Izvestiya TRTU

Thematic issue

and psychopathic character traits (A.Ya. Antsupova and A.I. Shipilova).

The results of our empirical study of the relationship family relations, accentuations of the nature and risk of suicidal behavior in adolescents indicate that adolescents with a high suicidal risk are superior to other adolescents in terms of extreme behavior, they are characterized by impaired adaptability in relation to others, difficulties in adapting to the conditions of the social environment. Interrelations of the studied characterological and behavioral features with readiness for self-destructive behavior were also found; a high degree of suicidal risk in most cases is observed in adolescents with affectively "exalted and excitable types of character accentuations in combination with an authoritarian or aggressive style of interpersonal relations. Thus, the results of the study prove that accentuated adolescents with impaired interpersonal relations have a tendency to suicidal behavior This, in turn, makes it possible to develop and apply differentiated approach in helping adolescents prone to suicidal behavior At the same time, this small empirical study may serve as one of the first attempts to comprehensively study the factors of suicidal behavior, and in the long term to unite the forces of representatives of various sciences in the study of this tragic phenomenon of our life.

Zinchenko E.V.

SELF-DISCLOSURE AND PERSONAL MENTAL HEALTH

Personal self-disclosure, understood by us as a multifaceted process of personality manifestation in communication, is a necessary condition for the existence of a person in society, in a system of social ties and relationships. Self-disclosure involves the communication by the subject of personal information of varying degrees of intimacy to one or more recipients. With its help, a person, as it were, fits into a certain social context, correlates his ideas with the ideas of those around him. In addition to the need for the subject himself, self-disclosure is also important for others. According to E. Hoffman, it helps the recipient to determine the situation of communication, makes it possible to understand their own expectations and the expectations of the partner. According to V. Derlig, unwillingness to disclose can lead to isolation from society. In general, self-disclosure acts as a complex socio-psychological phenomenon that has significant consequences for each of the subjects of communication.

From the point of view of significance for the communicator, self-disclosure of the personality in communication performs a number of important functions, one of which is the strengthening of the mental health of the subject. In addition to internal harmonization, mental health is also ensured by the harmonization of relations with the outside world. That is why self-disclosure makes a significant contribution to its maintenance. The disclosure of one's "I" to another person is vital for the individual. S. Jurard called it a condition and a sign of the existence of a full-fledged personality. In his opinion, a healthy person will always strive to be fully recognized by at least one significant person. Self-concealment, like withholding personal information from a partner, indicates distress. According to H. Kaplan, an alienated attitude to the world underlies various neurotic and sociopathic states of the individual. According to E. Fromm, satisfaction of the need for human connections, in merging with another human being is not

Section III. Psychology of human health and safety

needed to maintain mental health.

Quite a lot of foreign studies have been devoted to the issue of the relationship of self-disclosure with mental health. This relationship turned out to be ambiguous, and the opinions of the authors were divided. A number of them found a positive correlation between these phenomena, others - a negative one, some researchers concluded that there was no such connection. P. Cosby explains low degree correlations between indicators of self-disclosure and mental health by their curvilinear dependence. He hypothesizes that people with good mental health open up deeply, but only to a narrow circle of people, the rest - medium; and people with poor mental health are characterized by high or low openness to everyone. This hypothesis was later confirmed by A. Chaika and V. Derliga. Interesting in this sense are the results of the study by H. Kaplan, which revealed a greater degree of mental health in girls than in boys. Taking into account the influence of the gender factor on self-disclosure, they can be indirect evidence of the existence of a connection between self-disclosure and the mental health of an individual, since many researchers agree that females are characterized by a greater amount of self-disclosure than males. Page, M. Randi, et al. also support this relationship, indicating that mental health in childhood and adolescence is largely associated with feelings of loneliness and isolation.

Self-disclosure often has a cathartic effect. The personal information expressed aloud seems to be alienated from the subject, which is accompanied by a relief of the experience. As foreign researchers have proven, not only direct, but also indirect self-disclosure positively affects human health. With the latter, the risk of negative consequences is significantly reduced, which makes it more preferable for the communicator. We consider keeping diary entries as one of the ways of mediated self-disclosure. In this case, the subject of self-disclosure, his own self, acts as a recipient. According to American researchers P. Pennybaker and K. Hoover, keeping a diary improves well-being and increases resistance to disease.

In domestic studies, data have been obtained that indirectly testify to the connection between self-disclosure of a person and her mental health. So, N.D. Semyonova found that people suffering from bronchial asthma, after psycho-corrective classes aimed at restoring emotional connection with the world, had positive changes in the sphere of communication and, as a result, improved mental health. This work experience confirms Jurard's thesis that the suppression of the need for self-disclosure can cause not only psychological problems, but also psychosomatic diseases. L.I. Antsyferova notes that an alienated attitude to the world is the basis of neurotic and sociopathic states of the individual. T.P. Skripkina, indicates that the inadequacy in the manifestation of trust is associated with neurotic states and is an indicator of the deviation of the mental health of the individual.

Thus, existing psychological research indicates the presence of complex relationships between self-disclosure and mental health of the individual. This problem requires further practical study and theoretical understanding.

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Zinchenko Elena Valerievna Self-disclosure and its conditionality by socio-psychological and personal factors: Dis. ... cand. psychol. Sciences: 19.00.05: Rostov n/D, 2000 256 p. RSL OD, 61:01-19/116-6

Introduction

CHAPTER I Self-disclosure of personality as a socio-psychological phenomenon 14

1.1. Theoretical analysis of ideas about self-disclosure in foreign and domestic psychology 14

1.2. The phenomenon of self-disclosure from the point of view of various socio-psychological approaches 26

1.3. Types of self-disclosure of personality in communication 40

1.4. Self-disclosure parameters and methods for their diagnostics 52

1.5. Functions and consequences of disclosure by the subject of his

inner world around. 59

CHAPTER II. Factors that determine the features of personality self-disclosure in communication 73

2.1. Socio-psychological factors of self-disclosure 74

2.2. Socio-demographic characteristics of a communicator as a factor of self-disclosure 80

2.3. The influence of the psychological characteristics of the subject on his self-disclosure 90

2.4. Cognitive style as a determinant of personality self-disclosure 96

CHAPTER III. Empirical study of self-disclosure and its conditioning by socio-psychological and personal factors 104

3.1. Purpose, tasks, object, methods and organization of the experiment 104

3.2. Exploring the characteristics of self-disclosure and their relationships

3.3. The influence of the social role of the recipient and the nature of interpersonal relations on the characteristics of self-disclosure in adolescence

3.4. Determining the parameters of self-disclosure by the gender of the communicator 134

3.5. Study of the influence of the communicator's cognitive style on his self-disclosure 140

Conclusion

Literature 155

Applications

Introduction to work

In the last decade, interest has increased in such a section of social psychology as the social psychology of personality. The specificity of social psychology when looking at a person lies in considering it as an interacting and communicating subject (V.N. Myasishchev, 1970, 1974, 1995; M.I. Bobneva, E.V. Shorokhova, 1979; A.A. Bodalev, 1995 ; G.M. Andreeva, 1980, 1998; L.A. Petrovskaya, 1989, etc.). One of the trends in modern social psychology is a reorientation from the study of the phenomena of perception of another person to the study of how a person manifests himself in communication with others.

The topic of personal representation of a person in communication, in line with which the phenomena of self-disclosure and self-presentation are considered, is quite well developed in foreign psychology (S. Jourard, 1958; P. Lasakow, 1958; P. Cozby, 1979; V. Derlega, 1984; J. Berg , 1986). In domestic social psychology, its place has not yet been completely determined, as evidenced even by the fact that the concept of self-disclosure is absent in most domestic psychological dictionaries, with the exception of psychotherapeutic ones, where its definition is given in relation to the specifics of the psychotherapeutic process (B.D. Karvasarsky, 1998; V. L. Minutko, 1999).

Separate studies affecting the issues under consideration appeared in Russian psychology relatively recently (T.P. Skripkina, 1984; N.V. Amyaga, 1988; I.P. Shkuratova, 1998), therefore, an unambiguous position has not yet been developed in relation to definition of self-disclosure, methodological tools for studying this psychological phenomenon have not been developed, its main characteristics and types have not been described. Of particular note is the fact that in the Russian sample, socio-psychological and personal factors of self-disclosure are practically not studied. For example, in domestic social psychology there are no works in which races

the influence of the cognitive style of the communicator, his attitude to the recipient on the process of self-disclosure would be considered; although the dependence of self-disclosure on interpersonal relationships is directly or indirectly emphasized by a number of authors (V.A. Losenkov, 1974; L.Ya. Gozman, 1987; N.V. Amyaga, 1989; I.S. Kon, 1989), and numerous data on manifestation of cognitive style in the field of communication (Y. Witkin, D. Goodenough, 1977; I.P. Shkuratova, 1994; A.L. Yuzhaninova, 1998; T.G. Antipina, 1998, etc.) give reason to assume its connection with self-disclosure.

The importance and relevance of developing the problem of self-disclosure in domestic social psychology is obvious for several reasons. First, the quantitative and qualitative components of self-disclosure are of interest as an important component of a person's behavior in the field of communication. Each historical time and each society is characterized by a special culture of self-disclosure. Modern society, one of the features of which is social instability, leads a person to an identity crisis, as well as to a global distrust of government, legal proceedings, and the media. In this regard, the attention of psychologists is increasingly turning to such subject areas as social cognition, meanings, trust, self-disclosure, etc. (G.M. Andreeva, 1998; K.A. Abulkhanova, 1999; D.A. Leontiev, 1997; T.P. Skripkina, 1998; N.V. Amyaga, 1998). The current situation indicates the inability of most people to optimally combine trust and distrust, the lack of adequate self-disclosure skills, the process of which contributes to a better understanding of their problems, clarification of uncertainty and, in this sense, helps each individual to answer the question "Who am I?"

Urbanization, computerization, development and implementation characteristic of modern society technical means mass communications also change the sphere of interpersonal relations, which, in turn, is reflected in the nature of

tere self-disclosure. An increase in the quantitative side of contacts with a simultaneous decrease in their depth is observed (M. Heidemets, 1979; Ya.A. Davidovich, 1981; E.V. Sokolov, 1982), complication of the conditions communication, as well as an increase in the proportion of mediation in the communicative behavior of the subject (Yu.M. Zaborodin, A.N. Kharitonov, 1985; V.A. Apollonov, 1981; i E.G. Slutsky, 1981). Increasing alienation modern man leads him to the need to communicate with an unfamiliar or imaginary partner, as well as with a computer. As a result, psychology faces new practical tasks: studying the manifestation of personality in a virtual information society, highlighting the characteristics of an ideal computer personality that can replace human communication and a number of others. The reduction of personal space, the accumulation of negative emotions, the growth of mental tension also contribute to a change in the structure of self-disclosure of the individual.

Secondly, it is known that self-disclosure underlies most of the psychodiagnostic procedures and psychotherapy (A.S. Slutsky, V.N. Tsapkin, 1985; K. Rudestam, 1993; B.D. Karvasarsky, 1998; V.L. Minutko, 1999; V.T.Kondrashenko, D.I. Donskoy, S.A. Igumnov, 1999). It acts as a kind of channel through which the psychotherapist receives the information he needs, establishes and maintains contact with the patient; and the psychologist-researcher - with the subject (J. Berg, V. Derlega, 1986; L.B. Filonov, 1979). The study of the process of self-disclosure can help improve both psychodiagnostic and psychotherapeutic procedures, significantly increase the reliability of the socio-psychological information obtained in this way.

Thirdly, it is known that self-disclosure performs a number of important functions for the individual. It improves mental health personal growth contributes to the development of self-awareness. Therefore, the study

The knowledge of self-disclosure will contribute to the study of the mechanisms of personal growth.

Fourthly, the study of the phenomenon of self-disclosure is necessary for a deeper understanding and understanding of the essence of other psychological categories, such as trust, self-expression, personal communication, dialogue communication.

In connection with the foregoing, we can conclude that by now there is a need to develop a clear scientific definition of self-disclosure, clarify the place of this psychological category in the domestic socio-psychological theory and comprehensively study self-disclosure as a complex socio-psychological phenomenon due to whole group factors in the Russian sample.

The purpose of the study: to study self-disclosure and its conditionality by socio-psychological and personal factors.

Subject of study: volume, depth, content, differentiation and selectivity self-disclosure - personality and its socio-psychological and personal determinants ( social role partner, nature of interpersonal relationships, gender and cognitive style of the communicator).

Research hypotheses:

1. The volume of self-disclosure of the subject varies depending on the social role of the partner and the nature of interpersonal relations between the communicator and the recipient.

2. Cognitive style determines self-disclosure in interpersonal

communication in such a way that cognitive complexity positively affects its differentiation and selectivity, and field dependence - field independence determines its volume and content.

3. Self-disclosure of girls and boys differs in volume, depth and

The purpose of the study was specified in the following tasks:

1. To carry out a theoretical analysis of the concept of self-disclosure as a socio-psychological phenomenon.

2. Select criteria for classification and describe the main types of self-disclosure.

3. Develop a set of methods for diagnosing individual and

group features of self-disclosure in interpersonal communication.

4. To analyze the various characteristics of self-disclosure and from the relationship on the example of adolescence.

5. To establish the influence of the social "role of the recipient on the characteristics of the self-disclosure of the subject.

6. Explore the amount of self-disclosure depending on the nature of interpersonal relationships between the communicator and the recipient.

7. To carry out an empirical analysis of the influence of the gender factor on the volume, depth, content, differentiation and selectivity of self-disclosure.

8. To study the manifestation of cognitive complexity - simplicity in the characteristics of personal self-disclosure.

9. Investigate the influence of field dependence-field independence on the characteristics of self-disclosure.

Methodological and theoretical background of the study:

the principle of determinism as a regular dependence of mental phenomena on the factors that generate them (S.L. Rubinshtein, A.V. Petrovsky, M.G. Yaroshev

sky), the concept of relations V.N. Myasishchev, the idea of ​​self-disclosure as a personal representation of a person in communication (S. Jourard, P. Lasakow, P. Cozby, V. Derlega, J. Berg), the concept of communication as a subject-subject interaction (A.A. Bodalev, G. M. Andreeva, L.A. Petrovskaya, A.U. Kharash. S.L. Bratchenko), the idea of ​​the determination of communication by the socio-psychological characteristics of the individual (K.A. Abulkhanova-Slavskaya. A.A. Bodalev, L.I. Antsyferova), the idea of ​​communication as a tripartite process, including perceptual, communicative and interactive aspects (G.M. Andreeva), the concept of self-expression as an external manifestation of the mental world of the subject (V.A. Labunskaya), the idea of ​​personality as an intra-individual, inter-individual and meta-individual education (A.V. Petrovsky, V.A. Petrovsky), the position on cognitive styles as stable differences in the organization and processing of acquired experience (M.A. Kholodnaya, I.P. Shkuratova, A.L. Yuzhaninova), theory of personality constructs (G. Kelly), the concept of a psychologist ical differentiation (N. Witkin).

In accordance with the goals and objectives set by us, the following methods and techniques were used: 1) to diagnose the characteristics of self-disclosure - a modified version of the S. Jurard questionnaire, developed by us the questionnaire "Scales of self-disclosure" and the methodology "Letter to an unfamiliar friend"; 2) to determine the field dependence-field independence - the test "Gottschald Figures"; 3) to identify the degree of cognitive complexity - J. Kelly's repertoire test.

The following methods were used for data processing: frequency, correlation and factor analysis, content analysis, the method of comparing extreme groups, methods of descriptive (total) statistics.

The reliability of the results was ensured by a variety of diagnostic procedures, a large sample size, and the use of a number of methods of mathematical statistics. The study used a computer

data analysis gram "STATGRAPHICS"

The object of the study were students aged 18 to 25 years, including 153 girls and 33 boys.

At the first stage, 186 people took part in the study, among them were students of the Russian State University (69 philologists, 43 journalists, 34 psychologists) and students of the Azov Medical College - 40 people. The subject of the study at this stage was the parameters of self-disclosure and their dependence on socio-psychological factors.

At the second stage, the sample for solving the problem of the influence of personal factors on self-disclosure consisted of 85 students of the Faculty of Philology of the Russian State University, of which 64 were girls and 21 were boys.

Scientific novelty of the research

1) For the first time, an attempt was made to analyze the approaches to understanding self-disclosure existing in domestic and foreign psychology and to determine the place of this phenomenon in the system of socio-psychological categories.

2) A classification of types of self-disclosure according to various criteria is proposed and their comparative analysis is carried out; the socio-psychological and personal factors determining self-disclosure are singled out and described; the parameters of self-disclosure and methods of their diagnostics are considered.

3) A Russian-language modified version of the S. Jurard technique was tested, the possibilities of diagnosing self-disclosure parameters based on the Self-Disclosure Scale questionnaire and the Letter to an Unfamiliar Friend method were studied.

4) For the first time, extensive empirical material has been collected regarding the characteristics of self-disclosure of Russian youth. The influence of the social role of the recipient on the volume, content, depth and differentiated

ness of self-disclosure; as well as the influence of various characteristics of interpersonal relationships (“distance”, “position”, “valency”, “degree of acquaintance) / on the volume of self-disclosure.

5) For the first time, data on the influence of such cognitive-style parameters as field-dependence-field-independence and cognitive complexity-simplicity on the features of self-disclosure have been obtained and described.

Theoretical and practical significance of the work

The theoretical analysis carried out expands and deepens the idea of ​​self-disclosure as a socio-psychological phenomenon. The paper clarifies the definition of self-disclosure, describes its main types and characteristics. A set of methods for diagnosing self-disclosure in interpersonal communication has been developed.

Identified differences in the characteristics of self-disclosure depending on gender, cognitive style of the communicator; the social role of the recipient and the nature of interpersonal relationships make it possible to form a more complete and differentiated idea of ​​the features of self-disclosure in adolescence.

Data on the relationship between the parameters of self-disclosure and field dependence-field independence, cognitive complexity-simplicity indicate the important role of the cognitive-stylistic characteristics of a person in his self-disclosure.

The results of the study can be used in psychological counseling, in various types of psychotherapeutic and psychocorrectional work with young people, as well as for the psychoprophylaxis of deviations in personal development. Based on the data obtained, it is possible to develop special programs socio-psychological training aimed at teaching the skills of adequate self-disclosure.

At present, the methods developed and the data obtained from

used when reading the course "General and Social Psychology" for students of the philological and philosophical faculties of the Russian State University, when reading the course "Diagnosis of individual characteristics of communication" and when conducting a workshop in the specialty for students of the full-time and part-time department of the Faculty of Psychology of the Russian State University; as well as in the work of a psychologist-consultant of the Rostov regional branch Russian Society of the Red Cross under the program "Assistance of the RRCS to internally displaced persons from Chechnya on the territory of the Russian Federation outside the conflict zone."

Provisions for defense:

1) Self-disclosure as a complex socio-psychological phenomenon is a predominantly voluntary direct or indirect communication by the subject of personal information of varying degrees of intimacy to one or more recipients.

2) The volume, depth, content and differentiation of self-disclosure are largely determined by the social role of the recipient in relation to the communicator and the nature of their interpersonal relationships. The closeness and positivity of the relationship has a positive effect on the amount of self-disclosure.

3) The volume, depth and content of self-disclosure depend on the gender of the communicator. Girls are more likely to tell others about themselves than boys; at the same time, they report their feelings and experiences, while young men - about their opinions and attitudes.

4) Cognitive complexity is manifested in high differentiation and selectivity, a shallow depth of direct and a large amount of indirect self-disclosure. Field dependence-field independence does not have a significant effect on overall volume self-disclosure in direct communication, but is reflected in the content of mediated self-disclosure.

Approbation of work and implementation of results

The materials of the dissertation research were presented at the session of the Week of Science of the Russian State University (1998), at the II All-Russian Conference of the RPO "Methods of Psychology" (Rostov-on-Don, 1997), at meetings of the Department of Social Psychology and Personality Psychology of the Russian State University (1995-1999).

Thesis structure

The work consists of an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion, a list of references, including 300 sources, of which 19 are English language, and applications. The volume of the main text is 154 pages, contains 7 figures and 39 tables, of which 5 figures and 33 tables are in the appendices.

Theoretical analysis of ideas about self-disclosure in foreign and domestic psychology

The term "self-disclosure" (self-disclosure) was introduced into psychology by the American researcher of humanistic orientation S. Jurard, who defined it as "the process of communicating information about oneself to other people" /297, p.91/. This definition, given more than forty years ago, serves as a starting point for psychologists dealing with this issue even today, although some authors rightly point out its shortcomings: descriptive nature, some limitations, superficiality, etc. (P. Cozby, 1979; N.V. Amyaga, 1991). Attempts are being made to rectify the status quo by offering more specific definitions self-disclosure. At the same time, some of the psychologists prioritize the confidentiality of transmitted information. D. Myers, for example, believes that the essence of the process under consideration is "the disclosure of innermost experiences and thoughts to another person" /141, p.679/. T.P. Skripkina gives a definition that is quite consonant with the above, adding the principle of voluntariness as a criterion. She understands self-disclosure as "the fact of voluntary disclosure of confidential information about one's own inner world to another person" /216, p.88/. Focusing on depth and intimacy, the authors significantly narrow, in our opinion, the phenomenon under consideration.

If one adheres to S. Jurard's understanding of self-disclosure, then its degree varies from reporting demographic data about oneself to full disclosure /296/. We find a similar point of view in the psychotherapeutic approach /147, 185, 219/. A.S. Slutsky and V.N. Tsapkin, for example, defines self-disclosure as "such a patient's behavior when, in a trusting atmosphere of a group, he takes the risk of being himself, abandoning inadequate protective stereotypes... however, this does not mean that he must necessarily reveal some of his intimate secrets" / 219, p. 236 /. Consequently, in the process of self-disclosure, the subject conveys to the recipient not only the most intimate feelings, but also expresses judgments on various issues, formulates own attitude to various objects and phenomena, etc. I.S. Kohn, in our opinion, covers all these points, considering self-disclosure as "a conscious and voluntary discovery of one's own Self, one's subjective states, secrets and intentions" /110, p.72/. However, its definition also contains a reference to the voluntariness of self-disclosure. In this regard, we will outline our position on this issue. It is based on the fact that a modern person is often involved in forced communication at work, in an urban environment, in family life /65, 93/.. The necessary moment of such communication is self-disclosure; therefore, we believe that the disclosure of information about oneself is not always carried out voluntarily, but can proceed under forced conditions. Based on this, the above definitions of self-disclosure for the most part do not cover the entire breadth of the process, the diversity of its aspects and manifestations.

N.V. Amyaga comprehends the phenomenon of self-disclosure from the point of view of the concept of dialogic communication, as "a manifestation of dialogue, as its condition, premise, and dialogue, in turn, as a condition and as internal characteristic self-disclosure" /8, p.4/. If any genuine human communication is considered as a manifestation of dialogue /93/, then such a definition is quite legitimate, but not entirely specific.

In all existing definitions of the phenomenon under consideration, only the fact that during self-disclosure a person transfers to another exclusively personal information, that is, one that directly or indirectly relates to his personality, is not questioned. Here it seems to us right to turn to the point of view of the American psychologist W. James, who understands personality as total amount everything that a person can call his own: not only physical and spiritual qualities, but also the products of labor and social environment, home, capital, etc. /74/. And in this sense, information relating to any of these aspects, their manifestations and relationships, turns out to be personal, and, therefore, can be the essence of self-disclosure.

For a deep and detailed consideration of the phenomenon of self-disclosure, a necessary moment is the comparison of this concept with other, similar in meaning, psychological categories that occupy strong positions in domestic and foreign psychological science. First of all, the concept of self-disclosure is closely related to the concept of self-presentation, which originated and is being developed in line with interactionism. Self-presentation or, in other words, self-presentation, self-presentation, impression management, is defined in foreign psychology as "an act of self-expression and behavior aimed at creating a favorable impression, an impression corresponding to someone's ideals" /141 , p.679/. These are various strategies and tactics that an individual uses to make a certain impression on others "/7, 223/. I /78/ Distinguish between "self-constructing (oriented to the characteristics of the ideal self) and "pleasuring" (oriented to the norms existing in society) strategies of self-presentation /156/.

In psychology, a number of attempts have been made to separate the concepts of self-disclosure and self-presentation. Sometimes the difference between them is minimized to the maximum and one concept is considered as part of another. V. Derliga and J. Grzelak believe, for example, that self-presentation is special kind self-disclosure, only with a more careful selection of personal information /286/. B. Shlenker believes that the term "self-presentation" should be used when the subject acts to create the desired impression, and this goal is paramount for him, and the term "self-disclosure" is used when this goal is not so significant for the individual / ibid. /. N.V. Amyaga compares these two phenomena in terms of the content and purpose of the transmitted information. According to the first criterion, self-presentation is wider than self-disclosure, since it is not limited only to personal information about the subject. Whatever a person talks about, he always makes a certain impression on those around him and thereby presents himself. According to the criterion of the diversity of goals, self-disclosure is a broader concept, since its goals can be quite diverse. In addition, N.V. Amyaga notes that self-disclosure and self-presentation of a personality are correlated according to the principle of a negative linear relationship: the more self-presentation is expressed, the less self-disclosure, and vice versa 111. The choice of a subject between self-disclosure and self-presentation is often carried out taking into account the addressee, communication partner.

The phenomenon of self-disclosure from the point of view of various socio-psychological approaches

Personal self-disclosure is a necessary condition for the existence of a person in society, in the system of social ties. The reluctance to reveal oneself can lead to isolation from society /286/. With the help of self-disclosure, a person, as it were, fits into a certain social context, compares his ideas with those of others in order to further correct them. In addition to the need for the subject himself, self-disclosure is also important for those around him. Information about the individual helps them determine the situation and makes it possible to understand in advance what the partner will expect from them and what they can expect from him (E. Goffman, 1984). Self-disclosure acts as a separate socio-psychological phenomenon that requires serious and thorough study. This phenomenon and its effects have been widely used in psychotherapy for a long time, but its place in the domestic socio-psychological theory has not yet been sufficiently determined. However, in social psychology there are a number of categories through which self-disclosure can be characterized. These include communication, self-expression, impact, dialogue and others. In connection with the foregoing, the next logical step of our study is to consider self-disclosure through the prism of these concepts.

Self-disclosure as a process of communication The study of interpersonal communication is one of the fundamental psychological problems. Communication affects the formation of many characteristics of states and personality traits. It is in communication that personality is formed and manifested. At detailed consideration self-disclosure as a process in the neg, you can see three aspects highlighted by G.M. Andreeva in communication: communicative (exchange of information), interactive (exchange of actions) and perceptual (perception of each other by partners) /11/. Based on this idea, it turns out that in his definition of self-disclosure as the process of communicating information about oneself to others, S. Jurard touches only on the communicative side of self-disclosure, which is undoubtedly very important, but not the only one.

Since self-disclosure is necessarily built on the partners' perception of each other, the reflection of various properties and qualities, it also includes a social-perceptual component. So, in order to open up to another person, it is necessary to create his image and perceive the partner as someone who can open up. In turn, the recipient of self-disclosure must perceive the subject as someone who can be listened to. In the process of self-disclosure, the subject constantly reads the recipient's response and the resulting image serves as a regulator of further self-disclosure, contributing to its folding or expansion, changing direction, etc. Any "failures" in the perception of each other by partners have a significant impact on the characteristics of self-disclosure: its depth, breadth, etc. The social-perceptual aspect has not been sufficiently studied in the problem of self-disclosure, although some attention is paid to the influence of the characteristics of the recipient on the course of self-disclosure in the literature.

After building images of each other, the partners move on to the communicative side of self-disclosure, which consists in the direct or indirect transmission of a message to one or more partners. It is this side that many authors pay the most attention to, limiting the entire process of self-disclosure in communication to it.

In the course of self-disclosure, not only the exchange of information takes place - mutual perception, but also an exchange of actions takes place, there is a mutual influence of subjects on each other, which indicates an interactive aspect. When a person talks about himself, he makes a strong impact on others, forcing them to react to their behavior. Interaction between the participants in the self-disclosure process can end with a joint decision, building more intimate relationships, or, conversely, a complete divergence in positions. We can talk about the success or productivity of the interaction of partners as a result of self-disclosure. If the subjects feel that the way they present themselves meets their expectations, then the interaction can be considered successful /286/. The importance of the interactive side of self-disclosure is indicated by the data of V.A. Goryanina, according to which one of the reasons for the unproductive style of interaction - the persistent predisposition of the individual to unproductive contact in interpersonal interaction, blocking the achievement of optimal results of joint activities - is distrust of people and the world as a whole, which manifests itself, among other things, in detachment from others and in an effort to hide from them their true feelings and experiences /61, 62/. Consequently, isolation in the space of one's Self, alienation from others is characteristic of a person prone to an unproductive style of interaction. On the contrary, openness leads a person to the productive realization of his potential, to building favorable interpersonal relationships.

As we noted above, an important point in self-disclosure is that in its course, one person influences another, which ultimately can change the value-semantic positions and behavior of the latter. In parallel, the personality of the subject of self-disclosure changes as well. To confirm this thesis, let us turn to the personality theory of A.V. Petrovsky.

Correlating the concepts of "personality" and "individual", he identifies three possible layers of the study of personality, which in their unity help to better understand this complex phenomenon: intra-individual, inter-individual and meta-individual /171, 172/.

The meta-individual aspect is connected directly with the problem of influence as a consequence of self-disclosure, which consists in the fact that the personality "acts as an ideal representation of the individual in other people, his otherness in them, his personalization" /171, p.230/. When considering the personality from the point of view of this aspect, the focus of attention is transferred to the impact that, consciously or unwittingly, the individual has through communication on other individuals. At the same time, the most important characteristics of the individual as a person should be sought not only in himself, but also in other people. According to A.V. Petrovsky, in this case, the analysis of the researcher can be offered two plans: the ideal representation of other people in a given personality, as well as the representation of this person as a significant "other" in the personality of other people.

Socio-psychological factors of self-disclosure

It involves the participation of at least one recipient and, therefore, is a socio-psychological process.

There are indications in the literature that the nationality and gender of the recipient have a significant impact on interpersonal communication. For example, ethnic factors regulate the range of acceptable ways of interaction and reactions to the partner's behavior on the part of the subject entering into such interaction /128/. The nationality of the recipient largely determines the expectations of the subject in terms of the manifestation of certain character traits and ways of communication on the part of the partner /12/.

Most of the research concerning the gender of the "target" of self-disclosure was carried out as part of the study of the characteristics of male and female friendship. The first is considered more objective, strong and durable, the second is deeply emotional, but less stable. It has been experimentally confirmed that in friendly relations between women there is a greater degree of trust and intimacy than in similar relations between men /56, 135/. Friendly relations between female representatives are considered psychotherapeutically more valuable than friendly relations between men /273/. K. Dinelia and M. Allen recorded gender differences in self-disclosure to partners of the same and the opposite sex, the maximum self-disclosure was revealed in the self-disclosure of a woman with a woman /285/. In a conversation between two women, according to a group of American psychologists, there is a greater activity of answers that fix mutual understanding, compared with a conversation between two men or a man with a woman /138/. The existence of differences in self-disclosure depending on the gender of the recipient is also confirmed by other psychologists. It was revealed, for example, that adolescents of both sexes most often choose a peer of the same sex as themselves for a frank conversation /271/. In adolescence, the situation changes, and the relationship between boys and girls becomes trusting rather than their relationship with their peers of the same sex /149/. In the future, young people intend to establish even more trusting friendly relations with the opposite sex, and they see their closest friend in the person of their future spouse /187/.

An equally important factor influencing the intensity and content of self-disclosure are such characteristics of a partner as his degree of kinship, social role, status. When talking about yourself, a variety of people can act as recipients: a friend, relative, doctor, and others. S. Jurard revealed that young unmarried people are more open to their mother than to their father, friend or girlfriend, and married people - to their wives /297/. A study of self-disclosure of Japanese adolescents using a questionnaire showed that girls more often solve the most important life issues with their mother, boys - with their father; As for communication with peers, boys discuss with girls those issues that they do not touch upon when talking with other partners, and girls do not make differences in topics when revealing their "I" to peers /271/. Researching the social circle of young adults, D. Pulakos showed that they feel closer to friends than to relatives. A warm relationship develops between young adults and their friends, and they often discuss many problems together. With relatives, the circle of discussion of problems is significantly narrowed, feelings become more differentiated /186/. An important role, for example, is played by the degree of kinship by father or mother. English psychologists have experimentally established that student granddaughters develop more emotionally close relationships with maternal grandmothers than with paternal grandmothers /240/.

X. Weinberg also notes that it is sometimes easier for a person to establish a more trusting relationship with a psychoanalyst than with friends. At the same time, "unlike friendship, where everything is built on reciprocity, within the framework of an analytic relationship, reciprocity is limited, but at the same time, the patient can reveal to the analyst something that he does not admit to either his friends or himself" /41/. The process of self-disclosure is also influenced by the status characteristics of partners, for example, relations in the "boss-subordinate" system introduce significant restrictions on the self-disclosure of both.

The socio-psychological characteristics of the recipient are well studied within the framework of the problems of psychological difficulties in communication. V.A. Labunskaya identifies 5 factors that characterize the most typical "field" of difficult communication: expressive-speech characteristics, social-perceptual, types of relationships, forms of address and communication conditions /126/. In our opinion, all these factors are also present in self-disclosure. Let's try to consider them sequentially from the point of view of contributing to this process.

The expressive-speech factor of self-disclosure includes the characteristics of the recipient's speech, the degree of correspondence of his verbal and non-verbal characteristics of communication, as well as the outwardly shown partner's interest in self-disclosure of the subject acting as a communicator. According to V.A. Losenkov, it is very important that a friend be "ready to listen with interest" /135/.

The social-perceptual factor includes the ability of the recipient to assess the feelings and moods of the subject of self-disclosure, his social stereotypes and attitudes. The types of relationships include the partner's ability to empathize as an emotional response to the feelings of another person in the form of sympathy and empathy /38, 122, 241/.

Forms of address relate to the ability of a partner to adhere to certain norms of communication, to show empathic listening, to maintain a conversation, to reciprocate frankness. The ability to listen and share the feelings of another person A.I. Tashcheva calls the main characteristics of the recipient, which help to dispose the subject to a story about his own personality /225/. By showing his participation, the partner helps the communicator to reduce internal tension.

The conditions of self-disclosure include the frequency of communication with a particular person. Too frequent communication, according to N. Pokrovsky, loses its natural limitation and depth /182/. Rare communication also has its negative sides, it makes it difficult to quickly move to an intimate-personal level.

For self-disclosure, interpersonal relationships and their characteristics play a significant role: the degree of acquaintance, likes and dislikes, the degree of emotional closeness, as well as the experience of relationships with a particular person. A.L. Zhuravlev and others note the significance of the experience of pre-experimental communication in a situation of experimental study of the types of attitudes of the individual to the environment. The presence of such experience determines high assessments of oneself in terms of trusting and dependent types of attitudes, and its absence leads to an increase in distrustful and a decrease in dependent types of attitudes of a person towards others /81/. According to the theory of I. Altman and D. Taylor, as interpersonal relations between people develop, their self-disclosure becomes deeper, its breadth and duration increase. Based on the works of V.A. Labunskaya and T.A. Shkurko, which provides a complete description of the criteria for classifying the types of relationships in communication /127, 225/, it can be assumed that self-disclosure is most influenced by following characteristics interpersonal relationships: their sign (valence), the degree of closeness or distance between partners, the degree of their acquaintance and the position of the recipient.

Exploring the characteristics of self-disclosure and their relationships

In accordance with the first empirical task, which consists in studying the characteristics of the subject's self-disclosure and their relationship, we analyzed all categories of self-disclosure using the method of S. Jurard for 186 students of different specialties who participated in the study. To analyze the obtained data, methods of statistical processing of socio-psychological information (STATGRAPHICS package) were used, in particular, a sample mean was calculated for each of the four groups of subjects. As a result, it was found that the average value of the total volume of self-disclosure according to the method of S. Jurard is 298.6 points. At the same time, the range of individual differences is quite wide: the minimum value is 106, and the maximum value is 584 points, which indicates a high variability of the variable under study, as consequence of its determination by many factors. The categories of personal information were ranked according to the degree of their representation in the self-disclosure of the subjects (see Appendix Yu).

As it turned out, the total amount of self-disclosure of doctors, psychologists, journalists and philologists is almost the same (314.7; 300.6; 304.3; 284.7 points, respectively). Consequently, students of the studied specialties as a whole do not differ among themselves in terms of the amount of self-disclosure.

As can be seen from the figure, the first block includes those categories in which the respondents disclosed the most (the total average group score of self-disclosure in the category is above 44). The highest level here is occupied by interests and hobbies. It is for this category that the indicators of self-disclosure were the highest in all the studied groups. Further, almost at the same level, with a minimal difference in points, there is information about studies, as well as opinions and attitudes. Depending on the sample, these categories occupy the second and third positions. High self-disclosure on the topic "study" is due to the fact that learning activities are leading for students.

Note that the categories included in the first block apply to a very wide circle of human communication. The information related to them does not affect the intimate aspects of the personality, the risk of the subject during its transmission is minimal. On these topics, you can freely talk to absolutely all people: familiar and unfamiliar, sympathetic and not sympathetic. This allows students to open up on them to the maximum extent. The second block consists of the categories "relationships", "personality" and "troubles" as the volume of self-disclosure decreases. According to them, the individual is no longer revealed to everyone, but mainly to close people whom he trusts. The data given in table. 6 (see Appendix 11) indicate that doctors talk more about their troubles than philologists (for other groups, the difference turned out to be statistically insignificant). recipients of self-disclosure for a patient who talks about his ailments. Having the experience of receiving negative information, they are no longer afraid to give this kind of information about their personality. For philologists, however, such an experience is not typical.

"Finance" and "body" turned out to be the most "closed" topics related to the third block. The average self-disclosure score for these categories is below 36.7. Probably, cultural determinants played a big role here for the Russian sample. For a long time in Soviet society, the desire for material well-being was strictly suppressed; a ban was imposed on the discussion of sexual relations. All this contributed to the fact that the above topics firmly occupied the last positions in the hierarchy of self-disclosure topics.

The three blocks of self-disclosure categories that we have experimentally singled out and the ranking of categories obtained by ranking depending on the amount of transmitted information coincided with the results of S. Jurard and P. Lazakov, who stated that "high self-disclosure" includes tastes and interests, opinions and work, and " low self-disclosure" - topics of finance, body and personality /297/. This coincidence is all the more remarkable because the research took place in different countries and at different times (Jurard conducted his research in the 60s). Therefore, it can be assumed that the ratio of the volume of self-disclosure by category is in a sense traditional for the two cultures, although the self-disclosure of Americans is determined by completely different social norms than the self-disclosure of Russians (for example, in American society it is not customary to discuss the size of one's income, all questions on this topic considered indecent).

Selected N.V. Amyaga 3 subcategories of self-disclosure topics: topics of superficial communication, topics of an average or indefinite level of intimacy, deeply intimate topics, and their place in the level of self-disclosure of high school students 111 are also fully correlated with the three blocks of self-disclosure categories we received. The same can be said about the classification of topics of confidential communication, carried out by T.P. Skripkina. According to her, high-level topics of intimacy include information related to plans, dreams, life goals and ways to achieve them, the peculiarities of family relationships; topics of the average level of intimacy - information relating to relations with colleagues in studies, with the opposite sex, assessment of one's personality; topics of low intimacy affect leisure activities and current learning activities/215/. In addition, data similar to ours were obtained in self-disclosure studies conducted in parallel by N.V. Shemyakina on workers social sphere at the age of 25-45 /260/ and M.V. Borodina - on students of psychological and law faculties /35/.

To check the validity of the applied version of the Jurard questionnaire, a correlation analysis was carried out (according to Spearman), as a result of which a whole network of connections was obtained within the methodology of S. Jurard (see Appendix 12). Thus, self-disclosure indicators for all categories were associated both with each other and with the total volume of self-disclosure at a high level of significance. This indicates the internal consistency of test items.

The relationship between differentiation and selectivity of self-disclosure was also significant (r=0.76, P 0.01) (see Appendix 13). In other words, if an individual differentiates the topics of self-disclosure well, then he clearly separates his communication partners, taking into account their characteristics, and vice versa.

We were unable to find any relationship between the indicators of selectivity and differentiation with indicators of the volume of self-disclosure in most categories. The only exception was the category of "troubles". Based on the data obtained, with low differentiation of self-disclosure, students talk a lot about their failures, easily reveal the negative aspects of their personality (r = 0.23, Р 0.05). Thus, the low differentiation of self-disclosure is manifested in the desire to communicate one's problems to the first person you meet.

Currently, the phenomena of adaptation are turning into one of the central problems for the theory and practice of psychological science. Now there is hardly any doubt that such global issues as ensuring the viability of a person despite the growing pathogenic impact of the environment, predicting the pace of his mental development, preserving his spiritual and moral character, forming new relations in society, can be solved without ideas about the mechanisms of adaptation. An analysis of theoretical and methodological approaches in various scientific fields made it possible to single out several generalized semantic aspects of adaptation: adaptation as life activity in changing conditions of existence, adaptation as an adaptation to changed environmental conditions, adaptation as the achievement of sustainability in a changed environment. The logic of the development of society and psychological science puts psychologists in front of the need to study adaptation as a search by a person for the ways of self-disclosure that she needs. In this case, the emphasis is on the desire of the individual to acquire individual strategy interaction with the renewing surrounding reality in accordance with one's own worldview, with one's own vision of what is happening and oneself in it.

Such an approach is based on considering the personality as a subject of adaptation, which seems important for theoretical generalizations and solving practical problems. In this case, adaptation is understood as a mechanism of self-disclosure of the personality, which ensures the transformation of external changes into internal conditions for creating new ways of interacting with reality and with oneself, necessary to maintain one's own integrity.

The psychological portrait of an adapting personality is determined by: the peculiarities of understanding the changing environment, self-reflection in a new picture of the environment, self-regulation of the adaptive potential necessary to transform interaction with environment and yourself; transformation of ways of interaction with the environment; a pronounced ego-orientation as a possible consequence of an increased need for self-disclosure, a change in the image of the "I". One of the sources of self-disclosure lies in the awareness of changes in the environment. The emergence of an individual image of what is happening means that the environment ceases to be indifferent to a person. A person from automatically responding to external influences turns into a reflective one, first of all, those transformations that affect his needs. A new picture of the environment leads to selectivity of behavior and attitude towards oneself. In the initial period of interaction of a person with unusual conditions of existence, a special role is played by the reflection of changes in one's own "I". Awareness of oneself indicates the features of the internal processing of changes that have occurred outside. This process is determined by the meaning of one's own existence, its significance for the individual. There is a kind of transformation of the image of the environment into the image of "I". The ego-orientation of an adapting personality reflects the priority of the value of one's own life. The role of ego-orientation especially increases when it is necessary to adapt to the changing image of the "I".

Largely due to ego-orientation, it is possible to master a new role, achieve self-worth and the necessary interaction with the environment and with oneself. One of the functions of the ego as the center of the conscious system is to create standards for determining the integrity and individuality of the human person. It can be considered that in the new conditions of existence, one's own Self becomes for the individual the main reference point for creating the necessary programs for adaptive behavior and the formation of a personally important system of relations with the world. Reflection activates the mechanisms of personal self-regulation. The main meaning of personal regulation is to provide internal conditions for the transformation of existing relationships with the environment. To this end, the personality converges the existing adaptive potential and all the possibilities contained in the environment. As much as possible, the personality is included in the regulation of the adaptive potential in the conditions of a real vital threat. Along with this, the personality directs its activity to overcome dependence on environmental influences. The greatest autonomy of personal properties is observed when self-preservation and self-disclosure depend mainly on the psychophysical organization, bodily potential. The transformation of the psychic adaptive potential into more complex and perfect forms of psychological integration, demonstrating the redistribution of accents of human interaction with the surrounding reality and with oneself, is based on the activity of personal regulation.

In this, the function of creation inherent in adaptation is realized. The result of adaptive transformations is reduced to a change in the image of the "I" and the type of adapting personality, to the formation of a personal adaptation syndrome. Does supplementing traditional views on adaptation with subject-oriented ones allow us to outline the main goal of adaptation in a different way? ensuring the integrity of the individual. This means that an adapting personality is able to maintain the internal unity it needs and regulate its own activity, which allows it to act as an internal determinant of interaction with a dynamic surrounding reality. The integrity of the individual early stages interaction with unusual living conditions is provided by the activation of the processes of integration of mental, psychophysiological manifestations and mechanisms of personal regulation. An essential role in ensuring the integrity of the personality belongs to unconscious mental processes. They are included in the structure of the personal adaptation syndrome, regardless of objective signs and subjective descriptions of the conditions of existence. This allows us to consider the unconscious as a mandatory component of the adaptive response of the individual. At the same time, an assumption arises that requires special experimental verification that the coincidence of the content of unconscious emotions and unconscious aspirations and conscious ideas means the adaptive maturity of the individual.

The substantive unity of the experiences deep and fixed by the social experience of the individual creates the harmony of her attitudes towards what is happening and her role in it. This increases the regulatory activity of the individual and makes a person more adapted. The discrepancy between the content of unconscious and conscious emotions and motives pushes the individual to search for both socially desirable and not sanctioned by society ways to compensate for the adaptation conflict. Consideration of personality as a subject of adaptation, on the one hand, complements the scientific vision of adaptation, on the other? opens up new facets of personality psychology. To understand the psychology of modern man, it is important that his personality structure combines variable and invariant psychological properties. Plasticity of psychological personality traits? an important adaptive acquisition necessary to maintain viability in a dynamic outside world. What are the greatest opportunities for modifying the psychological properties of a person, namely: for changing the range of their manifestations and structure? provide a global social transformation in our society. Short-term interaction with changed living conditions can lead to structural variations in personality traits. At the same time, personal properties can demonstrate the inertia of inclusion in adaptation processes. Thus, obviously, an additional reserve of adaptation is created, the activation of which is possible when operating systems are unable to ensure the integrity of the individual.

Invariance is the potential for preserving self-identity. Invariance allows the individual to retain his own adaptive experience. Thus, adaptation in the conditions of reforming the social system does not affect emotional security and sensitivity to the new, as well as the properties that ensure self-organization. For a long time, the properties that emphasize the importance of the individual's own "I" remain stable. Consistency is also preserved in the manifestation of the properties of self-control, risk appetite, ways of implementing communication skills and emotional stability. The integration of personality traits, reflecting the ability to self-organize, focus on group support, emotional maturity and life optimism, is steadily preserved. Despite the long history of studying adaptation phenomena, an independent scientific discipline that systematizes knowledge about the psychological patterns of human adaptation in a changing environment and reveals the scope of their practical application is currently just beginning to take shape. Apparently, this is due to the protracted primary taxonomic stage of the analysis of the available results. At the same time, the accumulated information contains a fairly large potential for theoretical research and empirical development.

AND SELF-DISCLOSURE IN COMMUNICATION

The role of self-disclosure in interpersonal communication.

How well do I know myself? How well do other people know me? Is it easy to understand me? Am I comfortable telling others how I react to events, what I feel, what I think? These are important questions. In order for me to like you, to start a relationship with you, to become your friend, I need to know who you are. In order for me to know you, you must know yourself. In order for you to freely open up to me, you must accept and appreciate yourself.

“Alienation from one’s real Self not only leads to the cessation of personality development, but also turns relationships with people into a farce ... A person who is alienated from his Self, who does not fully and truthfully reveal himself, can never love another person and cannot be loved by them. For true love, knowledge of the object of love is necessary ... How can I love a person whom I do not know? How can another person love me if he doesn't know me? ... For a truly close relationship between two people, a complete honest and free disclosure of one's I to each other is necessary ”(S. Jourard, 1964).

Without self-disclosure, it is impossible to establish a close personal relationship with another person. Relationships between people develop as they become more open and reveal themselves to each other. If you cannot reveal yourself, you cannot be close to other people and others cannot appreciate your qualities. To get close to another person, you must know him, and he must know you. Two people who share how they feel about the situation and each other grow closer to each other. Two people who keep silent about it remain strangers. To love you, to act together, you must know who I am.

Self-disclosure can be defined as revealing how you feel about the present situation, as well as communicating about the past related to how you feel about the situation in the present.. The attitude of people to events is not so much thoughts as feelings. To be open to another means to share with another person how you feel about the words they said, or the deed, or about the events that just happened. Revealing Yourself Doesn't Mean Revealing Your Intimate Sides past life. Making a very intimate confession about your past can create a temporary sense of intimacy, but relationships are built on the basis of reports of your actions in the present or in relation to what the other person says or does. A person begins to know and understand you not because he receives information about your past life, but when he understands how you act in the present. Information about a past life is only useful insofar as it helps to understand why you are acting the way you are now.

The concept of self-disclosure is rooted in the psychology of humanistic orientation and is associated with the names of such well-known representatives as K. Rogers. A. Maslow and S. Jurard. Most full analysis study of self-disclosure in foreign psychology was made by N.V. Amyaga (1992). As a result of the study of self-disclosure, the main areas of research were identified (N.V. Amyaga, 1992, p. 39):

1) definition of the concept;

2) functions, consequences of self-disclosure for the communicator, recipient, interpersonal relationships;

3) internal and external factors of self-disclosure;

4) self-disclosure and context, the development of interpersonal relationships;

5) self-disclosure in groups different type;

6) experimental study of self-disclosure: parameters, research methods.

Personal self-disclosure is a necessary condition for the existence of a person in society, in the system of social ties. As P. Kelvin notes, unwillingness to reveal oneself can lead to isolation from society. With the help of self-disclosure, a person fits into a certain social context, correlates his ideas with those of others in order to further correct them. Self-disclosure of personality, according to E. Hoffman (1984), is also important for others, because information about the individual helps them determine the situation, makes it possible to understand in advance what the partner will expect from them and what they can expect from him. Self-disclosure acts as a separate socio-psychological phenomenon that requires serious and thorough study.

Recently, various domestic and foreign psychologists have made attempts to overcome descriptiveness and superficiality in the definition of the concept of "self-disclosure". Let us give some of the existing definitions. D. Myers believes that the essence of self-disclosure is "the disclosure of innermost experiences and thoughts to another person." N.V. Amyaga (1989) comprehends the phenomenon of self-disclosure from the point of view of the concept of dialogical communication, as "the manifestation of dialogue, as its condition, prerequisite, and dialogue, in turn, as a condition and as an internal characteristic of self-disclosure." T.P. Skripkina (1999) understands self-disclosure as "the fact of voluntary disclosure of confidential information about one's own inner world to another person." E.V. Zinchenko (1999) believes that self-disclosure should be considered as one of the varieties of communication. In addition, the author points out that it is possible to see three sides in it, distinguished by G.M. Andreeva (1997) in communication: communicative (exchange of information), interactive (exchange of actions) and perceptual (perception of each other by partners). Based on this idea, it turns out that in his definition of self-disclosure S. Jurard affects only the communicative side of the process, which is undoubtedly very important, but not the only one.

Since self-disclosure is necessarily based on the partners' perception of each other, the reflection of various properties and qualities, it also includes a social-perceptual component. So, in order to open up to another person, it is necessary to create his image and perceive the partner as someone to whom you can open up. In turn, the recipient of self-disclosure must perceive the subject as someone who can be listened to. In the process of self-disclosure, the subject constantly reads the recipient's response, and the resulting image serves as a regulator of further self-disclosure, contributes to its folding or expansion, changing direction, etc. Any "failures" in the perception of each other by partners have a significant impact on the characteristics of self-disclosure: depth, breadth, etc.

An important point is that in the course of self-disclosure, not only the exchange of information takes place, but also the impact of one person on another, which ultimately can change the value-semantic positions and behavior of the latter. In parallel, there is a change in the personality of the subject of self-disclosure (according to N.V. Amyaga). The interaction between the participants in the process of self-disclosure can end with the adoption of a joint decision (finding a way out of the problem situation that has arisen, etc.). We can talk about the success or productivity of interaction as a consequence of self-disclosure. If people feel that the way they present themselves is received positively by others, then the interaction is considered successful. When people feel that others see them as they see themselves, then the interaction is seen as affirmative. The importance of the interactive side of self-disclosure is indicated by the data of V.A. Goryanina (1996), according to which one of the reasons for the unproductive style of interaction - the persistent predisposition of the individual to unproductive contact in interpersonal interaction, blocking the achievement of optimal results of joint activities - is distrust in people and in the world as a whole, which manifests itself, among other things, in detachment from surrounding and in an effort to hide from them their true feelings and experiences. Consequently, isolation in the space of one's Self, alienation from others is characteristic of a person prone to an unproductive style of interaction. On the contrary, openness leads a person to the productive realization of his potential, to building favorable interpersonal relationships. Thus, any communication of intimate-personal information about oneself has a powerful effect on the recipient, since it forces him to react in a certain way to this information: to provide psychological support; social, psychological, legal, medical or other kind of assistance: respond frankly in response, etc.

So, the phenomenology of self-disclosure includes all three components of communication, but in separate works more attention is paid to only one of them. In addition, it should be noted that self-disclosure may take various forms depending on the degree of mediation, the degree of compulsion, the nature of interpersonal relationships, etc.

There are various classifications of types of communication, on the basis of which it is possible to classify the types of self-disclosure. So, the division of communication into direct (immediate) and mediated (mediated) has already become classic (A.A. Bodalev, 1995). Mediated communication is one that is implemented on the basis of various (most often technical) devices - “mediators”. The role of such communication in modern society increased significantly. With the advent of writing, and then radio, television, computer, a person began to use all these devices to transmit information, including personal information, to other people, and the scale of such communication is constantly increasing due to the improvement of the technical means that provide them. Therefore, based on the criterion of the type of contact between the subject of self-disclosure and the recipient, one can single out direct and indirect self-disclosure. Direct self-disclosure occurs in the course of real, "live" contact with the interlocutor. It is this form of self-disclosure that is traditionally studied in foreign psychology.

A separate allocation of mediated self-disclosure is due to the fact that technical means gradually penetrate into all spheres of a person's life from his production activities to the deepest aspects of his personal life. Mass media begin to play a big role in building the image of the social world (G.M. Andreeva). But indirect self-disclosure is carried out not only through various technical devices, but also through letters, announcements, autobiographical prose, etc. With some reservations, diary entries can also be attributed to mediated self-disclosure. J. Rainwater suggests considering a diary as a "place" in which a person can always work through an existing problem, realize his feelings and moods, comprehend experience, and come to an optimal solution. Normally, diary entries are not intended to be read by others, although this situation may be changed under certain conditions.

In the case of indirect contact, a real person can act as a recipient, who is currently far from the subject; imaginary partner; the subject of self-disclosure itself; or some group of potential respondents. Thus, mediated self-disclosure in the text of newspaper ads is focused on finding a potential partner with whom the subject is not yet familiar.

I.P. Shkuratova

Self-Disclosure Motivation in Interpersonal Communication

The study of self-disclosure of personality in communication in the last two decades in foreign psychology has resulted in an independent scientific direction, located on the border between social psychology and personality psychology. The database of the American Psychological Association for five years from 1989 to 1995 includes 255 monographs and 583 articles that deal with various aspects of this multifaceted problem. Psychology, like perhaps no other science, has the amazing property of allowing multiple reinterpretations; old empirical material through the prism of newly created concepts. At the same time, the new concept does not at all cancel the old interpretations, but only makes it possible to look inside the magic crystal, which is the personality, through its new facet. This is what happened with the concept of self-disclosure. Without him long time managed without singling it out into a separate subject area, however, the shift in emphasis from the Perceiving Man to the Translating Man, associated with the spirit of the present time, showed the need to seriously and in detail deal with this problem.

Its great theoretical and practical significance and interconnectedness with a number of other problems of interpersonal interaction immediately became apparent. An analysis of the abstracts of articles contained in the American Psychological Association Database shows which aspects of self-disclosure research are priorities for psychologists in different countries. In terms of the number of works, the problem of self-disclosure of persons who have deviations from the physical or social norm, in other words, people who have to hide their peculiarity from others, comes to the fore in the number of works. These include AIDS patients, lesbians, homosexuals, drug addicts, victims of sexual violence. Especially many works are devoted to the study of the relationship of people with non-traditional sexual orientation. In second place is the study of adolescents, for whom self-disclosure also presents some difficulty due to their age characteristics. The third place is occupied by publications that discuss the influence of self-disclosure of the patient and the psychotherapist on the course of the psychotherapeutic process. Moreover, if the patient's self-disclosure is perceived by everyone as a prerequisite for success, then there is no unanimity of opinion among representatives of different areas of psychotherapy regarding the psychotherapist's self-disclosure. The remaining works are devoted to the analysis of various external and intrapersonal factors that contribute to or hinder self-disclosure, and cross-cultural differences. Along with self-disclosure, self-presentation is being actively studied, which is understood as the desire to make a certain impression on others.

An analysis of the direction of these works shows that the authors are more focused on the study of the phenomenology of self-disclosure than on the study of its motivational and semantic side. At the same time, it becomes clear that further progress in understanding the nature of this phenomenon becomes impossible without referring to the motivation of self-disclosure, because depending on the goals and motives of interaction, the content of self-disclosure can completely change in one and the same person. Unfortunately, in most publications, the authors do not so much study the process of self-disclosure itself, but rather the relationship between the result of the answer to the Jurard questionnaire and other personality test indicators or characteristics of the situation in which the measurement took place. Such an approach is not only insufficient, but even incorrect, since researchers operate with a certain final total indicator of self-disclosure, to which such disparate intimacy topics as "my favorite dishes" and "my fears and anxieties" contribute equally.

The distinction between self-disclosure and self-presentation offered in foreign literature also does not seem to me to reflect their main difference. D. Myers defines self-presentation as "an act of self-expression and behavior aimed at creating a favorable impression or an impression corresponding to someone's ideals". In fact, self-presentation can be aimed at the exact opposite goal, namely the creation of an unfavorable impression. Suffice it to recall the behavior of a professional beggar, talentedly depicted by L. Akhedzhakova in the film "Promised Heaven". She, depending on the social orientation of a passerby, could present herself either as a victim of Stalinist repressions, or as a victim of perestroika. Sometimes self-disclosure is opposed to self-presentation according to the criterion of truthfulness and depth of the created image. N.V. Amyaga believes that "superficial, shallow self-disclosure is more often associated with pronounced self-presentation and can be described rather as self-presentation". Shallow self-disclosure can be observed in a situation of ordinary exchange of opinions between speakers, in which no other goals are pursued at all. It seems to me that the main difference between these two forms of self-expression lies in the goals that a person pursues in one or another case. If a person needs psychological help, then it is more likely that he will be as sincere as possible. Although even in such situations, a person tries to talk about himself in such a way that his image has more positive features. If the goal of communication is to win the sympathy of the interlocutor or receive material or other business assistance from him, the subject resorts to presenting himself in the form in which, from his point of view, he can achieve the best result. At the same time, it is not at all necessary that he gives false information about himself, it is enough to simply emphasize the presence of the corresponding qualities. Although here we were talking about goals, it must be borne in mind that very often they are poorly or not at all realized by the subject of self-disclosure, therefore it is more correct to talk about motives. A person may or may not be aware of the motives that prompt him to tell about himself to one or another person. This work was devoted to the study of the question of the extent to which people are able to realize these motives, whether there is a connection between the motives he calls and the content of self-disclosure with different interlocutors.

The purpose of the described study was to study the motivation of self-disclosure in interpersonal communication, which was specified in the following tasks: 1) to study the relationship between self-disclosure and the motivation to communicate with people from the immediate environment; 2) to analyze the motives of self-disclosure in communication with different people; 3) to explore the relationship between motivation and the content of self-disclosure in communication.

To solve the first problem, under my leadership, A.G. Bovina, pilot study, which was attended by 19 women and 9 men aged 21 to 67 who worked at the factory. They were asked to fill out forms for the Interpersonal Motivation Diagnostic Test (IMO) and the Self-Disclosure Diagnostic Test. In the MMO test, developed by me on the basis of J. Kelly's repertoire test, the subject was first asked to make a list of people who form his real environment in the family, at work and in the friendly sphere, and then assess how different communication motives are characteristic of his interaction with each from the said persons. Based on the data obtained, it was possible to determine the degree of expression of individual categories of motives, as well as the magnitude of the motivation for communication of the subject with each of the persons indicated by him. The test for diagnosing self-disclosure was developed by me on the basis of the self-disclosure test by S. Jurard. During its implementation, the subject had to evaluate how detailed and frankly he tells about different aspects of his personality to the same people who were noted by him in the previous method. The test made it possible to determine the amount of self-disclosure of each subject in certain categories of topics (interests, opinions, work, personality, relationships with other people, body and finances), as well as in communication with each specific acquaintance.

To identify the relationship between the degree of expression of individual groups of communication motives and self-disclosure on these topics, a correlation analysis of the data obtained was carried out. He showed the absence of a connection between the total indicators of self-disclosure and communication motivation and the presence of a fairly large number of links between particular indicators. This indicates that it is impossible to talk about greater self-disclosure of those people who love communication and strive for it. Self-disclosure occupies only a certain part in the structure of communication, and therefore it is quite possible to combine a great need for communication with a limited desire for stories about oneself. Each person has his own proportion between listening and narration, as well as between narration about himself and on abstract topics.

An analysis of the correlations between the motives of communication and the topics of self-disclosure showed the following picture. It turned out that the more egocentric motives (receiving any kind of help and support) were represented in the structure of communication motivation, the greater the share of self-disclosure about work (r = 0.48 P

I was also interested in the question of whether there is a correspondence between the motivation for communication with a particular person and the amount of self-disclosure in his address. For this, the following data processing procedure was carried out. Each subject was identified three people from his list of acquaintances, in relation to whom he has the maximum motivation for communication, as well as three people with whom he is extremely frank. A similar procedure was carried out with respect to those people with whom the subject had minimal communication motivation and minimal self-disclosure. Then, for each subject, the degree of agreement between these data series was calculated. It turned out that the maximum values ​​for the motivation of communication and self-disclosure coincided in 62 cases out of 84 possible matches, and the minimum in 55 cases out of 84 possible. At the same time, 65 matches were observed in 13 subjects, 43 matches in 11 people and 12 matches in only 4 people. This gives grounds to believe that there is a tendency towards greater self-disclosure with those persons with whom communication is polymotivated.

My further research led me to the conclusion that a large amount of self-disclosure and the intensity of communication motivation are equally evidence of close, emotionally deep relationships, as they manifest themselves in communication with the most loved and valued people (mother, loved one, best friend or another). However, this does not mean at all that the very fact of being in the role of a mother guarantees such an attitude towards her on the part of children, everything here is purely individualized.

The next series of experiments, conducted under my leadership by E.P. Panchenko, was aimed at clarifying the very motives of self-disclosure in the process of interpersonal communication. It was attended by 30 2nd year students of the Faculty of Philology and 25 2nd year students of the Faculty of Psychology. Two methods have been developed to diagnose self-disclosure motivation. One of them was a questionnaire aimed at clarifying the goals and motives of self-disclosure. The second technique was a modification of the MMO test described above. During its implementation, the subject was asked to first write a list of people who make up his immediate environment in the family, at the university and in the circle of friends, and then assess the extent to which different motives prompt him to tell these people about himself. To facilitate the work of the subject, the test form was accompanied by a large list of possible motives for self-disclosure, from which he could choose those that he considered the most characteristic for himself. When processing the data, the magnitude of self-disclosure motivation was analyzed both for individual motives and in relation to different partners. In addition, a group of students of philology filled out a modified version of the S. Jurard questionnaire for diagnosing the volume and direction of their self-disclosure, mentioned above.

The next question of the questionnaire was aimed at finding out whether the motives for self-disclosure of the subjects change depending on what kind of information they provide about themselves, and what they expect from the interlocutor. The question was formulated as follows: "What do you expect from the interlocutor when you tell him: a) about your health; b) about your finances; c) about your personal problems; d) about your successes; e) about your failures; f) about their interests and beliefs?" An analysis of the answers showed that female students from two samples of subjects assess the behavior of their recipients differently. When talking about their health, 60% of philologists expect sympathy, the majority of psychologists (56%) said that they do not talk about it, and only 24% expect sympathy. In addition, philologists are waiting for advice (26%) or do not expect anything (13%), and psychologists for understanding (20%).

Reporting their financial problems, 53.3% of philologists do not expect anything from the interlocutor, 30% help, 16.6% sympathy, 52% of psychologists expect help, 24% advice, 12% sympathy and another 12% expect nothing.

When talking about their personal problems, the majority hopes for understanding from the interlocutor (66.6% of philologists and 52% of psychologists), advice (20% of philologists and 12% of psychologists). In addition, psychologists count on help (36%), and philologists on support (13.3%). Most of the subjects hope for joy in response to stories about their successes (72% of psychologists and 53.3% of philologists) or for praise (28% of psychologists and 26.7% of philologists). Philologists think that they can cause envy in the interlocutor (20%). When reporting their failures, philologists rely more on sympathy (60%), and psychologists on getting advice (68%). Other philologists are waiting for support, and psychologists for participation. When talking about their interests and beliefs, everyone first of all counts on the interest of the listener (64% each), then on response information (26% of philologists and 20% of psychologists) and, finally, on support (10% of philologists and 16% of psychologists).

The analysis of the data obtained indicates that the content of the reported information corresponds to the expected reaction of the recipient in the view of the subjects. This can serve as indirect evidence that, depending on the goals of influencing a partner, they can consciously change the content of the information provided about themselves and possibly its form (depth, detail of presentation, emotional presentation, etc.). Characteristically, in most cases, girls talk about themselves in order to get help in its various forms: emotional, moral, informational or business. This is undoubtedly due to their age. According to the data obtained by me in another study, young people are characterized by the predominance of egocentric communication motivation, which consists in the desire to receive various help from others, while for middle-aged people, the predominance of an alterocentric orientation, manifested in the desire to provide assistance, or their balance .

The data obtained using a modified version of the MMO test made it possible to identify differences in the motivation of self-disclosure of the subjects in the process of their communication with different people. When performing this test, the subject had to name the main motive that prompts him to tell about himself to each person from the list of his acquaintances. This made it possible to analyze on the whole group, consisting of 30 students of the Faculty of Philology, what motives are most important for them in self-disclosure with different recipients.

Table 1

The main motives of self-disclosure in communication with different people

motives/interlocutors mother father girlfriend friend psychologist companion teacher

speak out, take one's soul away 7 6 1 1

avoid feelings of loneliness 1 1 2

I am worried about my problem 3 1 1 5

get the help you need 3 5 2 1 5 5

get advice 3 4 4 10 4

like this person 13 3 2

present yourself in a certain light 1 1 4

justify in the eyes of this person 5

brag about success 1 1

establish yourself in the eyes of this person 1 1 1 1

get confirmation of the correctness of the act 5 3 6

find out the reaction to my information 1 2 1 1

in response to questions 3 3 2 8 4

so accepted 4 2 2 1

fill a gap in a conversation 2 2

flirt 3 6

entertain the interlocutor 1 3 4 1

provide moral support 3 1 1

call for frankness 1 2 4

respond to frankness 1 1

find out the relationship 3 2

As can be seen from Table 1, there are clear differences in girls' self-disclosure motivations with different people. Communication with the mother is emotionally rich in nature, in addition, they are expected to evaluate their behavior, advice and help from her. It is characteristic that communication with the closest friend is close in structure to communication with the mother, but at the same time they tell the girlfriend about themselves also in order to give advice. Girls tell their father about themselves much less willingly: four noted that they tell their father about themselves because "it's customary", and three "in response to questions". This testifies to the lack of trust between them and their fathers; relations. Basically, they expect help or advice from him. Help is most expected from adults: parents, a psychologist and a teacher. The girls, although they had no experience of communicating with a real psychologist-consultant, correctly understand his functions and expect from him, in response to their frankness, the solution of their problems, help and advice. Naturally, almost half of the girls noted the desire to please him as the main motive for self-disclosure in communication with their boyfriend. In communication with him, as well as with a random fellow traveler, whom the girls imagined as a potential friend, noting his age close to their own, self-disclosure rather acts as a function of self-presentation. They are ready to flirt with them, entertain them, although some of the respondents show restraint with a stranger. So, eight of them are ready to talk about themselves only in response to questions. Attention is drawn to the fact that with close people there is almost no motive to control the impression of oneself, it is most typical for communication with those whose sympathy still needs to be won: a familiar young man, a fellow traveler, a teacher. The relationship with the teacher is very special. They expect help, advice, confirmation of the correctness of their act from him, they strive to make a pleasant impression on him, they only want to justify themselves before him, but there are no attempts at emotional self-disclosure. Moreover, some respondents want to maintain a psychological distance between the teacher and themselves and talk about themselves only when necessary: ​​in response to questions or to fill a pause.

These data indicate that girls adequately perceive the motives of their self-disclosure with different people, and probably know how to vary the information that is reported about themselves in life depending on the goals and the target to which this information is addressed. Another conclusion is that it is possible to empirically study these variations and, on their basis, create a typology. different types self-disclosure: confidential, help-seeking, boastful, entertaining, etc. In my opinion, these features of self-disclosure are much more related to the individuality of the subject than the total indicators of its volume.

The next task of this work was to analyze the relationships between the motives and themes of self-disclosure. The pilot study using the questionnaire, the results of which were presented above, gave reason to assume that there are general group patterns between the presentation of certain topics and the motives that encourage it. This hypothesis was tested on a sample of 30 students of philology. The degree of representation of different topics in the structure of self-disclosure was determined using the Jurard test, and the motivation for self-disclosure was determined by a modified version of the MMO test described above. The results of the correlation analysis between the data of the two methods revealed the presence of significant relationships.

First of all, attention is drawn to the fact of very high correlation coefficients between the total indicator of self-disclosure motivation and all categories of self-disclosure. This means that self-disclosure on any topic is polymotivated. The only group of motives that gave connections with all the topics of self-disclosure is the group of emotional motives. Whole previous analysis motives of self-disclosure of girls showed that for them these motives are leading. Among the topics of self-disclosure, the largest number of connections with motives was found for the category "relationships with other people". This category is central in the structure of self-disclosure, almost all other categories are associated with it, which indicates its great specific gravity in girls' stories about themselves. Based on the data obtained, it can be argued that the main motivators of self-disclosure in relationships with other people are emotional motives (r=0.56 P

Summarizing the obtained empirical data, we can draw the following conclusions.

First, there is an undoubted connection between the motivation of communication and the amount of self-disclosure in the course of it. The data indicate that the greatest amount of self-disclosure and the maximum desire for communication is observed in relation to the most emotionally close people (mother, closest friends, husband or wife). Therefore, the measurement of these indicators in family members or in a friendly couple can serve as a reliable tool for determining the degree of trust in their relationship.

Secondly, the motivation for self-disclosure of the same person can vary significantly depending on who the message is addressed to. In relation to close people, the goal is to receive emotional, moral support and a variety of assistance. In relation to outside significant persons (a friend of the opposite sex, a teacher), the motives for creating a favorable impression of oneself come to the fore. The subjects (non-psychologists) demonstrated a fairly high level of reflection on these differences, which indicates that they are quite well aware of the goals of their self-disclosure and, obviously, in everyday life they modify the same information about themselves, telling it to different people.

Thirdly, the motivation for self-disclosure is related to the theme of the story about oneself. For girls, the central group of self-disclosure motives was the group of emotional motives, which gave the largest number of connections with different topics. This does not mean that such an orientation of self-disclosure is typical for everyone. For example, for the sample of workers discussed above, most of the topics of self-disclosure turned out to be related to the cognitive orientation. This problem needs more detailed analysis, but already now it can be assumed that a person, depending on the motivation for communication in general and the motivation for self-disclosure, in particular, selects the topic of self-disclosure.

The discussed results indicate that in solving the problem of individual differences in self-disclosure, it is necessary to shift the emphasis from its formal characteristics, such as volume and breadth, to motivational and semantic ones, which are associated with deeper personal layers. Only on the basis of the leading motives of self-disclosure can one come to the styles of self-disclosure and carry out their classification. At the same time, it is not necessary to simplify the picture, expecting that a person will behave in the same way in communication with different people. On the contrary, any person, even a child, is capable of restructuring his self-disclosure depending on who it is addressed to. Obviously, in the manner of self-disclosure of each person there are stable characteristics arising from his value orientations and personal properties, and characteristics that change depending on the situation and the partner. Moreover, it can be assumed that the more developed a personality is, the more variable the picture of its self-disclosure with different people will be in the presence of sufficient integrity of behavior (freedom within boundaries). The inconsistency of information about the relationship between the volume of self-disclosure and mental health, in my opinion, is due to the wrong choice of indicator. After all, the total volume of self-disclosure does not say anything about its qualitative side, which creates the basis for mental health. Mental health is not associated with the magnitude of self-disclosure, but with its adequacy, which consists in a person's awareness of his own needs for self-disclosure, and then in the choice of those people and those situations that are able to satisfy these needs in the process of self-disclosure. On the threshold of the coming century, psychology must abandon simple solutions century of the present. If the psychology of the past posed dichotomous questions (personal behavior depends on the situation or on internal properties), then the psychology of the future must come to a description of a changing personality in a changing environment.

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