Characteristic features of the theory and practice of management. Development of the theory and practice of management

The second edition of the widely known book by Russian authors offers the reader popularly presented basic ideas, key concepts, methods and models of modern management. The authors focus on the problems of developing a company's strategy, effective management technologies, methods of influencing personnel, the role of innovation and investment in management. In addition to theoretical analysis, much attention is paid to the practical experience of leading foreign firms. The book is addressed to students, graduate students and teachers of economic and other universities specializing in the field of management, in addition, it will be of interest to managers of different levels, as well as to all those interested in this topic.

Chapter 1. Management: basic concepts

1.1. Fundamental Ideas

What is management?

Management is a set of methods, principles, means and forms of management of economic organizations in order to increase the efficiency of their work.

The generalization of the main provisions of management as a science began only in the middle of the 20th century. In management, ideas taken from management theory, psychology, sociology, economics, etc. have been developed.

The evolution of views on management was as follows.

Classical (traditional) school of government: F.W. Taylor (18561915), H. Emerson (18531931), G. Gant (18611919), Gilbreth spouses (1920s), G. Ford (18631947), H. Hathaway , S. Thompson, A. Fayol (18411925), L. Gyulik and L. Urvik (1930s), J. Mooney, A. Riley, E. Brech, L. Allen, M. Weber, Haynes, Massey , M. Follet, R. Shelton.
Representatives of this school studied issues of labor efficiency, mainly at the lower levels of management: productivity, efficiency, labor rationing, work with personnel (recruitment, selection, retraining), motivation of workers, and the resolution of social problems.
The main subject of studies of the classical school was work.
With the development of scientific and technological progress, the mechanization and automation of production, the efficiency of management, it became necessary to develop a general theory of administration.
Then a separate group of researchers emerged from the classical school, who focused their attention on the general functions and principles of management, the functions of a manager. An administrative-functional school of management appeared, in which the main emphasis was on the study of the administrative activities of managers at all levels of enterprise management.
Administrative-functional school of management: A. Fayol, J. Mooney, A. S. Reilly, L. Gyulik and L. Urvik, R. Davies, G. Kunts, S. ODonnell, M. Weber, C. Bernard.
It considered the basic principles of management, management functions, studied the process approach to management, building organizations, centralization and decentralization of power, labor motivation and staff stability, division of labor, power and responsibility, fairness of payment, control of work.
Studying the issues of labor efficiency, building productive organizations, some researchers felt that the reserves for this should be sought not only in management methodologies and technologies, but also in the person himself. Gradually, a school of human relations began to take shape. At the end of the 50s. some representatives of the school of human relations emerged as a school of behavioral sciences (behavioral school), which studies not the methods of establishing interpersonal relationships, but the person himself.
School of Human Relations: G. Munsterberg (18631916), M. Follett (18681933), E. Mayo (18801949), C. Bernard (18871961), F. Roethlisberger, G. Simon, A. Rice, D. McGregor, A. Maslow, K. Argyris, R. Likert, D. Domma, J. Ballantyne, R. Churchman, R. Akkof, E. Arnoff and others.
This school studied the issues of social responsibility of business to its employees, issues of individual psychology, human needs, psychology and motivation of employees, conflicts, correspondence between formal and informal organizations, statuses and roles of team members, leadership in a team, the role of social, gender, age, ethnic and other factors affecting labor efficiency.
According to researchers belonging to the human relations school, a happy worker is an efficient and productive worker. How to make him happy?
Gradually it became clear that the effectiveness of an individual's work depends not only on his psychology, but also on the most complex group (social) relationships within the organization. The formation of the school of social systems began.
School of social systems.
It arose under the influence of the concepts of structural-functional analysis developed by T. Parsons, R. Merton, as well as the general theory of systems by L. Bertalanffy and A. Rappoport. Its representatives: C. Bernard (1887-1961), F. Selznik, G. Simon (b. 1916), D. March, A. Etzioni (late 1960s), M. Heira, industrial sociologists: Trist, Rice considered social organization as a complex organizational system with a number of components:
- individual;
- the formal structure of the organization;
- informal organization structure;
- statuses and roles of members of the organization;
- external environment (government agencies, suppliers, buyers, partners, competitors, etc.);
- technical means of labor.
The interaction of the listed components, non-additivity, communication links and equilibrium states of the entire organizational system were studied. The issues of labor motivation (balance between contribution and satisfaction), leadership, strategic planning, decision-making, as well as issues of human-machine interaction (industrial sociology) were also touched upon.
At the same time, pragmatically oriented practice leaders of large firms and companies, government agencies believed that management should be built on the generalization of past work experience using the methods of economic sciences, psychology, sociology, statistics, and mathematics. An empirical direction emerged, which was often called managerialism. Empiricists declared the need to create a unified theory of managerial activity.
Empirical School of Management.
It included R. Davis, L. Eppley, E. Dale, A. Sloan, A. Chandler, G. Symonds, W. Newman, E. Petersen, E. Plowman, A. Cowell, A. Swenson, T. Levitt , W. Bennis, P. Drucker and others.
From the beginning of the 1950s with the development of mathematics and economic and mathematical methods, the theory of systems and management, cybernetics, computer technology, a new school of management began to gradually form.
New School of Management.
Its founders are L. Bertalanffy, D. Forrester, A. Rappoport, K. Boulding, S. Beer, E. Arnof, R. Akkof, Roberts, Fawcett, D. Ekman, R. Kalman, L. Zadeh, M. Mesarovich , J. Tipbergen, L. Klein, A. Goldberger, V. Leontiev, Fogal, Lewis and others.
Representatives new school were engaged in time planning of work, planning rational schedules (receipts and expenditures of resources, stocks, progress of technological processes), optimization and distribution of organization resources, use of game theory when making decisions under conditions of uncertainty and risks (which later grew into an independent area of mathematics, decision theory ), forecasting, queuing theory for calculating the probability of queues and minimizing them, as well as systems analysis, econometrics (building various macroeconomic and cost-output models with mathematical tools), operations research as a separate scientific discipline suitable for solving problems of decision planning, optimization and forecasting, statistical methods of analysis and evaluation of various situations.
The system analysis in management has gained the greatest importance. The purpose of system analysis is to evaluate the effectiveness of the organization's activities with a minimum of spent resources. The main stages of system analysis:
- formulation of the goal (if necessary, a tree of goals is built with the significance coefficients of each of them);
- development of alternative options for achieving goals;
- evaluation of alternative solutions (in digital form);
- evaluation of efficiency and costs for each alternative;
- choosing the best option that provides minimum costs with maximum efficiency.

All the doctrines of control can be divided into two large groups: one-dimensional and synthetic.

One-dimensional teachings are explored separately: work (tasks), a person, administration, etc.

Synthetic studies explore management as a multifaceted, complex and changing phenomenon associated with the internal and external environment of the organization.

Examples of synthetic teachings:

the school of social systems (the relationship of the individual with groups and the organization as a whole is studied);
a systematic approach (the company and its divisions are studied as systems with their own inputs, goals and objectives, outputs, i.e. performance results and feedbacks, for example, between the efforts of personnel and their remuneration or results and management decisions, etc.);
situational theories (their essence is that the methods of influence should change depending on the situation, and therefore management is an art);
Theory Z by William Ouchi (Based on the Japanese experience, Ouchi derived a formula for the success of the functioning of an organization: long-term hiring, group decision-making, individual responsibility, personnel evaluation and moderate promotion, control using clear formalized methods, non-specialized career, comprehensive care for employees). Theory Z was developed as an alternative to McGregor's X and Y concepts. In accordance with them, there are two types of management that depend on the leader's views on subordinates: type X and type Y. The type X leader believes that a person is lazy, selfish, tries do not take responsibility. Therefore, an authoritarian leadership style is adopted. Type Y leader believes that a person in favorable conditions seeks to create, take responsibility, and exercise self-control. Therefore, a liberal-democratic leadership style is applied. McGregor believed that type Y management is more efficient.

The words management and management are often confused with each other. What is the difference between them?

What is management?

Management is the process of optimal distribution and movement of resources in an economic organization with a predetermined goal, according to a predetermined plan and with continuous monitoring of work results.

The concept of optimal involves the implementation of three main stages:

selection of optimality criteria (for example, cost, price, least or most important);
comparison of criteria among themselves;
choice of the final option.

For example, when you go to a store, you often suffer: what to buy? Your decision may be influenced by the price of the product, its quality, style or design, taste, smell, size, etc. These are the criteria by which you make the final decision. The leader must be able to identify the most important criteria, prioritize them and quickly make rational decisions. Unfortunately, this experience often only comes with age.

Scientific approaches in management

There are four main scientific approaches to the management of firms:

traditional;
process;
systemic;
situational.

In the traditional approach, work, personnel, administration, motivation, the company's management system, etc. are considered separately.

With the process approach, management is considered as a process, for example: setting goals, planning, organizing work, motivation, control. The development of a process or algorithm for managing an organization is brought to the fore.

With a systematic approach, an organization is considered as a system with its own input (goals, objectives), output (results of work on indicators), feedbacks (between staff and management, external suppliers and managers, external distributors and managers, buyers and internal distributors, etc. .), external influences (tax legislation, economic factors, competitors, etc.). The main goals of the systems approach:

exclusion of the inconsistency of the goals of the organization's divisions;
ensuring the unidirectionality of the actions of units;
search for critical success factors of the organization;
ensuring the sustainability factors of the organization;
ensuring the adaptability (adjustability) of the organization's work;
ensuring the compatibility of the organization's subsystems (for example, the personnel subsystem with the management subsystem, the sales subsystem with the customer subsystem, etc.);
ensuring effective feedback within the organization (for example, between consumers and manufacturers, distributors and manufacturers, personnel and management, etc.).

With a situational approach, management methods can change depending on the situation. The results of the organization's activities are analyzed in various practical situations. A search is being made for the most significant situational factors that affect the performance of economic activity in dynamics, and the consequences are predicted (expected demand, costs, financial receipts, etc.). Based on the data obtained, the future activities of the organization are planned.

Often, situational analysis is carried out by the methods of expert assessments, brainstorming (attacks) (with arguments for and against), using case studies (from the English case) of business situations that help to accumulate practical experience and make the right management decisions.

What resources are at our disposal?

The main types of resources in management:

material resources (land, buildings, premises, equipment, office equipment, transport, communications, etc.);
financial resources (bank accounts, cash, securities, loans, real estate in value terms, etc.);
labor or human resources (personnel);
informational resources;
temporary resources.

The head-manager must be aware that he has at his disposal five levers of influence corresponding to the allocated types of resources.

What is an organization?

Management involves the management of not only formal, but also informal organizations that are formed and act spontaneously on the basis of personal connections, contacts, friendships, family and other types of relationships.

An experienced manager must be able to adjust the formal structure of the organization (determined by its management system, distributed powers and power) to the informal one, and vice versa. Here psychologists and sociologists can help him. Even new disciplines have appeared: Organization Theory, Organizational Behavior, etc.

So what is an organization?

Organization (from the late Latin organizo I report a slender appearance, I arrange) the unification of individuals into a single whole for joint action. This word is often used to refer to:

a set of processes and actions leading to the formation and improvement of relationships between parts of the whole;
internal ordering of the autonomous parts of the whole.

The concept of organization is applicable to biological, social and technical objects. Examples of business organizations:

firms, companies, corporations, conglomerates;
their subdivisions (workshops, departments, sections, etc.);
groups of performers of any work;
control systems, etc.

Legally separate economic organizations must have their own mission. Management and staff must believe in it.

The mission reveals the purpose and meaning of the organization's existence. It should be formulated very clearly, clearly and reflected in the founding documents.

Any economic organization in the global sense can be called a system.

Business organization as a large open system

A system is an association of parts into a single whole, the properties of which may differ from the properties of its constituent parts.

Systems are open and closed.

An open system is a system fed from outside by some kind of energy or resources. Any economic organization operating in the market can be called a large open system, as it interacts with suppliers, buyers (clients), competitors, the state, etc.

A closed system has an internal source of energy (resources). Examples of closed systems: a clock with an internal energy source, a car, an airplane, automatic production with its own energy source, a submarine, etc.

Systems, especially if they are large, have at least ten specific properties.

Non-additivity. Large economic systems, as a rule, are non-additive, the effect of the activity of such systems is not constant over time and is not always equal to the algebraic sum of the effects (for example, profits) of the parts included in it (if the formal structure of the parts is the same). This is due to the different quality of the staff (its qualifications, experience, maturity, etc.), the psychology of workers, values, motivation, leadership style, organizational culture, group interaction, etc. For example, books often give the formula for the success of Japanese management: What one American does, one Japanese will never do, but what ten Japanese do, ten Americans will never do. This example clearly shows the manifestation of non-additivity in the work of groups and organizations.
Emergence is the discrepancy between the purpose of the organization and the goals of its constituent parts. For example, a company's goal is to maximize profits at a minimum cost. The goal of workers is the opposite - to receive the maximum payment for their work with minimal cost its energy. It can be seen that the goals do not match. The ability to smooth out such contradictions and find compromises is the art of a leader.
Synergy (from the Greek synerqeia cooperation, commonwealth) unidirectional action, integration of efforts in a system that leads to an increase (multiplication) of the final result. If everyone clearly imagines the ultimate goal, is inspired by it, then a new self-organization arises, with other properties and characteristics.
Multiplicativity multiplication of system efficiency due to any control actions or spontaneous processes (for example, through the introduction of new technologies, know-how, changes in the motivation system, leadership style, etc.).
The stability of the system. Sustainability can be violated with unreasonable complication or simplification of the organizational structure. The accumulated experience of management shows that in order to increase the stability of work, it is more often necessary to eliminate unnecessary links or control subsystems and add new ones much less frequently. There is a rule: any system is prone to self-complication. This often leads to the need for decentralization of management and power, restructuring of management, etc. The process is dialectical: the complication of the organization, then its modification or reorganization, then simplification and again a tendency to become more complex. That's the way nature is.
Adaptability is the ability to adapt to new external working conditions, self-regulate and restore stability. Adaptive organizations often have an organic structure, i.e. each subject of management (department, work group, employee) can interact with everyone. Such organizations are more capable of rapid restructuring, and in them the qualifications of the staff and their ability to independently solve complex problems come to the fore.
Centralization is the property of a system to be managed from a single center. All parts of the organization in this case are guided by commands from the center and enjoy predetermined rights.
Isolation is the desire for autonomy, isolation of certain systems. Isolation manifests itself in solving issues of distribution of resources and powers of parts of a large organization, conglomerate associations, centralization and decentralization of management. Contradictions of goals and interests, the distribution of profits between parts of the whole contribute to isolation.
Compatibility is the property of mutual adaptability and mutual adaptability of parts of a system. For example, at the level of the state as a large system, there are problems of compatibility of the national economy with the economies of regions and industries.
The feedback property is a fundamental property of large systems. The essence of feedback is that information (resources, energy) from the output of the system (or subsystems included in it) enters the input of this system (or subsystems included in it).

For a production system, the principle of feedback works as follows. The output information, for example, indicators of economic activity, under the influence of various circumstances, constantly vary over time, then they are analyzed and compared with the set goals (system input).

Based on the results of the comparison, management decisions are made that correct, if necessary, the operation of the system. As a result, the adaptability of the system (its adaptation to new working conditions) and the efficiency (flexibility) of its control are ensured. Feedback can also play a negative role. For example, in the personnel subsystem, the amount of remuneration affects the labor efforts expended and the results obtained. If the remuneration for work is incommensurable with the efforts, then the system will begin to self-destruct, the motivation in the labor process will begin to fall, the results of labor (production volume, its quality) will also decrease.

Business environments

Any organization (firm, industrial production, company, etc.) has its own internal environment and external environment in which it exists.

The internal environment is determined by:

the structure of the organization (for example, supply, production, finance, personnel department, sales of products);
the quality of the staff of the organization;
control system;
labor or technological processes;
the level of division of labor, communications in the organization.

The external environment of the organization includes: suppliers, competitors, buyers (clients), business partners, the state and its structures, the culture of the people, trade unions, the state of the economy and scientific and technical progress, political factors, the international environment.

The first five factors relate to the external environment of direct action. The last five to the external environment of indirect action.

What is the interaction in the organization?

Formal interaction within the organization is carried out through:

powers (enshrined in job descriptions or other documents)
delegation (transfer) of responsibility (also fixed in job descriptions or other documents);
delegation (transfer) of power (you can have power, but not have authority, and vice versa);
approvals and consultations, advice;
the principle of unity of command;
apparatus;
special committees or divisions;
special integration mechanisms that increase synergy and reduce the emergence of the organization.

Let us give key definitions.

The powers of the right and the possibility of using power.

The power to influence the behavior of others.

Power can be exercised on the basis of:

orders, orders (legitimate authority);
remuneration;
coercion and fear;
beliefs and rationale for actions;
personal involvement and example;
assistance from shadow groups (administration, apparatus, groups of leaders, etc.);
faith (reasonable or blind);
traditions;
charisma (personal external and internal qualities of a person that help him effectively influence others).

An experienced manager always feels where the center or vector of power is, that is, the one or those on whom the decision depends. Often, the center or vector of power is not the formal leader, but his deputy, staff members, even secretaries or assistant consultants who have authority and influence on the formal leader.

A group or organization works sustainably if there is a balance of power.

The basic law of the balance of power: the level of influence of a powerful person A on person B is equal to the degree of dependence of person B on person A.

An increase in the power of a leader is possible only with an increase in the dependence of subordinates on this leader. Conversely, increasing the power of subordinates over the leader is possible only with an increase in the dependence of the leader on his subordinates. If the power of the leader over subordinates is greater than the power of subordinates over the leader, then the balance of power is disturbed and problems begin to arise and conflicts begin to ripen.

Group conflict is reduced if there is effective group interaction. It, according to the Homans model, is interconnected with the perceived group emotions and the activities of individual individuals. Each of the components mutually determines the others.

Communications in the organization

Communication in an organization can be descending from the highest level of management to the lowest (orders, instructions, instructions, etc.) and ascending from the lowest to the highest (reports about breakdowns, problems, etc.). Communications are also possible at the same level of the management hierarchy (horizontal communications).

It is important that at each stage the information is not distorted, but remains clear and reliable.

The communication of information within an organization can be hampered by hindrances: gossip, personal relationships between people, distorted self-esteem of team members, the power of authority or someone's leadership. The latter often puts pressure on performers and does not allow them to open up.

Psychologists recommend that large companies do not put people with a very high level of intelligence and leadership in the highest and middle management positions. This has come to be understood even in American firms where individualism is cultivated. In Japanese corporations, for example, strong middle peasants are valued. To stand out, even if a person feels that he is higher than the other, is not accepted there. The communality of the subconscious and consciousness of the Japanese lies in their culture, traditions and is cultivated starting from school.

What is a competitive advantage?

The competitive advantage of the firm, ceteris paribus in the organization arises:

when the organization develops know-how in the field of technology, organization of production and management, labor motivation, new products, etc.;
in competent and efficient work with suppliers, customers (buyers), distributors and government agencies;
when introducing an integrated system in labor relations (CSLR) of an organization that provides a positive synergy of its work.

Let us give an example of the use of a complex system in labor relations. It is argued that the so-called Japanese miracle is based on the CSTO - the rapid entry of Japan into the most highly developed countries in the world.

The complex system of labor relations (or, as the Japanese call it, the five great systems) is built in such a way that each of its components complements and conditions the others. Thus, additional synergy is given to groups, a multiplier effect is created in the system, and, as a result, performance indicators (labor productivity, product cost, product quality, modification speed, working capital turnover, etc.) improve.

The system of lifetime employment (STS) in its classical form is also used in large enterprises, and in public services in Japan. Although there is no legal registration of lifelong employment and it is only a gentleman's agreement between the employer and the employee, the latter is materially interested in working at this enterprise and linking his fate with it for life. This interest is provided by two other systems: the wage system (SOT) and the personnel rotation system (TFR).

The remuneration system is built on the following principles:

the longer a person works in an organization, the higher his earnings become (depending on the length of service and age of the employee);
the higher the qualification, the higher the salary;
the higher the real labor contribution, the higher the earnings;
the dependence of salaries (for employees) on the performance of the entire enterprise;
low wage differentiation (1:41:5);
periodic (23 times a year) payment of bonuses (bonuses), the amount of which depends on the qualifications of the employee and the financial condition of the enterprise;
bonuses at the end of the year are paid depending on the results of the enterprise and the amount of individual earnings;
a lump sum upon retirement has a fairly tangible amount;
the employee has a real opportunity to take loans from his enterprise;
real social assistance (medical insurance, insurance in case of death, other circumstances).

American managers often criticize the Japanese for the fact that, regardless of the level of intelligence and personal qualities, an employee is forced to gradually move from a lower rung to a higher one with a corresponding increase in wages. This mechanism annoys the Americans. They consider such a system unfair, since, in their opinion, the young, but smarter, should have a chance to get big money right away. The Japanese, on the other hand, protect their system as follows: the longer a person works and the more he has managed to change jobs (the personnel rotation system is aimed precisely at this), the wider his horizons, experience and qualifications. Therefore, the wages of such an employee should increase. Everything is logical.

The essence of the personnel rotation system (TFR) is that an employee moves horizontally and vertically every 23 years. Thus, he accumulates experience, new knowledge appears, earnings increase. The rotation is carried out, as a rule, without the consent of the employee. Graduates of prestigious universities are not immediately placed in leadership positions, but start with low-skilled jobs. Vocational education is delivered directly through the Workplace Training System (ETS).

The essence of the reputation system (SR) is that a written description is drawn up for each employee, in which all his advantages and disadvantages are noted. It helps the employee to objectively evaluate himself, stimulates advanced training, retraining (through the SPRM system) and, ultimately, higher earnings and faster movement up the career ladder.

The value of the five Japanese systems lies in the fact that they are not a set individual elements, but an inseparable complex of interconnected and interdependent subsystems working for common goals: ensuring high labor productivity, the country's economic growth and a high standard of living for the population. The community consciousness of the Japanese, their traditions, culture, morality and ethics help to launch such a system at full capacity.

It is very important for a company to know the extent to which this or that factor affects the final performance indicators (profit, profitability, labor productivity, etc.). To do this, monitoring and analysis of indicators over time are carried out, appropriate organizational conclusions are drawn and managerial decisions are made. It is very important to identify the most significant critical success factor for an organization in the marketplace. It is he who often gives impetus to work and creates a multiplier effect, rapid growth in profits, profitability, capital for development, etc. but also others who are forced to adapt to this product, to establish the release of similar or compatible products in order to keep up with competitors.

Very often, critical success factors are identified through surveys of specialists and managers. They are invited to identify from 3 to 6 most significant, vital important factors for the future success of your organization.

Examples of critical success factors for organizations:

automotive industry: fuel economy, car design, efficient trade organization, low cost;
production of consumer goods: the effectiveness of advertising, the choice of an effective system of trade (small wholesale, large wholesale, retail or through intermediary distributors, etc.).

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Introduction

The theoretical foundations for building organizations as part of the general science of management were developed at the intersection of different branches of knowledge - management, sociology, anthropology, psychology, jurisprudence, etc.

Changes in the objective conditions for the functioning of organizations, characteristic of the 20th century, have brought a lot of new things to the development of views, scientific concepts and management practices. The growth of large organizations, the separation of management from ownership, the development of exact sciences and human sciences served as the basis for the development of a scientific approach to organizations, principles and methods of managing them. This gave rise to many scientific ideas and schools that study the patterns of building organizations, their main features and incentives for functioning - formal and informal organizations, human relations, social systems, division of functions and responsibilities, acceptance management decisions, mathematical apparatus of control processes.

To decide which organization scheme is optimal for given specific conditions, it is necessary to take into account the various approaches offered by theories of organization formation. Theories that claim that there is only one rational way to build an organization are called universal theories. Theories according to which the optimal structure may differ from situation to situation, depending on factors such as changing technology and the external environment, are called situational.

Existing theories also differ in the way they are developed. For example, some of them are the result of logical deduction, while others are formulated on the basis of research developments. Some theories are mainly looking for basic characteristics to describe organizations, while others are trying to describe the "better" organization. In the economic literature, there are also theories that focus on the tasks of the divisions of the firm, considered as the most important basis for analysis, and theories that try to analyze the organization as a whole. These differences in approach and subject matter make it difficult to develop a general theory of organizational formation.

The last decades, marked by rapid changes in technology, the growing complexity and knowledge intensity of production, its globalization and the spread of modern information technologies, have given a new powerful impetus to theoretical generalizations and applied scientific research in management. The above confirms the relevance of the topic "Evolution of views on the essence and nature of the organization" of this course work.

The purpose of this course work is to analyze and describe the development of theories and views on the essence and nature of the organization. In accordance with this goal, the following tasks are defined in the work:

Consider classical organization theory

Learn scientific management

Make an analysis of organization theory

Describe the bureaucratic theory of organization

Describe the theory of administrative behavior

Consider Glacier's theory

study the theory of organizational potential

make an analysis of the theory of institutions and institutional changes

describe current trends in theoretical developments

This course work consists of 9 chapters. Which characterize the main stages in the development of the theory of organization.

1. The evolution of organization theory

management management administrative

1.1 Formation and development of organization theory

The theory of organization as an independent discipline emerged from sociology (the doctrine of society; the science that studies social structures, their elements, social processes), which, as an independent science, developed in the 19th century. and stood out from philosophy (the science of the most general patterns of development of nature and society, focused on developing views on the relationship of man with the world around him) Latfullin G.R. The main trends and concepts of management at the turn of the century // Problems of theory and practice of management. - 2010. - No. 1. S-74. .

The boundaries of organization theory are determined by a combination of established features, which is explained by two opposite approaches to describing the development of an organization:

1) "closed - open system" - characterizes the organization as a system and reflects the development of managerial thought from a mechanistic idea of an organization (closed) to a holistic (open). Since the beginning of the XX century. until the 1960s, organization problems were solved in terms of closed systems. Issues of the business environment, competition, sales, etc. determining the external environment for the enterprise were not considered. With the development of the market, it became obvious that the internal dynamics of organizations is formed under the influence of external events, therefore, the theory of organization begins to consider the organization as an open system in the unity of all elements that perceive changes in the external environment and react to them. Short E.M. The concept of Russian management. -- M.: Deca, 2009. S-98.

2) "rational - social thinking" characterizes the nature of the organization in the direction from the rational to the social. “Rational thinking” means that there is a clear perspective of the organization, and its goals are clearly and unambiguously defined, for example, a machine-building enterprise aims to maximize profit from increasing production efficiency, then top management can only choose the means that lead to achievement, i.e. . only rational decisions are made. "Social thinking" Akimova T. A. Organization theory: Proc. allowance for universities. - M.: UNITI_DANA, 2007. S-201. means ambiguity in setting goals and making specific decisions to improve production efficiency.

From the point of view of the noted approaches, four stages are distinguished:

1. 1900-1930 -- the era of "closed systems and a rational individual" Milner B. Z. Theory of organization: Textbook. - M.: INFRA_M, 2005. S-183. . The main representatives of the organization theory of that time: Max Weber, Henri Fayol (Table 1), Frederick Taylor (Fig. 1). The approach they developed is focused on organizational and technical improvements in the organization by increasing the efficiency of internal functions.

2. 1930-1960 - the period of "closed systems and the social individual". A group of theorists - Anthony Mayo, Douglas McGregor, Chester Bernard developed the issues of closed systems management, based on internal human relations and non-economic motivation of workers.

3. 1960-1975 - the period of "open systems and rational individual". The main contribution was made by Alfred Chandler, Paul Lawrence, Jay Lorsch, taking a step forward by considering the organization as part of a higher level system, and a step back, returning to mechanistic ideas about a person.

4. 1975 - present - "the period of open systems and the social individual": there is a return to social thinking, but within the framework of open systems. The leader of modern organization theory is James March.

Rice. 1. Functional group leadership according to Taylor

Table 1. Grouping Fayol's principles

1.2 Fundamental ideas of organization theory

The ideas and concepts that form the classical organization theory have been developed by many scientists and practitioners. Famous authors who have made a major contribution to the development of the main sections of classical theory include: scientific management - F. W. Taylor, F. Gilbreth, L. Gilbreth, G. L. Gantt, X. Munsterberg, X. Emerson, G. L Towne, M. L. Cook; organization theory proper - X. Fayol, J. D. Lisney, A. S. Reilly, L. Urwick; bureaucratic theory - M. Weber. Akimova T. A. Theory organization: Proc. allowance for universities. - M.: UNITI_DANA, 2007. S-201.

One of the first attempts to analyze the organizational aspects of management was made by F. W. Taylor and his followers. The ideas and methods that flow from Taylor's research are known as scientific management, which focuses on the work done at the bottom of the organization. Research on the actual theory of organization began to be carried out on a systematic basis in the period 1890-1940. along with deepening developments in scientific management. The focus of these studies is the entire organization, and not the work performed by individual links or members of the organization. The principles of organization, criteria for the formation of organizational structures, the creation of a system of divisions, the definition of manageability and the delegation of rights and responsibilities were formulated. A significant contribution to the development of classical theory was the development of bureaucratic theory, the foundations of which are contained in the writings of Max Weber. Let us consider in more detail each key section of the classical theory of organization.

F. Taylor (1911) in his fundamental work "Principles of Scientific Management" defined the principles that formed the basis of the classical theory of organization:

division of labor in the broad sense of the word - both the worker and the manager are responsible for any one function;

functional management - replacing the power of one master with functional administration, each of which gives instructions to the worker within its competence;

measurement of labor - the measurement of working time using "time units";

tasks-prescriptions - exemplary instructions for performing specific tasks;

· Incentive programs - premium for performance above the norm;

motivation - self-interest is the driving force;

the role of individual abilities - distinctions are made between the abilities of workers (work for remuneration in the present) and managers (for the sake of remuneration in the future),

A. Fayol's principles of organization for the effective operation of the organization:

clear goals;

One center of subordination (unity of control) and one center of control (unity of control);

The use of the "bridge" Parakhina V. N., Fedorenko T. M. Theory of organization: Proc. allowance. - M.: KNORUS, 2006. S-66. Fayol in the chain of command;

Equality of rights and obligations;

Rational division of labor;

Determination of responsibility for the results of work;

Opportunities for taking the initiative. Bureaucracy (rule of civil servants: accuracy, discipline, responsibility) by M. Weber, who developed the principles for building an ideal organization structure:

Definition of tasks and duties of each official on the basis of the division of labor;

The organization is built on the principles of hierarchy - strict subordination;

The activities of the organization are regulated on the basis of instructions and rules that determine the responsibility of everyone;

Management of an organization excludes personal emotions;

Appointments are based on qualifications and merit.

As a result of E. Mayo’s Hawthorne experiment at the Western Electric plant (1924-1927), the “school of human relations” was developed and conclusions were drawn that contradicted the concept of the “rational worker” (the workers felt special attention to themselves as participants experiment, as a result of which labor productivity increased, and not due to improved illumination of workplaces):

The division and rationing of labor does not always lead to increased productivity;

Employees are more responsive to the social influence of their peers rather than to top management controls;

The manager must be a professional in human relations - understand the needs of people, listen to problems, be able to give the right advice, convince them to accept changes.

C. Bernard and goal-oriented organizations: both people and technology are elements of an organization, and focusing on one does not lead to optimization. The essence of his ideas:

Cooperation is an effective way to overcome physiological and biological limitations, cooperation leads to coordinated effective actions;

The success of an organization depends on the satisfaction of its members;

Organizations can be formal and informal (as the protection of individuals against the formal);

Power is an information connection (command) - as the staff decides whether or not to carry out orders.

D. McGregor and theory X - theory U. The book "The Human Side of Entrepreneurship" is devoted to practical management issues: the manager builds his behavior with his subordinates in accordance with his personal ideas about employees and their abilities.

According to Theory X (Direct Application of Power): Every person is naturally unwilling to work, so he avoids the expenditure of labor where possible; therefore people must be forced; people try to avoid responsibility and prefer to be led; most of all, people desire personal peace and need protection.

In accordance with the theory Y (subordination as a partnership): the expenditure of physical and spiritual forces at work is as natural as during rest - a person does not refuse to perform duties; the threat of punishment is not an incentive - people are endowed with the ability to self-control and self-government; the reward for the activity corresponds to the tasks performed; creativity is very common among the population, but due to highly developed technologies, it is hidden.

Fundamental ideas of organization theory:

Thomson - showed the difference between open and closed systems and substantiated the relationship between the external environment and the structure of the organization.

Chandler - found that the requirements of the external environment dictate the need to change the company's strategy and, as a result, the organizational structure changes.

McGregor - the manager builds behavior with subordinates in accordance with his personal ideas about employees, a reward in accordance with the performance of the task.

Bernard - power - information communication, the success of the organization depends on the degree of satisfaction of its members, cooperation leads to coordinated effective actions.

Lawrence and Lorsch - found that stable firms use a functional organization chart and simple control schemes, and leaders in dynamic production have a disciplinary form of organization and a complex management system.

Mayo - the division and rationing of labor does not always lead to productivity. The manager must be professional, people are more responsive to the social influence of peers.

Weber - a strict hierarchy, appointment for qualifications and merit, organization management excludes personal and qualities, emotions and motives.

Fayol - clear goals, one center of command and control, a favorable effect for the manifestation of initiative.

Taylor - the division of labor, the role of individual abilities, the measurement of labor using a unit of time.

March, Cyert, Simon - put forward the concept of "Organization as a wastebasket", which is characteristic of organized anarchy.

A. Chandler in the book "Strategy and Structure" (1962) found that with changes in the strategy of companies, their organizational structure also changes. The need for strategic change is dictated by the demands of the external environment.

J. Thomson in the book "Organizations in Action" (1964) performed a theoretical substantiation of the relationship between the environment and the structure of the organization, showing the difference between closed (focused on internal factors) and open organizations.

In 1967, a study of the influence of the external environment on the organization was conducted by Harvard Business School teachers P. Lawrence and J. Lorsch, the results in the book "Organization and Its Environment": they considered organizational structures and management systems, comparing companies that have the best results in a dynamic business (production of special plastics) with the best companies in a stable, little-changing industry (manufacture of containers). It was found that firms that are characterized by stability use a functional organization chart and simple control systems. On the contrary, leaders in dynamic production have a more decentralized form of organization and complex management systems. The results obtained became the basis for the formation of the concept of the organization as an open system. Ivanova T. Yu., Prikhodko V. I. Theory of organization. - M.: KNORUS, 2006.S-84.

R. Cyert, J. March, G. Simon put forward the concept of "Organization as a wastebasket" Shemetov P. V. Theory of organization: a course of lectures. - M.: INFRA_M; Novosibirsk: Siberian Agreement, 2010.С-213. (model of irrational decision-making); decision makers do not work in conditions of perfect knowledge, hence uncertainty arises, which is the normal state of affairs. This model is applicable to the organizational structure known as organized anarchy, ex: universities, research organizations (technologies are unclear, staff turnover is “come and go”). Alekseev KS. Management theory "Era without regularities" // Corporate management, http.www.cfin.ru

2. Modern theories and concepts of organization

2.1 Development of modern organization theory

Modern organization theory is developing in three directions (Fig. 2):

1) situational approach - there is no single right decision(each type of management situation and tasks to be solved has its own optimal requirements for building an organization, strategy and structure) Minaev E. S., Ageeva N. G., Baydyuk I. F. Fundamentals of management theory: Proc. allowance. - M.: MAI Publishing House, 2009. S-251. ;

2) the ecological approach claims that among the organization the fittest survives, there is a process of natural selection and replacement of the organization (the effectiveness of the organization is determined by the ability to survive) Systems and procedures are a set of strictly documented techniques and methods for solving management problems, such as drawing up plans, conducting study, control, etc.; the role of the environment is absolute, management does not have a special impact on the ability to survive; since resources are limited, some organizations will survive, others will cease to exist (in modern models of organizational ecology, special attention is paid to mechanisms that provide structural changes in organizations) Nelson R., Winter S. Evolutionary theory of economic changes. -- M: Delo Publishing House, 2008. P-189. ;

3) the approach of organizational learning -- the recognition of two types of learning: single loop learning (ordinary staff training that increases the organization's ability to achieve its goals) Smirnov E. A. Theory of organization. - M.: INFRA_M, 2005. S-77. and on a double loop - it is an organized process of self-learning of the organization, which leads to a complete rethinking of the experience of the organization and its learning through this (the flexibility of the organizational structure and reward system, the free exchange of information and experience, a favorable climate for the development and training of personnel). Prigozhin A.I. Methods of development of organizations. - M.: MTsFER, 2009. S-93.

2.2 Modern directions of theoretical developments

At the forefront of theoretical developments, which are of great practical importance, are currently the directions that best reflect the changed conditions for the functioning of organizations. This is also due to the focus on Newest technologies, and the problem of risky investments, and ways of highly productive economic management, and forecasting consumer demand and the behavior of competitors, and the dominance of a strategic approach to management. Among the main directions of theoretical generalizations and developments are the following.

1. Reengineering, or restructuring on a modern information and technological basis for the organization of production and management. This is both a theory and methods of a comprehensive recovery of corporations, a managerial renaissance with coverage and reconstruction of all elements without exception, including systems of human motivations and incentives. Within the framework of this direction, new impulses for increasing efficiency associated with the reduction in the size and optimization of economic entities, and the potential of matrix structures that organically combine linear and program management, and the capabilities of complex target teams, and much more, are considered. The management mechanism of the company is tuned to mastering the market - analyzing its capacity, organizing the sale of goods, ways to stimulate sales, ensuring the competitiveness of goods and services.

2. The concept of internal markets of corporations (or organizational markets). It is characterized by the transfer of the laws and principles of the market economy to the internal activities of corporations. Such revolutionary transformations should cover all their divisions (linear, functional, marketing, and even the apparatus of top management). They become autonomous links that buy and sell goods and services, participating in intra-company and inter-company turnover, and are united by common information networks, financial systems and entrepreneurial culture. Thanks to the development of direct links, organizational markets are drastically reducing many types of costs, the attention of firms is focused on justifying the transition from hierarchical to horizontal management structures, on finding a favorable balance between large and small operations.

According to this concept, subdivisions with broad economic independence within enterprises can quickly make changes in the production of goods, the provision of services, and the entire system of relations with consumers. On this basis and with the use of information technologies, network organizations with distributed autonomous links, the so-called virtual corporations, are formed. A fundamentally new control object appears, requiring very fine tuning. The developed concept of the “democratic corporation” is also related to this direction, which provides for a broad decentralization of management with the development of democratic forms and methods of functioning of departments and managers.

3. Theory of alliances (associative forms of organization and management). Integration processes in management, focused on more efficient use of all types of resources (and primarily scientific, technical, investment and financial), lead to the emergence of various forms of horizontal association of organizations. Flat organizational hierarchies are formed around the main processes with specific goals. These are not only the so-called horizontal corporations, but also strategic alliances, various modifications of conglomerates, consortiums, holdings, business associations and groups.

The new corporate model provides for increased cooperation among competitors, suppliers and customers, and thereby changes the perception of the boundaries of the organization. The professional knowledge and skills of each partner allow you to create a more effective organization in which any function and process is implemented at the global level. Companies come together to take advantage of specific market opportunities that cannot be realized by individual organizations. Particular attention is paid to the problem of comprehensive development of human resources. The attitude to people as a leading resource, to capital, and not as personalized production costs, becomes almost the central postulate of organization theory. Great importance is attached to the problem of trust - to the management system, decisions made, their implementation, and leaders.

2.3 Modern organizational paradigm

The modern organizational paradigm is associated with the integration of areas of human activity, including the convergence of organization theory, systems theory, management theory (cybernetics), synergetics.

Systems theory studies the essence of integrity and consistency, the properties of the whole and its parts, i.e. organization of some stable object, the integrity of which is the system. Antonov VT. Evolution of organizational structures // Management in Russia and abroad. -- 2010. S-87.

Cybernetics studies the problems of formation and transmission of control actions to achieve a given state of a system of arbitrary nature, i.e. reaching a certain level of organization.

Synergetics studies the mechanisms of interaction between the elements of a system in the process of its self-organization and self-development.

Exploring the methods of managing socio-economic systems from cybernetic positions, it can be shown that with a certain development of these methods, external criteria become part of the management system. In this case, the output of the system closes, and it goes into the mode of self-development. At the same time, goals cease to be the main criteria for management. Such a system becomes the object of research in synergetics.

There is an ever deeper and more productive interpenetration of systems theory, organization theory, cybernetics and synergetics as they develop. However, this circumstance creates the problem of identifying these sciences. Analysis of the problem allows us to make an assumption about the productivity of the idea of creating a unified organizational science. Popov E., Khmechkova N. Evolutionary theory of the enterprise. -- Ekaterinburg, 2002. P-143.

In the late 1980s, the idea of representing the organization as a system of business processes (business system) began to spread, and managing its activities as business process management. A business system is a system of relationships within an organization, its external environment, industry, and market.

Within the framework of business processes, the organization is presented as a dynamic system with its own inputs and outputs. External inputs and outputs, providing communication with the external environment, define the boundaries of the main business processes (first-order business processes) Lafta J. K. Theory of organizations: Proc. allowance. - M.: TK Velby; Prospect, 2009. С-34. . At the same time, there must be workflows within the organization that support the core business processes. They also have their own boundaries, their own entrances and exits. The content of the main and auxiliary problems solved by the organization, and the organization itself are transformed into a decision-making system.

Functional management is implemented in the target model and organization, while business process management focuses on a model in which problems are seen not so much as obstacles to achieving goals, but as natural conditions functioning of the organization. The basis of the activities of such an organization is not the achievement of predetermined goals, but the provision of its sustainable development. Identifying problems can then be viewed as a business process.

Managing an organization based on business processes requires a new managerial mindset and even a new generation of managers.

Rice. 3. Model of the firm in conditions of stable ties with several significantly different markets, for example, in different countries (multinational structure)

Conclusion

An organization is a consciously coordinated social entity with defined boundaries that functions to achieve a common goal or goals.

The organization is seen as a process and as a phenomenon. As a process, it is a set of actions leading to the formation and improvement of the relationship between parts of the whole, for example, the creation of a workable team. As a process, it is regulated by labor laws, procedural and criminal codes. As a phenomenon, it is the physical combination of real elements to carry out a program or goal. As a phenomenon in Russia, organizations are regulated by the Civil Code of the Russian Federation.

An organization as an object is an integral complex of interrelated elements (a property of organizational complexity) and a special unity with the external environment. It is characterized by purposefulness of functioning and development. An organization is a self-organizing system at all stages of its life cycle. It is this understanding that underlies the theory of organization.

The analysis carried out in this course work suggests the need to study the evolution of views on the essence and theory of organization in order to select the optimal management scheme. Based on the tasks set, the following conclusions were made:

· From the point of view of the classical theory of organization, an enterprise is a mechanism, the efficiency of which is given in terms of productivity. Employees are considered as cogs of this mechanism.

· An important contribution of the school of scientific management was the systematic use of incentives to motivate workers to increase productivity and output.

· The main contribution of A. Fayol to the theory of management was that he considered management as a universal process consisting of several interrelated functions, such as planning and organization.

· In the bureaucratic theory of organization, there was no personality. Procedures and rules determined all major activities, employees' careers, specific decisions, and management activities.

· Glacier theorists revealed the existence of two systems - production and social. They believed that the leader should equally ensure the functioning of both the executive and representative subsystems.

· The theory of administrative behavior emphasizes the importance of rules and routines in maintaining rational behavior within an organization.

· Among the main directions of modern theoretical generalizations and developments are the following concepts: reengineering, the concept of internal markets of corporations, the theory of alliances, the concept of "environmentally created leadership".

List of used literature

1. Akimova T. A. Theory organization: Proc. allowance for universities. - M.: UNITI_DANA, 2007.

2. Alekseev KS. Management theory "Era without regularities" // Corporate management, http.www.cfin.ru

3. Antonov VT. Evolution of organizational structures // Management in Russia and abroad. -- 2010.

4. Vernigora E.E. Management. -- M.: MNFRA-M, 2009.

5. Vesnin V.R. Management. -- M.: TK Velby. Prospekt Publishing House, 2004.

6. Vykhansky O.S., Naumov A.I. Management: Textbook. 3rd ed. -- M.: Gardarika, 2008.

7. Vlasov L.V., Sementovskaya V.K. Business conversation. -- L., 2008.

8. Ivanova T. Yu., Prikhodko V. I. Theory of organization. - M.: KNORUS, 2006.

9. Short E.M. The concept of Russian management. -- M.: Deca, 2009.

10. Lafta J. K. Theory of organizations: Proc. allowance. - M.: TK Velby; Prospect, 2009.

11. Latfullin G.R. The main trends and concepts of management at the turn of the century // Problems of theory and practice of management. -- 2010. -- No. 1.

12. Minaev E. S., Ageeva N. G., Baydyuk I. F. Fundamentals of management theory: Proc. allowance. - M.: MAI Publishing House, 2009.

13. Milner BZ Theory of organization: Textbook. - M.: INFRA_M, 2005.

14. Nelson R., Winter S. Evolutionary theory of economic changes. -- M: Delo Publishing House, 2008.

15. Parakhina V. N., Fedorenko T. M. Theory of organization: Proc. allowance. - M.: KNORUS, 2006.

16. Prigozhin A.I. Methods for the development of organizations. - M.: MTsFER, 2009.

17. Popov E., Khmechkova N. Evolutionary theory of the enterprise. -- Yekaterinburg, 2002.

18. Pereverzev M.P., Shaidenko N.A., Basovsky L.E. Management: Textbook / Under the general. ed. prof. M.P. Pereverzeva. -- M.: INFRA-M, 2002.

19. Prokushev E.F. Primary level management. -- M.: Dashkov i K°, 2009.

20. Smirnov E. A. Theory of organization. - M.: INFRA_M, 2005.

21. Shemetov P. V. Theory of organization: a course of lectures. - M.: INFRA_M; Novosibirsk: Siberian Agreement, 2010.

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School of Scientific Management (Taylorism)

The founder of the school of scientific management was F. W. Taylor.

Taylor saw the objectives of his book "Principles of Scientific Management" as:

Show on a number of simple examples the country's enormous losses due to the low efficiency of most daily activities;

Convince specialists that in order to increase the effectiveness of actions, it is necessary to improve the methods of managing enterprises, and not look for brilliant leaders;

Prove that the best leadership is a true science based on well-defined laws, principles and rules.

Taylor's teachings centered on four principles for managing the individual labor of workers. :

1) a scientific approach to the implementation of each element of the work;

2) a similar approach to the selection, training and training of the worker;

3) cooperation with workers;

4) division of responsibility for the results of labor between managers and workers.

Taylor argued that the fundamental principles of scientific management applied to all human activities, from the simplest individual actions to the work of huge corporations, requiring the most advanced methods of coordination.

The main goal of scientific management was to replace empirical methods of solving enterprise management problems with scientific methods. F. W. Taylor's attention was focused on performing the simplest operations and psycho-physiological aspects of human activity.

The desire to increase efficiency, which would lead to an increase in profits and, contributed to the search for patterns in a number of phenomena within individual firms. Thus, in some cases, the results of these studies could be generalized for similar operations.

However, Taylor himself emphasized that the guarantee requires an individual approach to the analysis of each situation, the results of individual case studies have a limited scope. In this case, the most important approach is the scientific method.

Taylor drew attention to the close connection between the following provisions :

Science, not rules of thumb;

Harmony, not discord;

Collectivism, not individualism;

Maximum, not limited returns, the development of each individual to achieve maximum productivity and the greatest prosperity. The linear system of the organization was analyzed, and the foundations of the functional organization of management were laid. For the first time, the need for a division of labor directly in the sphere of management and the creation of a special governing body - the administration - was revealed.

Already at the very beginning of the development of scientific management, special methods of analysis were created and groups of practitioners arose on issues of enterprise management. From the original movement for the development of scientific management, a whole new field of technology has grown. A follower of F. Taylor, F. Gilbrett, was the first to use a camera and a movie camera to study the movement of workers. The data obtained in this way made it possible to increase labor efficiency by eliminating unnecessary, unproductive movements.

Classical Administrative School of Management

The founders of the school of scientific management paid attention primarily to production management. The development of approaches to improving the management of the organization as a whole is associated with the emergence of the classical administrative school of management, whose representatives were A. Fayol, L. Urwick, E. Harrington, J. D. Mooney, M. Weber, G. Ford and others.

Emerson Harrington formulated the famous 12 management principles that should ensure growth :

1) clearly defined goals;

2) common sense in the organization;

3) qualified advice;

4) discipline;

5) honest behavior;

6) rapid and systematic verification of results;

7) work procedure;

8) the existence of norms and samples;

9) relevant working conditions;

10) developed methods of action;

11) precise instruction of work;

12) reward system.

Another well-known specialist in the field of management is A. Fayol, who believed that the key points of effective management are a clear system of hierarchy and division of managerial functions. The organization scheme developed by A. Fayol began at the level of top management. He carried out the structuring of activities at the enterprise according to its technical, commercial, financial and administrative aspects, taking into account such areas as reporting and security measures at the enterprise.

All this activity was systematized, which led to the allocation of classic management functions :

Planning;

Organization;

Management;

Coordination;

The control.

A. Fayol's management principles

A. Fayol's management principles, which were supposed to be used in solving managerial problems and performing management functions.

The famous German sociologist Max Weber (1864-1920) made a significant contribution to the study of the principles of organization, developing an "ideal type" of administrative organization.

The ideal bureaucratic model of M. Weber was based on the following provisions :

All activity is divided into elementary operations, which implies strict regulation of the functions, rights and obligations of each link in the system. All links use professional specialists who are responsible for the effective performance of their duties;

The production and technical system is based on the principles of hierarchy - the lower employee is subordinate to the higher one, is responsible for his decisions and actions, as well as the actions of the team subordinate to him;

The activities of the organization are governed by a consistent system of abstract rules, which ensures uniformity in the implementation of functions;

The ideal leader manages his apparatus in the spirit of formalistic impersonality, which contributes to a fair treatment of all persons;

Work in the organization is based on the qualifications of the employee for the position held and involves a promotion system (career growth);

The structure inherent in the "ideal type" system is superior to any other structures.

M. Weber denied informal relations that affect the efficiency of the system as a whole.

Henry Ford (1863-1947) - the founder of the American automobile industry, one of the creators of the "philosophy of practice" of the 20th century. (books "My Life, My Achievements", "Today and Tomorrow") - added his own rules to the Taylor system, taking into account that by nature a person strives for a certain independence, resists coercion.

These factors complicate the process of regulating the activities of personnel. Some rules of G. Ford :

1) when performing work, avoid unnecessary formalities and the usual division of competence;

2) pay each worker well and make sure that he works all 48 hours a week, but no more;

3) Get all machines in the best possible condition, keep them in order, and insist on absolute cleanliness in order to teach people to respect their tools, their environment, and themselves.

The single basis of the classical doctrine of management is the separation of those who lead from those who are led, and special place given to managers.

The management of the enterprise establishes in a relatively rigid form :

What is the division and structuring of labor;

Subordination system;

A way to achieve maximum efficiency of the activities carried out. Persons who do not belong to the leadership are perceived in principle as a source of obstacles, and leaders - only as carriers of certain functions.

School of Human Relations. Behavioral Sciences

The school of scientific management and the classical school appeared when psychology was still in its infancy. The human relations movement was born in response to a failure to fully understand human factor as a key element of organizational effectiveness.

The starting point for a paradigm shift in management research was the Hawthorne experiments of Elton Mayo, which revealed the presence of numerous informal contacts and the great importance of group relations in the enterprise.

Conceptually, the human relations school approach presented satisfaction social needs members of the organization the basic condition .

Well-designed work procedures and good wages did not always lead to higher productivity. The forces that arose in the course of interaction between people often exceeded the efforts of the leader. Sometimes employees reacted much more strongly to peer pressure than to management desires and financial incentives. The motives of people's actions are various needs that can only partially and indirectly be satisfied with the help of money. If management takes great care of its employees, then the level of employee satisfaction should increase, which will also lead to an increase in labor productivity. Representatives of the human relations school recommended the use of human relations management techniques, including consultation with employees and giving them more opportunities to communicate at work.

The development of the behavioral sciences (psychology, sociology) is associated with the study :

Various aspects of social interaction;

Motivation;

Communication processes in the organization;

leadership;

Changes in the content of work and the quality of working life.

Among the representatives of a later period in the development of the behavioral - behavioristic - direction, D. McGregor, F. Herzberg and others stand out.

The Behavioral Science School, which had departed significantly from the Human Relations School, sought to assist the worker more in understanding his own capabilities by applying behavioral science concepts to the building and management of organizations.

Development of management thought in Russia. Intensive developments in the field of management from the point of view of human relations were carried out in the 1920s. in Russia.

Back in 1903. Karel Adametsky (Yekaterinburg) formulated the principles of collective work :

1) the law of increasing production (concentration effect);

2) specialization (division) of complex labor increases productivity (specialization effect);

3) the unification of disparate small units (organs) into one group, reducing by coordination, increases (the law of synergy);

4) the total labor costs are least when the productivity of each of the units included in a single organ corresponds to the productive capacity of other cooperative units (the law of labor harmony).

In the 1920s the most interesting works of European and American authors on the problems of organizing production management were translated into Russian (for example, "The Twelve Principles of Productivity" by G. Emerson). A large number of heads of enterprises and divisions have been trained abroad.

Scientific schools and directions were created in the USSR, more than 100 prominent scientists dealt with management problems. At this time, two main groups of management concepts were clearly identified: organizational, technical and social.

Organizational and technical concepts include a number of concepts, including :

- "organizational management" A.A. Bogdanov, according to which all types of control in nature, technology and society have similar features, which allows us to speak about the existence of a science of general principles organizations, i.e. tectology. A.A. Bogdanov anticipated some provisions of cybernetics;

- "physiological optimum" O.A. Yermansky, i.e. compliance of the characteristics of the employee, his mental and physical qualities with the characteristics of the profession;

- "narrow base" A.K. Gastev. He researched a particular worker, his functionality depending on external influences.

The “concept of labor attitudes” proposed by him included three directions :

1) the theory of labor movements in production processes and organization of the workplace;

2) methodology of rational industrial training;

3) the theory of management processes.

In contrast to Western scientists, in the USSR they also studied the worker, believing him to be a creative subject. Psychophysiological studies were carried out and the issues of fatigue of workers were studied, and representatives of foreign schools started these studies later.

Provisions from the "Leaf of NOT 1", widely known throughout the country, are still relevant today :

Don't be afraid to experiment;

Never get irritated;

Know how to speak, talk, listen, etc.

To social group include concepts :

1) "organizational activity" P.M. Kerzhentsev, who argued that the study of organizational techniques and the determination of the most rational methods of organizational work is of exceptional importance. He identified three general areas of organizational work for any institution:

2) "organizational clarity", i.e. a clear distribution of functions between departments, a strict organizational structure;

3) savings;

4) accounting and control;

- "social labor concept of production management" N.A. Witke, who clearly distinguished between the management of things and people and concentrated on the latter. The main task is to organize people as participants in a single labor cooperative. The essence of administrative work is reduced to the creation of a favorable socio-psychological atmosphere in production teams. ON THE. Witke formulated the requirements for leaders - the bearers of the administrative function. Among them is the ability to select managers correctly, set goals, define responsibilities, coordinate work, etc.;

- "the theory of administrative capacity" F. R. Dunaevsky. Under the administrative capacity of F.R. Dunaevsky understood the ability of managers to manage a certain number of subordinates, regardless of personal qualities. He formulated the problem of the growth of the information barrier in management with the development of production and swelling of the administrative apparatus. Difficulties can be overcome on the basis of careful selection and training of personnel, the introduction of new planning methods, and the expansion of the "boundaries of administrative capacity" with the help of technology.

Quantitative, process, system and situational approaches in management

Mathematics, statistics, engineering sciences have made a significant contribution to control theory.

During World War II, the British had to find a way to make the most effective use of the limited number of combat fighters and air defenses in order to avoid mass destruction during a period of massive bombing. To solve these and other problems, quantitative methods were used, grouped under the general name "operations research".

The quantitative approach to management involves the development of a model of the situation after the formulation of the problem. A model (for example, a roadmap) simplifies reality, reduces the number of variables to be considered. Variables are assigned quantitative values, which allows you to objectively compare and describe each variable and the relationship between them.

The development of this approach is directly related to the development of computer technology, the introduction of information technology, and reengineering.

Huge contribution to the development of economic and mathematical methods and models in the 1960s-1970s. made by Soviet scientists.

The process approach became widespread in the late 1980s. and became a reaction to the previously dominant functional approach. According to this approach, the traditional vertical hierarchical structures that existed in most large organizations were considered the norm. In the vertical model, information flows were aimed at meeting the needs of top managers, i.e. steadily and almost inevitably went from bottom to top. At some rather high level of the organizational chain, the facts were "digested", and then "brought" to the functional units. On the basis of this information, conclusions were drawn, which "went down" in the form of certain decisions, and then prescriptions for actions at lower levels of the hierarchy.

Although the needs of the customers have always been considered the main goal of this circulation of information, this goal has often been lost behind a palisade of internal instructions. Ordinary employees of the organization did not necessarily have to understand the meaning of certain actions; they were expected, first of all, to strictly follow the directives of the management.

The process approach, in which subdivisions covering individual technologically completed processes (business processes) became the main structural elements, made it possible to really take into account the interests of consumers. Creating value for customers was an unconditional criterion for the work of the entire organization and its individual divisions. The approach is based on the idea that proper organization management systems and the movement of information flows can ensure that information should go to those subjects who really need it and who can use it with maximum benefit for the business. Information now moves horizontally, from one process unit to another.

But practice has shown that many new divisions refuse to accept external data, just like the old functional divisions. As it turned out, the change from one organizational structure to another does not lead to an increase in information exchange. In order to achieve effective use of the information necessary to fulfill customer requests, organizations will have to use many different organizational structures and approaches at the same time.

system income. The initial shortcoming of the approaches of various schools to management is that they focused on only one important element, and did not consider the problem of improving the effectiveness of the organization as a resultant, depending on many different factors. The application of systems theory to management allows us to see the organization in the unity of its constituent parts, which are inextricably intertwined with the outside world. This theory helped integrate the contributions of all the schools that dominated at different times.

The system method includes three stages :

1) identification of the whole (system), of which the subject that needs to be explained is a part;

2) an explanation of the behavior or properties of the whole;

3) an explanation of the behavior or properties of an object in terms of its role (roles) or function (functions) in the whole containing it.

In this sequence, synthesis precedes analysis.

There are significant differences between the so-called analytical and synthetic management. If each individual part of the system under consideration is made to operate at maximum efficiency, the system as a whole will not function as efficiently as possible. Awareness of the conflict between parts and the whole is reflected in the recognition of the need to match the properties of the parts of the system. At the same time, efficiency criteria are established for the parts, which lead to contradictions between them. insists that the greatest efficiency of the whole cannot be reduced to the sum of the best efficiency of its individual parts. When management changes even one element or subsystem of the organization, all other subsystems or elements are also affected to some extent by this variable. These changes affect the future performance of the organization as a whole. In addition, the impact of the environment on the organization and the impact of the organization on the external environment must be taken into account.

The methodology of the systematic approach allows the shortest way to bring a system of any complexity to the goal, while spending least amount resources.

This methodology, combined with the ideas of target planning and management, has the following characteristic features. :

Consideration of an object as a whole in interaction with the environment;

Orientation to the final result of the elements of all levels of the structure of the object;

Mandatory solution of all problems and tasks related to the achievement of the ultimate goal, but with a priority solution of key problems;

Allocation of resources according to the importance of problems;

Forecasting the development of an object, correcting the forecast based on feedback;

Complete system life cycle.

The situational approach has made a significant contribution to modern management theory, using the possibilities of direct application of science to specific situations and conditions. The central point of this approach is the situation, i.e. a specific set of circumstances that significantly affect the entity at that particular time. This approach allows you to understand which techniques will be more conducive to achieving the goals of the organization in specific conditions.

The situational approach is not a set of actions, but rather a way of thinking, analyzing organizational problems and solving them. While the overall decision-making process is the same, the specific techniques a manager must use to effectively achieve the organization's goals can vary considerably.

The case approach methodology is based on the following principles .

1. The manager must be familiar with professional management tools that have proven effective. This implies an understanding of the management process, individual and group behavior, systems analysis, planning and control methods, quantitative decision-making methods.

2. Each of the management concepts and techniques has its strengths and weaknesses when applied to a specific situation. The leader must be able to foresee all the positive and negative consequences of applying a particular approach or concept.

3. The leader must be able to legitimately interpret the situation: determine which factors are most important for the organization in a given situation and what the likely effect may be to change one or more variables.

4. The leader must be able to link specific techniques that would cause the least official effect and conceal fewer shortcomings with specific situations.

Theories of strategy (1960s-1970s), innovation and leadership (1980s-1990s)

The main task of the strategy is to point the organization on a reliable course of development. But at the same time, this course can, like blinders, obscure potential opportunities and dangers. Formed strategies sometimes make it difficult for the management of the firm to realize that its views and plans have lost their relevance. It is necessary to monitor the environment and, if necessary, change behavior in a timely manner.

The Modeling (Design) School (1960s) takes a view of the strategy building process and proposes a strategy building model as an attempt to match internal and external capabilities. The representatives of the school are Philip Selznick (“Guidance in Administration”), Alfred Chandler (“Strategy and Structure”), and others.

Richard Result of the Harvard General Management Group proposed the following strategy evaluation system:

Consistency: the strategy should not contain conflicting goals and programs.

Consistency: the strategy should assume an adaptive response to the external environment and the important changes taking place in it.

Benefit: The strategy should provide opportunities for creativity and/or maintaining competitive advantage in the chosen field of activity.

Feasibility: The strategy should not overspend existing resources and should not lead to unresolvable problems.

This model is an oversimplified approach. A strategy that "places" an organization in a certain niche limits its own perspective.

School (1970s). The foundations of the school of strategic planning were laid by Igor Ansoff's "Corporate Strategy" (1965) and George Steiner's "Planning for Senior Management" (1969). This school proposes the development of extensive procedures designed to clarify and quantify the organization's goals. Many elements of the school of strategic planning come down to quantifying goals. Here, planners come to the fore, and not top management. With this approach, goals immediately begin to act as a means of control (since they are rigidly set). It is suggested that strategies are not calculated and formed, but most often they are outlined at a certain point in time, since not even one, but several strategies emerge at once. Subsequently, they can be evaluated and the best one selected. It is proposed to evaluate strategies using the methods of Financial Analysis, since the supporters of this school are based on the premise that the company's task is to manage money in order to increase its quantity.

In the 1980s within the framework of this school, the ideas of scenario planning appear. Since no one is able to accurately predict the future, you need to have an idea of what scenarios events may begin to develop. True, the question immediately arises: what scenarios should be bet on - the most probable, the most profitable, the most secure or the most flexible?

Market school (1980-1990s). By the beginning of the 1980s. scholars and practitioners became disillusioned in many ways with the schools of design and planning. The impetus for the emergence of a new school was the release of the famous book by M. Porter Competitive Strategy, then his book “ Competitive advantages» (1985).

The market positioning school recognizes many of the premises of the historically preceding schools, adding two main aspects to their content. :

1) not only the process of forming strategies is important, but also the essence of the strategies themselves;

2) it is possible to sign for certain organizations strategies that are adequate for them and justify in what contexts these strategies are most effective.

If the previous schools do not limit the number of strategies that can be used in a particular situation (they declare their plurality, but do not go beyond this), then the market positioning school, on the contrary, argues that for each industry there is a limited number of key strategies that can lead to desired results. Following key strategies allows the company to take advantageous market positions. Within the framework of the school of market positioning, a number of analytical techniques have been created and polished, allowing you to select the right strategy for given conditions. The tools for this are competitive and industry analysis.

The Entrepreneurship School (J. Schumpeter, A. Cole, G. Mintzberg) considers the strategic process through the prism of the actions of one person, emphasizes the importance of the states and processes peculiar only to him: intuition, sanity, wisdom, experience, insight. Thanks to this, the strategy is built in accordance with the idea and intuitive feeling of the leader of the organization, which is called the vision.

Unlike other approaches, the entrepreneurial school refers to the strategic perspective as an individual vision of the head of the organization, and not a team. Accordingly, the organization is entirely dependent on the dictates of the individual.

G. Mintzberg in the article "Strategic thinking as vision" (1991) identifies "seven factors" that make up a single structure of strategic thinking :

1) strategic thinking involves "looking ahead";

2) it is impossible to foresee anything if you do not look back, because all ideas about the future are based on knowledge of history;

3) strategic thinking is a view from above;

4) strategic thinking is also inductive thinking: a look from above must be accompanied by a look “in depth”;

5) one can look forward, backward, from above, look in depth, but these necessary conditions for strategic thinking are by no means sufficient. The strategist needs creativity. Strategically thinking individuals perceive the world differently than everyone else; they manage to see what other people's eyes are gliding past. They challenge accepted truths—the unwritten laws of the industry, conventional strategies—and this sets their organizations apart from the crowd. Since creative thinking is associated with a comprehensive approach to the issue, it can be called "looking around";

6) it is necessary to look not only around, but also “beyond”, “on the other side”. Looking beyond is different from looking ahead. Looking ahead, the strategist foresees the expected future, "inferring" it from past events. The look "on the other side" constructs the future - creates a world that cannot exist without the efforts of the organization;

7) there is no sense in all the listed views (forward and backward, above and inland, around and on the other side), if you do not get a complete picture. In other words, thinking only deserves the name strategic when a person sees the situation through and through.

The empirical school is characterized by a pragmatic approach, which is based on the study of management practices and the development of recommendations of practical importance. The theorists of this school (P. Drucker and others) operate with the principles of Taylorism and the principles of human relations, trying not to be limited only by the organizational, technical and economic aspects of management. P. Drucker combined in one person both theory and practice, thought and experiment, practical work and training. P. Drucker believed that the main efforts of managers should be aimed at creating a system of interest, the formation and improvement of effective labor motivation.

A significant contribution to the development of the conceptual apparatus was made by the school of power (the concepts of a coalition, political games and collective strategy). She also drew attention to the importance of using political methods to bring about strategic change when it comes to confronting the leading actors who want to conserve the situation, to maintain the status quo. Inside the organization, a "micropower" is formed - the creation of a strategy here takes place as an interaction based on the methods of persuasion, negotiations, and sometimes direct confrontation, in the form of political games around intersecting interests and emerging coalitions, none of which has dominant positions for a long period time. But politics can also be a factor in counteracting strategic change. “Macro power” over the external environment is control over the actions of other market agents or cooperation with them. At the same time, companies rely on both strategic maneuvering and collective strategies in various network structures and alliances. The main goal of the alliance is to learn something from a partner. Successful companies use strategic alliances to acquire some knowledge and skills, and outside of formal agreements, they systematically disseminate new experience in their organizations.

According to the learning school, strategies emerge when people, sometimes acting individually, but more often collectively, come to study the situation and the ability of the organization to cope with it, and, ultimately, to an effective pattern of behavior. Or, as R. Lapierre put it, strategic management "is no longer just control over changes, but turns into management that acts through changes."

Some organizations constantly face situations that are new to them. Their environment is dynamic and unpredictable, which makes choosing one strategy a very difficult task. In this case, the organization tends to take the form of research, and learning becomes a prerequisite for maintaining flexibility: the organization cannot wait for the appearance of a “ready-to-use” strategy, it must do at least something, at least somehow respond to the real course of events, take independent response steps.

In general, the strategies of professional organizations demonstrate high stability. The fragmentation of actions, the power of professionals do not inspire global changes in strategy, “strategic revolutions”. But in such organizations, change follows change: programs are constantly being adjusted, procedures are being revised, customers are changing. Thus, it is paradoxical, but true: in general, professional organizations that are quite stable in their practical activities are constantly in a state of change. Slightly exaggerating, we can say: the organization never changes, while its activities are constantly changing.

School of culture. In the 1970s-1980s. the whole world drew attention to the success of Japanese corporations, which used a completely different approach to management than that proposed by American authors on strategic management. Unlike the American school, the Japanese school abandoned the hierarchical structure of strategy formation. Creating a strategy comes down only to defining a specific goal for the development of an enterprise in the future. There is no fixed strategic plan. The management uses weekly deviation measurements, and if they exist, then this is the basis for adjusting the strategy.

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INTRODUCTION 4

DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MANAGEMENT.. 4

CONCEPT OF MANAGEMENT.. 11

MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES.. 15

CONTROL FUNCTIONS.. 17

MANAGEMENT METHODS.. 39

INFORMATION SUPPORT OF MANAGEMENT.. 44

MANAGEMENT DECISION-MAKING.. 45

SOCIAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF MANAGEMENT.. 49

LEADERSHIP IN MANAGEMENT. 53

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR 59

ETHICS OF MANAGEMENT.. 64

REFERENCES.. 66

INTRODUCTION

The organization of the educational process involves independent study of lecture material by students, as well as the solution of situational problems and tests in practical and seminar classes.

All material is divided into three blocks:

1. Development of the theory and practice of management. The concept of management. Management principles. Control functions.

2. Management methods. Information support of management. Making managerial decisions.

3. Socio-psychological aspects of management. Organizational culture and organizational behavior. Ethics of management.

The study of the discipline ends with an exam. Each exam ticket includes two theoretical questions and a situational task. Sample questions for the exam are given in the conclusion of the handout.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MANAGEMENT

In the process of development of the theory and practice of management, several periods are distinguished.

First period. This is the longest period, lasting from 9-7 years BC. until the 18th century. Throughout the time, the accumulation of management experience in various spheres of human life continued. Yes, in ancient world a rich experience in managing the state and troops was collected. The first scientists who studied management were Socrates, Plato, Alexander the Great. During this period in Russia, A.L. Ordin-Nashchokin made a great contribution to the development of the theory of urban self-government in the framework of the development of the public administration system

Second period- industrial - 1776-1890 During this time, the classical theory of political economy was formed, and the first studies in the field of management were also made. The most significant teaching of that time was the school of R. Owen, which had a great influence on the development of management. For the first time, the ideas of humanization of production management, recognition of the need for training, improvement of working conditions and living conditions of workers were expressed. The main problem that the first management researchers tried to solve was the question of ensuring the efficiency of production. In their opinion, the solution lay in the field technical ways and methods, they mastered the technical approach to management, focusing on the adaptation of workers to new technologies for the implementation of work. The first step towards the formation of the science of management was taken by Frederick Winslow Taylor, who became interested in the effectiveness of the organization. His work became the basis scientific management school or classical school. For the first time in history, Taylor developed the methodological foundations of labor rationing, standardized work operations, put into practice scientific approaches to the selection, placement and stimulation of workers. Taylor's basic principle is logical reasoning - if I can select people scientifically, train them scientifically, give them some incentives, and put work and person together, then I can get a total productivity that exceeds the contribution made by the individual labor force.

Third period- the period of systematization - 1856-1960. At this time, the science of management was formed, new directions, schools and trends were developing, the scientific apparatus was being improved. In this period, the development of the classical school of management continued. A prominent scientist of the classical school was Harrington Emerson, who developed 12 principles of productivity, the main of which were: scientific regulation; common sense; competence; coordination; discipline; professional selection; performance.

A variety of the classical school has also developed - administrative school of management. If the classical school was based on the study of the rationing and organization of work of workers, then the object of study of the administrative school of management was the role and functions of the manager. The main theoretical premise of the school was - if you determine the essence of the work of the manager, you can easily identify the most effective methods of leadership. One of the first developers of this idea was Henri Fayol, whose teaching laid the foundation for the study of the organization, its structure and other issues. Fayol for the first time divided the management process into 5 main functions - planning, organization, selection and placement of personnel, leadership (motivation), control and identified the following basic management principles:

Discipline;

Unity of leadership;

Unity of management;

Subordination of private interest to the general;

Remuneration for work;

Balance between centralization and decentralization;

Coordination of managers of the same level;

Chains of interaction;

corporate spirit;

order;

Justice; equality; kindness and decency;

Staff resilience;

Initiative.

Fayol's ideas were continued by Max Weber. He proposed the concept of "rational bureaucracy", for the first time defining bureaucracy as the order established by rules, is the most effective form human organization; it must provide accuracy, speed, order, certainty, continuity and predictability. The main elements of his theory were:

Division of labor according to functional specialization;

Well-defined hierarchical distribution of power;

A system of rules and regulations that define the rights and obligations of employees;

A system of rules and procedures for behavior in certain situations;

Lack of a personal beginning in interpersonal relationships;

Admission to the organization based on competence and need;

Promotion based on the competence and broad knowledge of the organization that come with seniority;

Strategy for lifetime employment;

A clear career system that provides upward mobility for skilled workers;

Management of administrative activities consists in the development and establishment of thorough written instructions for intraorganizational actions.

The scientific and administrative schools were the first in the development of management. Although the objects of their research were different, there was a single premise that united these schools. Their main idea was to recognize the existence of a single way to achieve production efficiency, and the goal was to discover this only correct method.

The 1930s were marked by the large-scale development of such sciences as psychology, sociology, and so on. During these years, in contrast to the classical and administrative schools, a school of human relations. The object of study of this school was the personality of the worker, which made it possible to carry out the achievements of psychology and sociology. The founder of this school is considered to be Elton Mayo, who substantiated the position that a group of workers is a social system that has its own control systems. The main idea of the school is that simply showing positive attention to people has a very large impact on labor productivity, i.e. An increase in the efficiency of an organization can be achieved only through an increase in the efficiency of human resources. So, A. Maslow's theory, according to which, human needs develop in a certain order (Figure 2). Accordingly, by initiating or influencing these needs, the manager can make the subordinate work more efficiently.

Figure 1. A. Maslow's hierarchy of needs

D. McGregor suggested that in any organization there are two polar personality types:

X - the average individual is dumb, seeks to evade work, therefore he must be constantly forced, urged, controlled and directed, a person of this category prefers to be led, seeks to avoid responsibility, worries only about his own safety;

Y - people are not passive by nature, they became so as a result of working in an organization, in this category the costs of physical and mental labor are also natural and necessary, like games on vacation, a person accepts responsibility and strives for it, does not need to be controlled by , because able to control himself.

Accordingly, by correctly influencing people who demonstrate the qualities of X and Y to one degree or another, and by correctly distributing work tasks among them, one can contribute to the growth of labor efficiency.

The fourth period management development - informational - began in 1960 and continues to the present. The development of mathematics, cybernetics, programming and, as a result, computerization led to the formation quantitative or management school where information technology plays a major role. The school views management as a logical process that can be expressed mathematically.

In the current period, the main approaches to management were formulated - as a process, system, situation.

Approach to management as a process defines it as a process in which activities aimed at achieving goals are seen as a series of continuous interrelated actions - functions management (planning, organization and coordination, motivation, control), ensuring the interaction of all management levels, development of activities, command (command), motivation, leadership, communication, research, evaluation, decision making, recruitment, representation and negotiation or transactions .

The study of management as a process has led to the widespread use of systemic methods of analysis, the emergence of a systematic approach, and new elements of planning have appeared - simulation modeling of decisions, analysis under uncertainty, and software for evaluating multi-purpose management decisions.

Approach to management as a system defines its process as ensuring the goals of the organization at the expense of available resources and capabilities through the main functions of management. A system is a set of elements that are in relationships and connections with each other, which forms a certain integrity and unity. Systems are divided into closed and open, which include an object, a subject, an input and an output. Systems approach in management suggests that managers should consider the organization as a set of interrelated elements, such as people, structure, tasks, technology, resources. main idea systems theory is that no action is taken in isolation from others, each decision has consequences for the entire system. The main advantage of the approach is the absence of situations when one solution turns into a problem for another.

In the 1970s, the idea open system- the organization, as an open system, tends to adapt to a very diverse internal environment, it is not self-sustaining, it depends on energy, information and materials coming from outside. Thus, any formal organization has a system of functionalization (structural division), a system of effective and efficient incentives, a system of power, a system of logical decision-making.

An organization as a system is a set of relationships, rights, duties, goals, roles, activities that take place in the process of joint work. An organization as a system is a unity of two management subsystems - the managing (subject) and managed (object), while for its management it must be formed control system, which is a form of real embodiment of managerial relationships.

The following subsystems are distinguished in the enterprise management system:

Structural-functional- a set of management bodies, divisions and performers, as well as a set of methods by which management influence is carried out, i.e. it is the unity of organization, technology and management methods. This subsystem consists of blocks:

Management ideology and value orientation of the management system;

Interests and behavioral standards of participants in the process of management activities;

Information and information support of communications in the control system.

Information-behavioral subsystem manifests itself in the forms:

Management theory and ideology;

Formal and informal relations of managerial employees with representatives of the external environment;

The level of organizational development, as well as the level of development of each employee of the managerial level;

Awareness of employees, information carriers and methods of its dissemination.

There are several types of information-behavioral subsystem:

the first one is characterized by the presence of a formal organization of activities and relations in the management system, the attitude of employees is lack of initiative, their skills are directed outside the organization, the availability of information is low;

the second - is characterized by restlessness in relationships, the presence conflict situations, there is no organic interest in improving the efficiency and quality of activities, own goals dominate, informal collection and dissemination of information is widely practiced;

the third one is characterized by interest in the final results of functioning, the desire to obtain great results, group forms of activity, goodwill, creativity, publicity, open discussions, etc. are common;

the fourth is an organic combination of personal interests with the desire to obtain high end results of the functioning of the organization as a whole, focus on results, self-organization and self-adjustment.

Subsystem of self-development of the control system reflects the desire for self-improvement, flexibility and adaptability to change, focus on innovation, the search and development of progressive ideas and their accelerated introduction into the practice of the management system. This subsystem is divided into two parts - first focuses the system on continuous improvement and development, provides the need for change and improvement directions, performs the following functions:

Development, introduction to the management system and constant maintenance of the proper level of stimulants that encourage self-improvement;

Continuous analysis of the level of functioning of the management system, its current and potential capabilities, as well as analysis of the dynamics of the tasks facing the management system and changes in the environment;

Identification of new trends and directions for the development of management systems, analysis of the forms and methods used to update management systems.

Second part ensures the development of the control system, solving the following tasks:

Development of trajectories of self-development of the control system, including the search for improvement opportunities, a description of the new state of the control system, the development of the procedure and content of the transition to a new state, as well as the definition of means to ensure this transition;

Organization of the transition of the system to a new state, including the preparation of a transition program, the distribution of tasks and positions, functions, etc.;

Analysis of the results of the transition, generalization of experience, obtaining conclusions on the development of the self-development subsystem.

Thus, any system must function under the conditions internal and external environment .

Modern management is based on the fact that external environment changeable and mobile. The system approach prescribes to look for the origins of the problems that arise in the work of the organization, outside of it in the external environment. The external environment of an organization includes politics, technology, society, social norms, labor market, market conditions, authorities, suppliers, banks, unions, customers, workers, competitors, owners, citizens, professional groups, etc.

The most characteristic features of the external environment:

Dynamism requires flexible, adaptable structures that do not resist external conditions, but transform with them;

Diversity is characterized by many different objects of management, each of which needs its own approach and its own strategy;

Integration is the relationship of all objects not only with the company, but also among themselves, therefore, a change in the interaction of the company with any object leads to a change in relations with the rest.

Internal environment depends on the external environment, the most important laws of the existence of the enterprise are the desire for survival, constant transformation, development, creation and improvement of its organs, maintaining a favorable internal environment and the presence of integrity and a single purpose of all its parts. The internal environment includes goals, organizational structure, tasks, technology and people.

situational approach states that the forms, methods, systems, styles of management should vary significantly depending on the situation - a specific set of circumstances that strongly affect the organization at this particular time. Thus, it is required to solve the current, specific organizational and managerial problem, depending on the goals of the organization and the prevailing specific conditions in which this goal must be achieved. Theory of contingencies says that each situation in relation to the enterprise may be similar to others, but it will have unique properties, so the manager's task is to analyze all factors separately and identify the strongest dependencies. Similar to these theories in nature is adaptation concept or adaptation, which states that a firm's strategy is always a combination of the most beneficial courses of action, taking into account environmental factors. Global strategy concept is aimed at optimizing the activities of the company, it is necessary to develop a unified strategy aimed at optimizing the activities of the entire corporation, which includes:

The theory of multiple goals, when the global strategy is aimed at the implementation of many goals and profit maximization is denied as the main goal;

Optimization of activities is carried out in order to maximize profits;

Optimization of activities is aimed at obtaining maximum profit as a result of better adaptation of the organizational structure to changing conditions;

Optimization of activities is carried out by improving the basic functions of management.

Target orientation concept argues that the role of goal setting should dominate in the processes of planning, organization, control and motivation. Also a popular theory was the development of McKinsey's "7S", the key components of which are: strategy, structure, systems, staff, style, qualifications, shared values.

CONCEPT OF MANAGEMENT

The development of enterprise management theory is currently largely based on the study of management theory. Management today is usually considered from two points of view. Firstly, as a science and practice of management and, secondly, as an organization (organ) of management. As a management science, management constitutes the theoretical basis for management practice. Its main goal and objective here is to provide management practice with scientific advice. As an organization (organ) of management, management is the leadership that represents the enterprise or organization and acts on its behalf.

Over the entire period of development of management as a science, many definitions have been developed. Here are the main ones:

Management- a type of activity to guide people in a certain area of public life, involves the ability to achieve goals using the work, skills, interests and motives of the behavior of other people.

Management- a set of principles, methods, means and forms of managing the activities of an enterprise in order to increase its efficiency and make a profit.

Management– purposeful search and improvement of work with individuals for the most efficient use of material and labor resources.

Management- management of a social facility, possession of professional skills, the use of classical management principles, a combination of conflicting directions - attitude towards employees as individuals and the use of all kinds of techniques, incl. incorrect in order to achieve the goal.

Management – independent view professionally carried out activities aimed at achieving the intended goals in market conditions by rational use material and labor resources using the principles, functions and methods of the economic mechanism of management (intracompany management, production and personnel management).

So, one can single out subject management - manager and object management - the economic activity of an enterprise or organization in any sector of the economy or field of activity.

Wherein purpose management is to ensure profitability or profitability. The most important task becomes the organization of the production of goods and services, taking into account the needs of consumers on the basis of available material and human resources and ensuring the profitability of the enterprise and its stable position in the market. Also, the tasks of management include:

Ensuring the automation of production and the transition to highly qualified personnel;

Stimulating the work of employees by creating better working conditions and setting higher wages;

Constant monitoring of the effectiveness of the company, coordination of the work of all departments of the company;

Constant search and development of new markets ;

Determination of specific goals for the development of the company;

Identification of priority, order and sequence of goals;

Development of a company development strategy, tasks and ways to solve them;

Formation of a system of measures to solve the planned problems for various time periods;

Determination of the necessary resources and sources of their provision;

Organization of control over the execution of tasks.

As a result, the use of management concepts for the enterprise means:

Its focus on the demand and needs of the market, the needs of specific consumers and the organization of production of those types of products that are in demand and can bring the company the planned profit;

Constant striving to improve production efficiency, obtain optimal results and lower costs;

Economic independence, providing freedom of decision-making to those who are responsible for the final results of the company or its divisions;

Constant adjustment of goals and programs depending on the state of the market;

Identification of the final result of the activity of the company or its economically independent units in the market in the process of exchange;

The need to use a modern information base with computer technology for multivariate calculations when making reasonable and optimal decisions.

In management, the following aspects can be distinguished:

Economic - management of the production process, the input of which is achieved by the coordination of material and labor resources necessary to achieve goals;

Socio-psychological - characterize the activities of a group of persons in organizing and managing the efforts of all personnel;

Legal - the structure of state, political and economic institutions, their policies and legislation;

Organizational and technical - assessment of the situation and systematic selection of goals and objectives, development of a strategy, design, identification of resources, organization, leadership and control, motivation.

The management process at the enterprise takes place in three stages:

Strategic management - development of a goal, building a tree of goals, forecasting, long-term planning;

Operational management - organization (creation of the necessary structure and necessary resources), leadership and motivation of personnel;

Control - analysis of the achieved results.

Considering the goals, objectives, aspects and stages of management, it is impossible not to note the fundamental difference between management and entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship as a special type of activity implies that the subjects have a certain way of thinking, style and type of economic behavior. Entrepreneurship means:

Freedom and independence of subjects in various directions;

Organization and management of the economic process, regardless of the type and scope of activity;

Carrying out activities by legal entities and individuals on their own behalf at their own peril and risk;

Carried out on an ongoing basis;

Focus on achieving commercial success and the best use of capital in order to satisfy the interests of the owners;

Availability of economically isolated market entities;

property liability.

Thus, the entrepreneur is more concerned about his own interests as an owner, which means that he makes decisions that provide large dividends. Moreover, the entrepreneur is responsible for his decisions within the limits corresponding to the chosen organizational and legal form of the enterprise. Therefore, being aware of the degree of risk, his decisions will be cautious and less risky.

Management is aimed at optimizing and increasing the efficiency of the enterprise in order to further development. A manager may forego large short-term profits in the interests of expanding the company and securing future, strategic revenues. The manager, not possessing (as a rule) the rights of the owner, is more focused on risky decisions that allow him to achieve new high performance.

So, manager- a manager or manager who holds a permanent position and is empowered to make decisions on specific activities of the company. This is a member of the organization that carries out managerial activities and solves managerial tasks. Therefore, high demands are placed on the manager, including:

General knowledge in the field of management;

Competence in technology;

Possession of administration and entrepreneurship skills, the ability to control the situation in the market, take the initiative and actively redistribute the company's resources;

Making informed and competent decisions on the basis of agreement with subordinate managers and employees and the distribution of everyone's participation in their implementation;

Availability of practical experience and knowledge in the field of analysis of the economic situation on the market;

Ability to analyze the activities of competitors;

Ability to anticipate trends in the development of economic conditions;

Knowledge of their subordinates, their abilities and capabilities;

Knowledge of the conditions binding the firm and the employee and protection of interests on a fair basis.

Managers perform three main roles– a decision-making role involving a high degree of risk, competence and responsibility; informational role and the role of the leader. The role of the manager has been explored in more depth by Mintzberg, who identified 10 managerial roles.

Role Category	Role	Kind of activity
Informational	Observer	Search and receipt of information. View printing and reports. Personal contacts.
Conductor	Transfer of information. Phone calls. Distribution of information and business correspondence.
Speaker	Informing external actors. Compilation and presentation of reports, notes, etc. Speeches and speeches.
interpersonal	Chapter	Carrying out ceremonial and symbolic events. Meeting guests. Signing legal documents.
Leader	Leadership and motivation of subordinates. Training, consulting and communication in the enterprise.
Connecting link	Maintaining information links within and outside the organization.
Decision making	Entrepreneur	Initiation of new projects, search for new ideas, winning supporters.
Fireman	Settlement of disputes and problems. Conflict resolution. Crisis adaptation.
Resource Allocator	The decision to allocate resources. Drawing up schedules, budgets. Prioritization.
negotiator	Participation in negotiations, representation of interests of the enterprise and departments.

Figure 2. 10 manager roles

Thus, three levels of managerial skills can be distinguished:

– conceptual skills, including knowledge of economics, marketing, management methods, etc.;

- psychological skills, including the ability to communicate, find your own approach to everyone, negotiate, etc.;

technical skills, consisting in the knowledge and skills of practical work in the chosen field of activity.

MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES

Management principles determine the requirements for the system, structure and organization of the management process. If the function determines the scope of activity, responsibility and competence of the manager, answering the question of what to do, then the principle answers the question of how to do it. Again, functions are essential elements of the management process, and the principles embody the subjective experience of the manager, his philosophy, they are not rigidly interconnected, therefore they can be replaced, supplemented or significantly transformed depending on the situation. The principles were developed by many scientists, for the first time they were formulated by G. Emerson. A. Fayol suggested that the number of principles is not limited.

Management principles can be represented as fundamental ideas, patterns and rules of behavior for managers in the implementation of managerial functions.

All principles can be divided into two groups - general and particular. To general principles include:

Applicability – development of guidelines for all employees;

Consistency - management covers the entire system, taking into account external and internal relationships, interdependencies and openness of its own structure or system as a whole;

Multifunctionality - management covers various aspects of activity;

Integrations - within the system, various ways of relations and views of employees should be integrated, and outside the company there may be a division into their own worlds;

Orientation to values - management is included in the public surrounding world with certain ideas about values.

Private principles:

The optimal combination of centralization and decentralization - the problem lies in the optimal distribution (delegation) of powers in making managerial decisions;

Collegiality involves the development of a collective decision based on the opinions of leaders at different levels, as well as the executors of specific decisions;

The scientific validity of management involves scientific foresight, the socio-economic transformations of the organization planned in time - all management actions should be carried out on the basis of the application scientific methods and approaches;

Planning - the establishment of the main directions and proportions of the development of the organization in the future;

A combination of rights, duties and responsibilities - each subordinate must perform the tasks assigned to him and periodically report on their implementation;

Private autonomy and freedom assumes that all initiatives come from freely operating economic entities that perform managerial functions at will within the framework of the current legislation;

Hierarchy and feedback is to create a multi-stage management structure, in which the primary links are managed by their own bodies, which are under the control of the next level management bodies, etc.;

Motivation - the more carefully managers implement the system of rewards and punishments, consider it taking into account unforeseen circumstances, integrate it across the elements of the organization - the more effective the motivation program will be;

Democratization of management - participation in management of all employees;

State legality - the management system must meet the requirements of the law;

The organic integrity of the object and the subject of management implies management as a process of the influence of the subject on the object, they must constitute a single system that has an exit, feedback and connection with the external environment;

Stability and mobility of the management system - when the environment of the organization changes, the management system should not undergo fundamental changes.

CONTROL FUNCTIONS

Control functions- this is a specific type of management activity, which is carried out by special techniques and methods, as well as the appropriate organization of work and control of activities. If the principles of management are formed by the manager on the basis of subjective opinions and experience, then the functions constitute the essential essence of his work.

For the first time, A. Fayol revealed the functions of management. With minor changes, they still form the main common functions management: planning, organization, motivation, control and coordination. Specific management functions are also highlighted, for example, marketing, cost management, etc.

Planning function

Planning determines the goals of market activity necessary for

MANAGEMENT. THESES OF LECTURES

Andrunik A.P.

Belt dryers

Used for drying bulk, fibrous and lumpy products and materials.

Heater

Dryeragent

Material

Withdrawalair

Advantages:

The possibility of implementing a uniform flow of the process and controlling the temperature and speed of the material;
Wide range of applications and design versatility.

Disadvantages:

The complexity of the design;
High capital investment.

Basic educational literature

Dytnersky Yu.I. Processes and apparatuses of chemical technology. 2nd edition. In 2 books. M: Chemistry, 1995.
Malakhov N.N. Processes and devices of food production. In 2 books. Book. 1: Textbook / N.N. Malakhov, Yu.M. Plaksin, V.A. Larin. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - Orel: Orel GTU, 2003. - 430 p.
Planovsky A.N., Nikolaev P.I. Processes and devices of chemical and petrochemical technology. 3rd ed. Moscow: Chemistry, 1987.
Technological equipment for food production / Azarov B.M., Aurich X., Kretov I.T. and others - M .: Agropromizdat 1988. - 463 p.
Basic Processes and Apparatuses of Chemical Technology: Design Guide. - 2nd ed. / Ed. Yu.I.Dytnersky. Moscow: Chemistry, 1991. - 494 p.

Tutorial

1. The concept of "management", "manager", "entrepreneur".
2. Stages of development of the theory and practice of management.
3. Social responsibility of the enterprise.
4. Main types of communications in management.
5. Management as a process of making managerial decisions.
6. Management functions, their characteristics.
7. Internal and external environment of the organization.
8.SWOT analysis.
9.Organizational structures: concept and types.
10.Functional and linear organizational structures of management.
11. Matrix organizational structures.
12. Organizational relations in the management system. Forms of organization of the management system.
13. Motivation: theories of motivation.
14. The concept of leadership and leadership.
15. Formal and informal organizations.
16. Typology of types of power and influence.
17. Management style and image (image) of the manager.
18.Factors of management efficiency.
19. Models of management.
20. Development of management in Russia.
21. Management perspectives: possible and probable.

1. The concept of "management", "manager", "entrepreneur".

Quantitative - for effective management it is necessary to apply knowledge of the exact sciences (mathematics, statistics, informatics).
Process - for eff. upr-I execution of universal functions.
Situational - for eff. upr-I need to choose a method of control, focusing on the situation.
System - for eff. Upr-I need to improve the management system.

In our time, 90, new areas of management development have appeared:

Research in the field of organizational culture.
Research in the field of international cooperation.
Concepts of participatory management. (joint management and distribution of profits).
Business Excellence Models of the European Foundation for Quality Management.
Biotechnology and cybernetics.

Conclusion: Management is a young science, it is just over 100 years old, it is actively developing, new knowledge is accumulating, new approaches are being created, new directions are emerging. The manager's task is to follow the development of science and use these achievements in management practice. The goal of a modern organization is to manage the organization systematically and make a profit.

Management as an activity is implemented in organizations that consist of people. From this point of view, it is obvious that management is a social phenomenon. And, indeed, management social systems aims to coordinate the activities of different people (which is especially important in the conditions of the division of labor). And, therefore, management is closely connected with social processes and phenomena.

Until the middle of the twentieth century. the approach of managers to the relationship between the company and society was based on the following provisions: “what is good for the company is good for society”; "Business business - business"; it is necessary to implement the principle of free enterprise (profit should be obtained with minimal restrictions on the part of society).

However, with the beginning of the scientific and technological revolution, the opinion prevailed that this lack of restrictions gives rise to serious social injustice. Society has introduced a number of restrictions: laws on child labor, minimum wages, labor protection, etc. At the same time, consumers began to make demands because of monopoly prices, counterfeit goods, unfavorable purchasing conditions, dishonesty, collusion, political influence, environmental pollution, etc.

All this has led to a significant increase in control over the activities of firms in the following areas:

product specifications,
production volume, environmental pollution);
production processes (labor protection,
pollution standards,
payroll control,
providing employment);
behavior in competition (prices, collusion, hiding the truth);
profit (withholding, distribution);
access to resources;
governance (worker participation; employment-related decisions).

At the same time, the firm is the "wealth generator" of society, as it generates goods and purchasing power for their acquisition; supports the expansion of social infrastructure and provides a return on capital; creates jobs for themselves, suppliers, in the public sector; ensures its own growth.

Numerous complex connections are needed to implement all this, and it is obvious that the success of a company depends on how they are regulated, who regulates and controls them and how.

Analysis of the corporate strategy of relations with society should cover three main areas: analysis of goals, analysis of constraints, analysis of external force field where the firm operates. The approach to choosing preferred targets should take into account the main groups operating in the “field” of the firm and their interests: society as a whole, local community, shareholders, creditors, consumers, managers, employees. The interests of the groups operating in the "field of forces" of the company can be opposite, coinciding, and neutral, so it is necessary to analyze possible coalitions and choose the preferred strategy.

Thus, we can say that the commercial strategy of the company is transformed into a commercial-socio-political strategy.

According to firms and their leaders necessary :

carry out ideological reorientation to actions in the social environment;
expand the information system to the socio-political area;
learn to understand political processes and political behavior;
create infrastructure for political action;
take into account social aspects in the system of incentives and rewards;
appropriately reflect all this in the structure of the company's management.

Figure 1 shows the priorities of the company in terms of its social responsibility

Fig.1. Company priorities in terms of its social responsibility

social role- this is a way of behavior that corresponds to the norms accepted in the community of people, expressed in the expectations of the environment. The social role is divided into role behavior, that is, those specific actions that a person performs, and role expectations - what others expect from the role holder. Naturally, there is not always a coincidence between behavior and role expectations, and therefore society creates a system social control, an important part of which is a set of sanctions - punishments for deviation from role expectations.

The responsible approach of the manager to his business is to create the most favorable conditions for the long-term cost-effective functioning of the enterprise. Entrepreneurship meets this approach within the framework of existing legal opportunities and on the basis of generally accepted moral and ethical standards. A law-abiding, respectable manager must make decisions based equally on the interests of the company, society, and his own. Neglect of any of these factors disrupts the normal functioning of enterprises and, at best, leads to their curtailment.

The position of managers plays a big role in decision-making, which should combine ethical and commercial (business) standards of conduct. In the management process, the manager must take into account four main arguments that can lead to misbehavior.

Confidence that this activity does not go beyond the boundaries of ethical and legal norms.
Confidence in the conformity of this activity with the interests of the individual or organization and that the individual is expected to do just such actions.
Confidence that the activity is "safe" because it will never be exposed.
Confidence that if this activity helps the organization, then the organization will treat the manager condescendingly and even favorably, protecting the person who is engaged in such activities.

Management is responsible for creating morale within the organization. Top-level managers should be responsible for defining the boundary of loyalty in relation to the organization's possible illegal activities. Since this border (limit) at the time of the crisis may disappear or be blurred, it must be clearly defined. Managers have the right to expect loyalty from employees in a competitive environment, but they cannot expect loyalty in opposition to the law, morality, or society itself.

Due to the fact that ethical norms and legal norms do not always coincide, it is advisable to single out legal and social responsibility. Legal responsibility is directly related to the implementation of legislation, while social responsibility is assumed by the organization voluntarily; often the expression "social responsibility" is used to refer to those obligations that an organization and its members have in excess of those obligations that they assume in accordance with the law.

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