory. It is the theory that must establish what can be observed and what cannot.

The progress of observation as a method of scientific knowledge is inseparable from the progress of means of observation (for example, a telescope, microscope, spectroscope, radar). Devices not only increase the power of the sense organs, but also give us, as it were, additional organs of perception. So, devices allow you to "see" the electric field.

For surveillance to be effective, it must meet the following requirements:

Intention or intentionality

planning,

Activity,

Systematic.

Observation can be direct, when the object affects the senses of the researcher, and indirect, when the subject uses technical means, appliances. In the latter case, scientists make a conclusion about the objects under study through the perception of the results of the interaction of unobserved objects with observed objects. Such a conclusion is based on a certain theory that establishes a certain relationship between observable and unobservable objects.

Description is a necessary aspect of observation. It is a fixation of the results of observation with the help of concepts, signs, diagrams, graphs. The main requirements that apply to a scientific description are aimed at making it as complete, accurate and objective as possible. The description should give a reliable and adequate picture of the object itself, accurately reflect the phenomenon under study. It is important that the terms used for description have a clear and unambiguous meaning. Description is divided into two types: qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative description involves fixing the properties of the object under study, it gives the most general knowledge about him. A quantitative description involves the use of mathematics and a numerical description of the properties, aspects and relationships of the object under study.

In scientific research, observation performs two main functions: providing empirical information about an object and testing hypotheses and theories of science. Often, observation can also play an important heuristic role, contributing to the development of new ideas.

Comparison- this is the establishment of similarities and differences between objects and phenomena of reality. As a result of comparison, something common is established that is inherent in several objects, and this leads to the knowledge of the law. Only those objects between which an objective commonality can exist should be compared. In addition, the comparison should be carried out according to the most important, essential features. Comparison is the basis of inference by analogy, which plays a large role: the properties of phenomena known to us can be extended to unknown phenomena that have something in common with each other.

Comparison is not only an elementary operation applied in a certain field of knowledge. In some sciences, comparison has grown to the level of a basic method. For example comparative anatomy, comparative embryology. This indicates the ever-increasing role of comparison in the process of scientific knowledge.

Measurement historically, as a method, it developed from the comparison operation, but unlike it, it is a more powerful and universal cognitive tool.

Measurement - the procedure for determining the numerical value of a certain quantity by comparison with a value taken as a unit of measurement. In order to measure, it is necessary to have an object of measurement, a unit of measurement, a measuring instrument, a certain method of measurement, an observer.

Measurements are either direct or indirect. With direct measurement, the result is obtained directly from the process itself. With indirect measurement, the desired value is determined mathematically based on the knowledge of other quantities obtained by direct measurement. For example, the determination of the mass of stars, measurements in the microcosm. Measurement makes it possible to find and formulate empirical laws and, in some cases, serves as a source for the formulation of scientific theories. In particular, the measurement of the atomic weights of elements was one of the prerequisites for the creation of the periodic system by D.I. Mendeleev, which is a theory of properties chemical elements. Michelson's famous measurements of the speed of light subsequently led to a radical break in the ideas established in physics.

The most important indicator of the quality of measurement, its scientific value is accuracy. The latter depends on the quality and diligence of the scientist, on the methods used by him, but mainly on the available measuring instruments. Therefore, the main ways to improve the measurement accuracy are:

Quality improvement measuring instruments operating
based on certain established principles,

Creation of devices operating on the basis of new principles.
Measurement is one of the most important prerequisites for the application of mathematical methods in science.

Most often, the measurement is an elementary method that is included as an integral part of the experiment.

Experiment- the most important and complicated method empirical knowledge. An experiment is understood as such a method of studying an object, when the researcher actively influences it by creating artificial conditions necessary to identify the relevant properties of this object.

The experiment involves the use of observation, comparison and measurement as more elementary research methods. The main feature of the experiment is the intervention of the experimenter during natural processes, which determines the active nature of this method of cognition.

What advantages follow from the specific features of the experiment in comparison with observation?

During the experiment, it becomes possible to study this
phenomena in a "pure form", i.e., various side factors are excluded,
obscuring the essence of the main process.

The experiment allows you to explore the properties of objects of reality in extreme conditions(at extra low or extra high
temperatures, high pressures). This can lead to unexpected effects, whereby new properties of objects are discovered. This method was used, for example, to discover the properties of superfluidity and
superconductivity.

The most important advantage of the experiment is its repeatability, and its conditions can be systematically changed.

Classification of experiments is carried out on various grounds.

Depending on the goals, several types of experiment can be distinguished:

- research– carried out in order to detect the object has no
previously known properties (a classic example is Rutherford's experiments on

scattering of a-particles, as a result of which the planetary
atom structure);

- verification- is carried out to test certain statements of science (an example of a testing experiment is testing the hypothesis of the existence of the planet Neptune);

- measuring- is carried out to obtain accurate values ​​of certain properties of objects (for example, experimental melting of metals, alloys; experiments to study the strength of structures).

Physical, chemical, biological, psychological, social experiments are distinguished by the nature of the object under study.

According to the method and results of the study, experiments can be divided into qualitative and quantitative. The first of them are rather exploratory, exploratory in nature, the second provide an accurate measurement of all significant factors influencing the course of the process under study.

An experiment of any kind can be carried out both directly with the object of interest, and with its substitute - the model. Accordingly, experiments are nature and model. Models are used in cases where the experiment is impossible or impractical.

The experiment has received the greatest application in natural science. modern science began with the experiments of G. Galileo. However, at present, it is also receiving more and more development in the study of social processes. Such a spread of experiment in all more branches of scientific knowledge speaks of the growing importance of this research method. With its help, the tasks of obtaining the values ​​of the properties of certain objects are solved, experimental testing of hypotheses and theories is carried out, and the heuristic value of the experiment in finding new aspects of the studied phenomena is also great. The effectiveness of the experiment also increases in connection with the progress of experimental technology. There is also such a feature: the more experiment is used in science, the faster it develops. It is no coincidence that textbooks in experimental sciences age much faster than those in descriptive sciences.

Science is not limited to the empirical level of research, it goes further, revealing the essential connections and relationships in the object under study, which, taking shape in a law known by man, acquire a certain theoretical form.

At the theoretical level of cognition, other means and methods of cognition are used. The methods of theoretical research include: idealization, formalization, the method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete, axiomatic, thought experiment.

Method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete. The concept of "abstract" is used mainly to characterize human knowledge. Abstract is understood as one-sided, incomplete knowledge, when only those properties that are of interest to the researcher are highlighted.

The concept of "concrete" in philosophy can be used in two senses: a) "concrete" - reality itself, taken in all its variety of properties, connections and relationships; b) "concrete" - the designation of multifaceted, comprehensive knowledge about the object. The concrete in this sense acts as the opposite of abstract knowledge, i.e. knowledge, poor in content, one-sided.

What is the essence of the method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete? The ascent from the abstract to the concrete is the general form of the movement of knowledge. According to this method, the process of cognition is divided into two relatively independent stage. At the first stage, the transition from the sensory-concrete to its abstract definitions is carried out. The object itself in the process of this operation, as it were, “evaporates”, turning into a set of abstractions fixed by thinking, one-sided definitions.

The second stage of the process of cognition is actually the ascent from the abstract to the concrete. Its essence lies in the fact that thought moves from abstract definitions of an object to a comprehensive, multifaceted knowledge about an object, to concrete knowledge. It should be noted that these are two sides of the same process, which have only relative independence.

Idealization- the mental construction of objects that do not exist in reality. Such ideal objects include, for example, an absolutely black body, a material point, a point electric charge. The process of constructing an ideal object necessarily implies an abstracting activity of consciousness. So, speaking of a completely black body, we abstract from the fact that all real bodies have the ability to reflect the light falling on them. Other mental operations are also of great importance for the formation of ideal objects. This is due to the fact that when creating ideal objects, we must achieve the following goals:

Deprive real objects of some of their inherent properties;
- mentally endow these objects with certain unrealistic properties. This requires a mental transition to the limiting case in the development of some property and the rejection of some real properties objects.

Ideal objects play an important role in science; they make it possible to significantly simplify complex systems, which makes it possible to apply mathematical methods of investigation to them. Moreover, science knows many examples when the study of ideal objects led to outstanding discoveries (Galileo's discovery of the principle of inertia). Any idealization is justified only within certain limits, it serves for the scientific solution of only certain problems. Otherwise, the use of idealization can lead to some misconceptions. Only with this in mind can one correctly assess the role of idealization in cognition.

Formalization- a method of studying a wide variety of objects by displaying their content and structure in a sign form and studying the logical structure of the theory. The advantage of formalization is the following:

Ensuring the completeness of the review of a certain area of ​​​​problems, the generalization of the approach to solving them. A general algorithm for solving problems is being created, for example, calculating the areas of various figures using integral calculus;

The use of special symbols, the introduction of which ensures the brevity and clarity of fixing knowledge;

Attribution to individual symbols or their systems certain values, which avoids the ambiguity of terms, which is characteristic of natural languages. Therefore, when operating with formalized systems, reasoning is distinguished by clarity and rigor, and conclusions by evidence;

The ability to form iconic models of objects and replace the study of real things and processes with the study of these models. This simplifies cognitive tasks. Artificial languages ​​have a relatively large independence, independence of the sign form in relation to the content, therefore, in the process of formalization, it is possible to temporarily digress from the content of the model and explore only the formal side. Such a distraction from the content can lead to paradoxical, but truly ingenious discoveries. For example, with the help of formalization, the existence of the positron was predicted by P. Dirac.

Axiomatization found wide application in mathematics and mathematic sciences.

The axiomatic method of constructing theories is understood as their organization, when a number of statements are introduced without proof, and all the rest are derived from them according to certain logical rules. Propositions accepted without proof are called axioms or postulates. This method was first used to construct elementary geometry by Euclid, then it was used in various sciences.

A number of requirements are imposed on an axiomatically constructed system of knowledge. According to the requirement of consistency in the system of axioms, a proposition and its negation must not be deduced simultaneously. According to the requirement of completeness, any sentence that can be formulated in a given system of axioms can be proved or refuted in it. According to the requirement of independence of axioms, any of them must not be deducible from other axioms.

What are the advantages of the axiomatic method? First of all, the axiomatization of science requires a precise definition of the concepts used and adherence to the strictness of the conclusions. In empirical knowledge, both have not been achieved, which is why the application of the axiomatic method requires the progress of this field of knowledge in this respect. In addition, axiomatization streamlines knowledge, excludes unnecessary elements from it, eliminates ambiguities and contradictions. In other words, axiomatization rationalizes the organization of scientific knowledge.

At present, attempts are being made to apply this method in non-mathematized sciences: biology, linguistics, geology.

thought experiment is carried out not with material objects, but with ideal copies. A thought experiment acts as an ideal form of a real experiment and can lead to important discoveries. It was a thought experiment that allowed Galileo to discover physical principle inertia, which formed the basis of all classical mechanics. This principle could not be discovered in any experiment with real objects, in real environments.

The methods used both at the empirical and theoretical levels of research include generalization, abstraction, analogy, analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, modeling, historical and logical methods, and mathematical methods.

abstraction has the most universal character in mental activity. The essence of this method is the mental abstraction from non-essential properties, connections and the simultaneous selection of one or more aspects of the subject being studied that are of interest to the researcher. The process of abstraction has a two-stage character: the separation of the essential, the identification of the most important; the realization of the possibility of abstraction, i.e., the actual act of abstraction or abstraction.

The result of abstraction is the formation of various kinds of abstractions - both individual concepts and their systems. It should be noted that this method is integral part to all other methods that are more complex in structure.

When we abstract some property or relations of a number of objects, we thereby create the basis for their unification into a single class. In relation to the individual features of each of the objects included in this class, the feature that unites them acts as a common feature.

Generalization- a method, a method of cognition, as a result of which the general properties and signs of objects are established. The operation of generalization is carried out as a transition from a particular or less general concept and judgment to a more general concept or judgment. For example, concepts such as "pine", "larch", "spruce" are primary generalizations, from which one can move on to the more general concept " conifer tree". Then you can move on to such concepts as "tree", "plant", "living organism".

Analysis- a method of cognition, the content of which is a set of methods for dividing an object into its constituent parts for the purpose of their comprehensive study.

Synthesis- a method of cognition, the content of which is a set of methods for connecting individual parts of an object into a single whole.

These methods complement, condition and accompany each other. To make it possible to analyze a thing, it must be fixed as a whole, for which its synthetic perception is necessary. Conversely, the latter presupposes its subsequent dismemberment.

Analysis and synthesis are the most elementary methods of cognition that lie at the very foundation of human thinking. At the same time, they are also the most universal techniques, characteristic of all its levels and forms.

The possibility of analyzing an object is, in principle, unlimited, which logically follows from the proposition of the inexhaustibility of matter. However, the choice of elementary components of the object is always carried out, determined by the purpose of the study.

Analysis and synthesis are closely interconnected with other methods of cognition: experiment, modeling, induction, deduction.

Induction and deduction. The division of these methods is based on the allocation of two types of reasoning: deductive and inductive. In deductive reasoning, a conclusion is made about some element of the set based on knowledge common properties the whole set.

All fish breathe with gills.

perch - fish

__________________________

Therefore, the perch breathes with gills.

One of the premises of deduction is necessarily a general judgment. Here there is a movement of thought from the general to the particular. This movement of thought is very often used in scientific research. Thus, Maxwell, from several equations expressing the most general laws of electrodynamics, successively developed the complete theory of the electromagnetic field.

Especially great cognitive significance of deduction is manifested in the case when a new scientific hypothesis acts as a general premise. In this case, deduction is the starting point for the birth of a new theoretical system. The knowledge created in this way determines the further course of empirical research and directs the construction of new inductive generalizations.

Consequently, the content of deduction as a method of cognition is the use of general scientific provisions in the study of specific phenomena.

Induction is a conclusion from the particular to the general, when, on the basis of knowledge about a part of the objects of a class, a conclusion is made about the class as a whole. Induction as a method of cognition is a set of cognitive operations, as a result of which the movement of thought from less general provisions to more general ones is carried out. Thus, induction and deduction are directly opposite directions of the train of thought. The immediate basis of inductive reasoning is the repetition of the phenomena of reality. Finding similar features in many objects of a certain class, we conclude that these features are inherent in all objects of this class.

There are the following types of induction:

-full induction, in which a general conclusion about a class of objects is made on the basis of the study of all objects of the class. Complete induction gives
reliable conclusions and can be used as evidence;

-incomplete induction, in which the general conclusion is obtained from the premises,
not covering all items of the class. There are three types of incomplete
induction:

Induction by simple enumeration or popular induction, in which a general conclusion about a class of objects is made on the basis that among the observed facts there was not one that contradicted the generalization;

Induction through the selection of facts is carried out by selecting them from the general mass according to a certain principle, which reduces the likelihood of random coincidences;

Scientific induction, in which the general conclusion about all items in the class
is done on the basis of knowledge of the necessary signs or causal
connections of a part of class objects. Scientific induction can give not only
probable, but also reliable conclusions.

Causal relationships can be established by methods of scientific induction. The following canons of induction are distinguished (Bacon-Mill rules of inductive research):

Single similarity method: if two or more cases of the phenomenon under study have only one circumstance in common, and all the others
circumstances are different, then this is the only similar circumstance and
there is a reason for this phenomenon;

Single difference method: if the cases in which the phenomenon
occurs or does not occur, differ only in one previous circumstance, and all other circumstances are identical, then this circumstance is the cause of this phenomenon;

The combined method of similarity and difference, which is
a combination of the first two methods;

Concomitant change method: if a change in one circumstance always causes a change in another, then the first circumstance
there is a reason for the second;

Residual method: if it is known that the cause of the phenomenon under study
the circumstances necessary for it do not serve, except for one, then this one circumstance is the cause of this phenomenon.

The attractiveness of induction lies in its close connection with facts, with practice. It plays an important role in scientific research - in putting forward hypotheses, in discovering empirical laws, in the process of introducing new concepts into science. Noting the role of induction in science, Louis de Broglie wrote: "Induction, insofar as it seeks to avoid the paths already beaten, inasmuch as it inevitably tries to push the already existing boundaries of thought, is the true source of truly scientific progress" 1 .

But induction cannot lead to universal judgments in which regularities are expressed. Inductive generalizations cannot make the transition from empiricism to theory. Therefore, it would be wrong to absolutize the role of induction, as Bacon did, to the detriment of deduction. F. Engels wrote that deduction and induction are interconnected in the same necessary way as analysis and synthesis. Only in mutual connection can each of them fully show their merits. Deduction is the main method in mathematics, in the theoretically developed sciences, in the empirical sciences, inductive conclusions predominate.

Historical and boolean method s are closely interconnected. They are used in the study of complex developing objects. The essence of the historical method lies in the fact that the history of the development of the object under study is reproduced in all its versatility, taking into account all laws and accidents. It is used primarily to study human history, but it also plays an important role in understanding the development of inanimate and living nature.

The history of the object is reconstructed in a logical way based on the study of certain traces of the past, the remnants of past eras, imprinted in material formations (natural or man-made). For historical research characteristic chronological after

________________

1 Broglie L. On the paths of science. M., S. 178.

consistency of consideration of the material, analysis of the stages of development of objects of study. Using the historical method, the entire evolution of an object is traced from its inception to its current state, the genetic relationships of the developing object are studied, the driving forces and conditions for the development of the object are clarified.

The content of the historical method is revealed by the structure of the study: 1) the study of "traces of the past" as the results of historical processes; 2) comparing them with the results of modern processes; 3) reconstruction of past events in their spatio-temporal relations based on the interpretation of "traces of the past" with the help of knowledge about modern processes; 4) identification of the main stages of development and the reasons for the transition from one stage of development to another.

The logical method of research is the reproduction in thinking of a developing object in the form of a historical theory. In logical research, one abstracts from all historical accidents, reproducing history in a general form, freed from everything insignificant. The principle of the unity of the historical and the logical requires that the logic of thought should follow the historical process. This does not mean that thought is passive; on the contrary, its activity consists in singling out the essential, the very essence of the historical process, from history. We can say that the historical and logical methods of cognition are not only different, but also largely coincide. It is no coincidence that F. Engels noted that the logical method is, in essence, the same historical method, but freed from the historical form. They complement each other.