What is the empirical level of the scientific. Features of scientific knowledge

Empirical level of knowledge

The subject of research at the empirical level is the properties, connections, relations of an object that are accessible to sensory perception. The empirical objects of science should be distinguished from the objects of reality, since the former are certain abstractions that single out in reality a certain limited set of properties, connections and relationships. A real object has an infinite number of attributes, it is inexhaustible in its properties, connections, relationships. This is what determines the epistemological orientation of the study at the empirical level - the study of phenomena (phenomena) and the superficial connections between them and the dominance of the sensory correlate in the study.

The main task of cognition at the empirical level is to obtain initial empirical information about the object under study. Most often, such methods of cognition as observation and experiment are used for this.

Knowledge that is formed in the process of empirical research - observation, setting up and conducting experiments, collecting and describing observed phenomena and facts, their empirical systematization and generalization - is expressed in the form of a scientific fact and empirical generalization (law).

An empirical law is the result of an inductive generalization of experiments and is a probabilistic-true knowledge. Increasing the number of experiences does not in itself make empirical dependence reliable knowledge, since empirical generalization always deals with incomplete experience.

The main cognitive function that scientific knowledge performs at the empirical level is the description of phenomena.

Scientific research is not satisfied with the description of phenomena and empirical generalization, in an effort to reveal the causes and essential relationships between phenomena, the researcher moves to the theoretical level of knowledge.

Means and methods of empirical research. Observation and experiment, types of experiment

1. Observation- systematic, purposeful passive study of subjects, based mainly on the data of the senses. In the course of observation, we gain knowledge not only about the external aspects of the object of knowledge, but also - as the ultimate goal - about its essential properties and relationships.

Observation can be direct and indirect by various devices and other technical devices. As science develops, it becomes more and more complex and mediated. Observation captures and registers facts, describes the object of study, providing the empirical information necessary to formulate new problems and put forward hypotheses.

The main requirements that apply to a scientific description are aimed at making it as complete, accurate and objective as possible. The description should give a reliable and adequate picture of the object itself, accurately reflect the phenomena being studied. It is important that the concepts used for description always have a clear and unambiguous meaning. An important point of observation is the interpretation of its results - decoding of instrument readings, etc.

2. Experiment is a method of cognition in which phenomena are studied under controlled and controlled conditions. The subject actively intervenes in the research process, influencing the object under study with the help of special tools and instruments, purposefully and permanently changes the object, revealing its new properties. Thanks to this, the researcher succeeds in isolating the object from the influence of secondary and obscuring phenomena and studying the phenomenon in its purest form; systematically change the conditions of the process; repeatedly reproduce the course of the process under strictly fixed and controllable conditions.

The main features of the experiment: a) a more active (than during observation) attitude towards the object of study, up to its change and transformation; b) the ability to control the behavior of the object and check the results; c) multiple reproducibility of the object under study at the request of the researcher; d) the possibility of discovering such properties of phenomena that are not observed in natural conditions.

Types (types) of experiments are very diverse. So, according to their functions, they distinguish research (search), verification (control), reproducing experiments. According to the nature of the objects are distinguished physical, chemical, biological, social etc. There are experiments qualitative and quantitative. A thought experiment has become widespread in modern science - a system of mental procedures carried out on idealized objects.

3. Comparison- a cognitive operation that reveals the similarity or difference of objects (or stages of development of the same object), i.e. their identity and differences. It makes sense only in the totality of homogeneous objects that form a class. Comparison of objects in the class is carried out according to the features that are essential for this consideration. At the same time, objects compared on one basis may be incomparable on another.

Comparison is the basis of such a logical device as analogy (see below), and serves as the starting point for the comparative historical method. Its essence is the identification of the general and the particular in the cognition of various stages (periods, phases) of the development of the same phenomenon or different coexisting phenomena.

4. Description- a cognitive operation consisting in fixing the results of an experience (observation or experiment) using certain notation systems adopted in science.

5. Measure e - a set of actions performed using certain means in order to find the numerical value of the measured value in the accepted units of measurement.

It should be emphasized that the methods of empirical research are never implemented "blindly", but are always "theoretically loaded", guided by certain conceptual ideas.

Question #10

Empirical level of scientific knowledge: its methods and forms

Methods of scientific knowledge are usually subdivided according to the degree of their generality, i.e. by the breadth of applicability in the process of scientific research.

The concept of method(from the Greek word "methodos" - the path to something) means a set of techniques and operations for practical and theoretical mastering of reality, guided by which a person can achieve the intended goal. Possession of the method means for a person the knowledge of how, in what sequence to perform certain actions to solve certain problems, and the ability to apply this knowledge in practice. The main function of the method is the regulation of cognitive and other forms of activity.

There is a whole field of knowledge that is specifically concerned with the study of methods and which is usually called methodology. Methodology literally means "the study of methods".

General scientific methods are used in various fields of science, i.e., they have a very wide, interdisciplinary range of applications.

The classification of general scientific methods is closely related to the concept of levels of scientific knowledge.

Distinguish two levels of scientific knowledge: empirical and theoretical. This difference is based on the dissimilarity, firstly, of the methods (methods) of cognitive activity itself, and secondly, the nature of the scientific results achieved. Some general scientific methods are used only at the empirical level (observation, experiment, measurement), others - only at the theoretical (idealization, formalization), and some (for example, modeling) - both at the empirical and theoretical levels.

Empirical level scientific knowledge is characterized by a direct study of real-life, sensually perceived objects. At this level of research, a person directly interacts with the studied natural or social objects. Here, living contemplation (sensory cognition) predominates. At this level, the process of accumulating information about the objects and phenomena under study is carried out by conducting observations, performing various measurements, and setting up experiments. Here, the primary systematization of the received actual data is also carried out in the form of tables, diagrams, graphs, etc.

However, to explain the real process of cognition, empiricism is forced to turn to the apparatus of logic and mathematics (primarily to inductive generalization) to describe experimental data as a means of constructing theoretical knowledge. The limitation of empiricism lies in the exaggeration of the role of sensory cognition, experience, and in the underestimation of the role of scientific abstractions and theories in cognition. Therefore, e A empirical study is usually based on a certain theoretical structure that determines the direction of this study, determines and justifies the methods used in this.

Turning to the philosophical aspect of this issue, it is necessary to note such philosophers of the New Age as F. Bacon, T. Hobbes and D. Locke. Francis Bacon said that the path leading to knowledge is observation, analysis, comparison and experiment. John Locke believed that we draw all our knowledge from experience and sensations.

Singling out these two different levels in scientific research, however, one should not separate them from each other and oppose them. After all empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge are interconnected between themselves. The empirical level acts as the basis, the foundation of the theoretical one. Hypotheses and theories are formed in the process of theoretical understanding of scientific facts, statistical data obtained at the empirical level. In addition, theoretical thinking inevitably relies on sensory-visual images (including diagrams, graphs, etc.) with which the empirical level of research deals.

features or forms of empirical research

The main forms in which scientific knowledge exists are: problem, hypothesis, theory. But this chain of forms of knowledge cannot exist without factual material and practical activities to test scientific assumptions. Empirical, experimental research masters the object with the help of such techniques and means as description, comparison, measurement, observation, experiment, analysis, induction, and its most important element is a fact (from Latin factum - done, accomplished). Any scientific research begins with the collection, systematization and generalization facts.

science facts- the facts of reality, reflected, verified and fixed in the language of science. Coming to the attention of scientists, fact of science excites theoretical thought . A fact becomes scientific when it is an element of the logical structure of a particular system of scientific knowledge and is included in this system.

In understanding the nature of a fact in the modern methodology of science, two extreme trends stand out: factualism and theorism. If the first emphasizes the independence and autonomy of facts in relation to various theories, then the second, on the contrary, argues that the facts are completely dependent on the theory, and when theories are changed, the entire factual basis of science changes. The correct solution to the problem is that a scientific fact, having a theoretical load, is relatively independent of theory, since it is basically determined by material reality. The paradox of theoretical loading of facts is resolved as follows. Knowledge that is verified independently of theory participates in the formation of a fact, and facts provide an incentive for the formation of new theoretical knowledge. The latter, in turn - if they are reliable - can again participate in the formation of the latest facts, and so on.

Speaking about the most important role of facts in the development of science, V.I. Vernadsky wrote: “Scientific facts constitute the main content of scientific knowledge and scientific work. If they are correctly established, they are indisputable and obligatory for all. Along with them, systems of certain scientific facts can be singled out, the main form of which is empirical generalizations. This is the main fund of science, scientific facts, their classifications and empirical generalizations, which, in its reliability, cannot cause doubts and sharply distinguishes science from philosophy and religion. Neither philosophy nor religion creates such facts and generalizations. At the same time, it is unacceptable to "grab" individual facts, but it is necessary to strive to cover all the facts as far as possible (without a single exception). Only in the event that they are taken in an integral system, in their interconnection, will they become a "stubborn thing", "the air of a scientist", "the bread of science". Vernadsky V. I. About science. T. 1. Scientific knowledge. Scientific creativity. Scientific thought. - Dubna. 1997, pp. 414-415.

In this way, empirical experience never - especially in modern science - is blind: he planned, constructed by theory, and the facts are always theoretically loaded in one way or another. Therefore, the starting point, the beginning of science, is, strictly speaking, not objects in themselves, not bare facts (even in their totality), but theoretical schemes, "conceptual frameworks of reality." They consist of abstract objects ("ideal constructs") of various kinds - postulates, principles, definitions, conceptual models, etc.

According to K. Popper, it is absurd to believe that we can start scientific research with "pure observations" without "something resembling a theory." Therefore, some conceptual point of view is absolutely necessary. Naive attempts to do without it can, in his opinion, only lead to self-deception and to the uncritical use of some unconscious point of view. Even the careful testing of our ideas by experience itself, according to Popper, is inspired by ideas: An experiment is a planned action, each step of which is guided by a theory.

methods of scientific knowledge

By studying phenomena and the relationships between them, empirical knowledge is able to detect the operation of an objective law. But it fixes this action, as a rule, in the form of empirical dependencies, which should be distinguished from a theoretical law as a special knowledge obtained as a result of a theoretical study of objects. Empirical dependency is the result inductive generalization of experience And represents probabilistically true knowledge. Empirical research studies phenomena and their correlations in which it can detect the manifestation of a law. But in its pure form it is given only as a result of theoretical research.

Let us turn to the methods that find application at the empirical level of scientific knowledge.

Observation - this is a deliberate and purposeful perception of phenomena and processes without direct intervention in their course, subject to the tasks of scientific research. The main requirements for scientific observation are as follows:

1) unambiguous purpose, design;
2) consistency in observation methods;
3) objectivity;
4) the possibility of control either by repeated observation or by experiment.

Observation is used, as a rule, where intervention in the process under study is undesirable or impossible. Observation in modern science is associated with the widespread use of instruments, which, firstly, enhance the senses, and secondly, remove the touch of subjectivity from the assessment of observed phenomena. An important place in the process of observation (as well as experiment) is occupied by the measurement operation.

Measurement - there is a definition of the ratio of one (measured) quantity to another, taken as a standard. Since the results of observation, as a rule, take the form of various signs, graphs, curves on an oscilloscope, cardiograms, etc., the interpretation of the data obtained is an important component of the study. Observation in the social sciences is especially difficult, where its results largely depend on the personality of the observer and his attitude to the phenomena being studied. In sociology and psychology, a distinction is made between simple and participatory (included) observation. Psychologists also use the method of introspection (self-observation).

Experiment , as opposed to observing is a method of cognition in which phenomena are studied under controlled and controlled conditions. An experiment, as a rule, is carried out on the basis of a theory or hypothesis that determines the formulation of the problem and the interpretation of the results. The advantages of the experiment in comparison with observation are, firstly, that it is possible to study the phenomenon, so to speak, in its “pure form”, secondly, the conditions for the process can vary, and thirdly, the experiment itself can be repeated many times. There are several types of experiment.

1) The simplest type of experiment - qualitative, establishing the presence or absence of the phenomena proposed by the theory.
2) The second, more complex type is the measuring or quantitative an experiment that establishes the numerical parameters of some property (or properties) of an object or process.
3) A special kind of experiment in the fundamental sciences is mental experiment.
4) Finally: a specific kind of experiment is social an experiment carried out in order to introduce new forms of social organization and optimize management. The scope of social experiment is limited by moral and legal norms.

Observation and experiment are the source of scientific facts, which in science are understood as a special kind of sentences that fix empirical knowledge. Facts are the foundation of the building of science, they form the empirical basis of science, the basis for putting forward hypotheses and creating theories. uy. Let us designate some methods of processing and systematization of knowledge of the empirical level. This is primarily analysis and synthesis.

Analysis - the process of mental, and often real, dismemberment of an object, phenomenon into parts (signs, properties, relationships). The reverse procedure of analysis is synthesis.
Synthesis - this is a combination of the sides of the subject identified during the analysis into a single whole.

Comparison — cognitive operation that reveals the similarity or difference of objects. It makes sense only in the totality of homogeneous objects that form a class. Comparison of objects in the class is carried out according to the features that are essential for this consideration.
Description — a cognitive operation consisting in fixing the results of an experience (observation or experiment) with the help of certain notation systems adopted in science.

A significant role in generalizing the results of observations and experiments belongs to induction(from Latin inductio - guidance), a special kind of generalization of experience data. During induction, the researcher's thought moves from the particular (private factors) to the general. Distinguish between popular and scientific, complete and incomplete induction. The opposite of induction is deduction movement of thought from the general to the particular. Unlike induction, with which deduction is closely related, it is mainly used at the theoretical level of knowledge. The process of induction is associated with such an operation as comparison - the establishment of similarities and differences between objects and phenomena. Induction, comparison, analysis and synthesis set the stage for the development classifications - combining various concepts and their corresponding phenomena into certain groups, types in order to establish links between objects and classes of objects. Examples of classifications are the periodic table, classifications of animals, plants, etc. Classifications are presented in the form of schemes, tables used for orientation in the variety of concepts or corresponding objects.

For all their differences, the empirical and theoretical levels of cognition are interconnected, the boundary between them is conditional and mobile. Empirical research, revealing new data with the help of observations and experiments, stimulates theoretical knowledge, which generalizes and explains them, sets new, more complex tasks for it. On the other hand, theoretical knowledge, developing and concretizing its own new content on the basis of empirical knowledge, opens up new, wider horizons for empirical knowledge, orients and directs it in search of new facts, contributes to the improvement of its methods and means, etc.

Science as an integral dynamic system of knowledge cannot develop successfully without being enriched with new empirical data, without generalizing them in a system of theoretical means, forms and methods of cognition. At certain points in the development of science, the empirical becomes theoretical and vice versa. However, it is unacceptable to absolutize one of these levels to the detriment of the other.

The empirical level of knowledge in science to a certain extent corresponds to the sensory level of research, while the theoretical level corresponds to the rational or logical one. Of course, there is no absolute correspondence between them. It has been established that the empirical level of cognition includes not only sensory, but also logical research. At the same time, the information received by the sensory method is subjected here to primary processing by conceptual (rational) means.

Empirical knowledge, therefore, is not only a reflection of reality, formed by experience. They represent a specific unity of the mental and sensual expression of reality. At the same time, sensory reflection is in the first place, and thinking plays an auxiliary role subordinate to observation.

Empirical data supply facts to science. Their establishment is an integral part of any research. Thus, the empirical level of knowledge contributes to the establishment and accumulation

A fact is a reliably established event, a non-fictional incident. These fixed empirical knowledge are synonymous with such concepts as "results", "events".

It should be noted that the facts act not only as an information source and "sensual" reasoning. They are also the criterion of truth and reliability.

The empirical level of knowledge makes it possible to establish facts by various methods. These methods, in particular, include observation, experiment, comparison, measurement.

Observation is the purposeful and systematic perception of phenomena and objects. The purpose of this perception is to determine the relationships and properties of the studied phenomena or objects. Observation can be carried out both directly and indirectly (using tools - a microscope, a camera, and others). It should be noted that for modern science, such a study becomes more complicated over time and becomes more indirect.

Comparison is a cognitive procedure. It is the basis in accordance with which the difference or similarity of objects is carried out. Comparison allows you to identify the quantitative and qualitative properties and characteristics of objects.

It should be said that the method of comparison is expedient in determining the signs of homogeneous phenomena or objects that form classes. Just like observation, this can be carried out indirectly or directly. In the first case, the comparison is made by comparing two objects with the third, which is the standard.

Measurement is the establishment of a numerical indicator of a certain value using a specific unit (watts, centimeters, kilograms, etc.). This method has been used since the emergence of the new European science. Due to its wide application, measurement has become an organic element

All of the above methods can be used both independently and in combination. In the complex, observation, measurement and comparison are part of a more complex empirical method of cognition - experiment.

This method of research involves placing the object in clearly defined conditions or reproducing it artificially in order to identify certain characteristics. An experiment is a way of carrying out an active activity. In this case, it implies the ability of the subject to intervene during the process or phenomenon being studied.

Scientific knowledge can be divided into two levels: theoretical and empirical. The first is based on inferences, the second - on experiments and interaction with the object under study. Despite their different nature, these methods are equally important for the development of science.

Empirical Research

Empirical knowledge is based on direct practical interaction between the researcher and the object he is studying. It consists of experiments and observations. Empirical and theoretical knowledge are opposite - in the case of theoretical research, a person manages only his own ideas about the subject. As a rule, this method is the lot of the humanities.

Empirical research cannot do without instruments and instrumental installations. These are means related to the organization of observations and experiments, but in addition to them there are also conceptual means. They are used as a special scientific language. It has a complex organization. Empirical and theoretical knowledge is focused on the study of phenomena and the dependencies that arise between them. By experimenting, man can discover an objective law. This is also facilitated by the study of phenomena and their correlation.

Empirical methods of knowledge

According to the scientific view, empirical and theoretical knowledge consists of several methods. This is a set of steps necessary to solve a specific problem (in this case, we are talking about identifying previously unknown patterns). The first empirical method is observation. It is a purposeful study of objects, which primarily relies on various senses (perceptions, sensations, ideas).

At its initial stage, observation gives an idea of the external characteristics of the object of knowledge. However, the ultimate goal of this is to determine the deeper and inner properties of the subject. A common misconception is that the idea that scientific observation is passive is far from true.

Observation

Empirical observation is distinguished by a detailed character. It can be both direct and indirect by various technical devices and instruments (for example, a camera, telescope, microscope, etc.). As science advances, observation becomes more complex and complex. This method has several exceptional qualities: objectivity, certainty and unambiguous design. When using devices, an additional role is played by the decoding of their readings.

In the social and human sciences, empirical and theoretical knowledge takes root in a heterogeneous manner. Observation in these disciplines is particularly difficult. It becomes dependent on the personality of the researcher, his principles and attitudes, as well as the degree of interest in the subject.

Observation cannot be carried out without a certain concept or idea. It must be based on a certain hypothesis and record certain facts (in this case, only interconnected and representative facts will be indicative).

Theoretical and empirical studies differ from each other in details. For example, observation has its own specific functions that are not characteristic of other methods of cognition. First of all, this is providing a person with information, without which further research and hypotheses are impossible. Observation is the fuel on which thinking runs. Without new facts and impressions, there will be no new knowledge. In addition, it is with the help of observation that one can compare and verify the validity of the results of preliminary theoretical studies.

Experiment

Different theoretical and empirical methods of cognition also differ in the degree of their intervention in the process under study. A person can observe it strictly from the outside, or can analyze its properties on their own experience. This function is carried out by one of the empirical methods of cognition - experiment. In terms of importance and contribution to the final result of research, it is in no way inferior to observation.

An experiment is not only a purposeful and active human intervention in the course of the process under study, but also its change, as well as reproduction in specially prepared conditions. This method of cognition requires much more effort than observation. During the experiment, the object of study is isolated from any extraneous influence. A clean and uncluttered environment is created. The experimental conditions are completely set and controlled. Therefore, this method, on the one hand, corresponds to the natural laws of nature, and on the other hand, it is distinguished by an artificial, human-defined essence.

Experiment structure

All theoretical and empirical methods have a certain ideological load. The experiment, which is carried out in several stages, is no exception. First of all, planning and step-by-step construction take place (the goal, means, type, etc. are determined). Then comes the experimentation stage. However, it takes place under the perfect control of a person. At the end of the active phase, it is the turn to interpret the results.

Both empirical and theoretical knowledge differ in a certain structure. In order for an experiment to take place, the experimenters themselves, the object of the experiment, instruments and other necessary equipment, a methodology and a hypothesis are required, which is confirmed or refuted.

Instruments and installations

Every year scientific research becomes more and more difficult. They need more and more modern technology that allows them to study what is inaccessible to simple human senses. If earlier scientists were limited to their own sight and hearing, now they have at their disposal unprecedented experimental facilities.

During the use of the device, it can have a negative impact on the object under study. For this reason, the result of an experiment sometimes diverges from its original goals. Some researchers try to achieve such results on purpose. In science, this process is called randomization. If the experiment takes on a random character, then its consequences become an additional object of analysis. The possibility of randomization is another feature that distinguishes empirical and theoretical knowledge.

Comparison, description and measurement

Comparison is the third empirical method of cognition. This operation allows you to identify differences and similarities of objects. Empirical, theoretical analysis cannot be carried out without deep knowledge of the subject. In turn, many facts begin to play with new colors after the researcher compares them with another texture known to him. Comparison of objects is carried out within the framework of features that are essential for a particular experiment. At the same time, objects that are compared according to one feature may be incomparable in their other characteristics. This empirical technique is based on analogy. It underlies the important science

Methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge can be combined with each other. But research is almost never complete without description. This cognitive operation fixes the results of the previous experience. For the description, scientific notation systems are used: graphs, diagrams, drawings, diagrams, tables, etc.

The last empirical method of knowledge is measurement. It is carried out through special means. Measurement is necessary to determine the numerical value of the desired measured value. Such an operation must be carried out in accordance with strict algorithms and rules accepted in science.

Theoretical knowledge

In science, theoretical and empirical knowledge has different fundamental supports. In the first case, this is a detached use of rational methods and logical procedures, and in the second, direct interaction with the object. Theoretical knowledge uses intellectual abstractions. One of its most important methods is formalization - the display of knowledge in a symbolic and sign form.

At the first stage of expressing thinking, the usual human language is used. It is characterized by complexity and constant variability, which is why it cannot be a universal scientific tool. The next stage of formalization is connected with the creation of formalized (artificial) languages. They have a specific purpose - a strict and precise expression of knowledge that cannot be achieved using natural speech. Such a symbol system can take the format of formulas. It is very popular in mathematics and other areas where numbers cannot be dispensed with.

With the help of symbolism, a person eliminates the ambiguous understanding of the record, makes it shorter and clearer for further use. Not a single research, and therefore all scientific knowledge, can do without speed and simplicity in the application of its tools. Empirical and theoretical study equally needs formalization, but it is at the theoretical level that it takes on an exceptionally important and fundamental significance.

An artificial language, created within a narrow scientific framework, is becoming a universal means of exchanging thoughts and communicating specialists. This is the fundamental task of methodology and logic. These sciences are necessary for the transmission of information in an understandable, systematized form, free from the shortcomings of natural language.

The meaning of formalization

Formalization allows you to clarify, analyze, clarify and define concepts. The empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge cannot do without them, so the system of artificial symbols has always played and will continue to play a big role in science. Common and colloquial concepts seem obvious and clear. However, due to their ambiguity and uncertainty, they are not suitable for scientific research.

Formalization is especially important in the analysis of alleged evidence. The sequence of formulas based on specialized rules is distinguished by the precision and rigor necessary for science. In addition, formalization is necessary for programming, algorithmization and computerization of knowledge.

Axiomatic Method

Another method of theoretical research is the axiomatic method. It is a convenient way of deductively expressing scientific hypotheses. Theoretical and empirical sciences cannot be imagined without terms. Very often they arise due to the construction of axioms. For example, in Euclidean geometry at one time the fundamental terms of angle, line, point, plane, etc. were formulated.

Within the framework of theoretical knowledge, scientists formulate axioms - postulates that do not require proof and are the initial statements for further construction of theories. An example of this is the idea that the whole is always greater than the part. With the help of axioms, a system for deriving new terms is built. Following the rules of theoretical knowledge, a scientist can obtain unique theorems from a limited number of postulates. At the same time, it is much more effectively used for teaching and classification than for discovering new patterns.

Hypothetical-deductive method

Although theoretical, empirical scientific methods differ from each other, they are often used together. An example of such an application is that it builds new systems of closely intertwined hypotheses. On their basis, new statements concerning empirical, experimentally proven facts are derived. The method of deriving a conclusion from archaic hypotheses is called deduction. This term is familiar to many thanks to the novels about Sherlock Holmes. Indeed, a popular literary character in his investigations often uses the deductive method, with the help of which he builds a coherent picture of the crime from a multitude of disparate facts.

The same system operates in science. This method of theoretical knowledge has its own clear structure. First of all, there is an acquaintance with the invoice. Then assumptions are made about the patterns and causes of the phenomenon under study. To do this, various logical techniques are used. Guesses are evaluated according to their probability (the most probable one is selected from this heap). All hypotheses are checked for consistency with logic and compatibility with basic scientific principles (for example, the laws of physics). Consequences are derived from the assumption, which are then verified by experiment. The hypothetical-deductive method is not so much a method of a new discovery as a method of substantiating scientific knowledge. This theoretical tool was used by such great minds as Newton and Galileo.