The political sphere of Alexander 1. Foreign and domestic policy of Alexander I

Assuming the throne, this king declared: “With me, everything will be like with my grandmother” (that is). As a monarch, he did not reach the level of his grandmother, but the similarity of the reigns is still visible. Like Catherine, Alexander 1 spoke many liberal words and did many despotic, feudal deeds.

Domestic politics (grandmother's heir)

At the beginning of his reign, Alexander 1 spoke a lot about the need for reforms in Russia. But for every innovation there was a countermeasure.

Alexander expanded the rights of merchants and endowed them with various privileges - the right to appear at court, wear a class rank, etc. But at the same time, immediately after accession to the throne, he renewed the validity of the charter to the nobility of 1785, which turned the nobility into a privileged class with virtually no duties.

The tsar repeatedly declared his desire to expand the rights of the peasants and in 1803 signed the Decree on free cultivators, which allowed the peasants, by agreement with the landowners, to redeem the land. But over 20 years, as many as 47 thousand people (0.5% of the peasant population) took advantage of this right, and after the war of 1812, military settlements grew in the country, representing an unprecedented level of peasant unfreedom.
The tsar brought liberals closer to him (such as Rumyantsev or), but Arakcheev, who became a symbol of the martinet suppression of any dissent, was a person close to him.

We must pay tribute to the king - Alexander 1 centralized and streamlined the government of the country, creating in 1810 the State Council (something like a cabinet of ministers), accumulating all the information on the state and making proposals for solving existing problems. He was also the patron of education - during his reign such educational institutions as the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, Kharkov and Kazan universities were opened, and other educational institutions raised their class and increased the number of departments and faculties. From the treasury, educational institutions were assisted, and even trips of students and teachers abroad were financed.

Foreign policy (Napoleon winner)

From achievements foreign policy Alexander is best known for this fact. True, only the second campaign against the French emperor became successful for Russia, and the war of 1805-1807 ended in a rather humiliating Peace of Tilsit. But the fact is that the foreign policy of Alexander 1 was more consistent than the domestic one. He showed himself to be a consistent monarchist, desiring the growth of his possessions, strengthening the authority of the monarchy as such and his own among his colleagues in particular. Under him, Russia grew territorially, and its international prestige grew.

Alexander 1 waged successful wars, Sweden (1808-1809), . This is not to mention the subsequent defeat of France.
Under him, Finland, Bessarabia, Georgia, Abkhazia, Dagestan, Transcaucasia were annexed to Russia. Only a part of these lands were annexed by military means; Georgia, for example, became part of the empire under an international treaty.
Alexander I initiated the creation of the Holy Alliance - the unification of monarchies for the sake of preserving monarchies and combating revolutionary teachings. Russia then played the role of a kind of "flagship of the counter-revolution" for a long time.
The emperor attached great importance to foreign trade. In particular, under him, England became an important trading partner of Russia.
Alexander did not want the strengthening of German influence in Europe, and to some extent he managed to prevent him, pushing him during

Since the relationship between father and grandmother did not work out, the Empress took her grandson from his parents. Catherine II immediately inflamed with great love for her grandson and decided what she would make of the newborn ideal emperor.

Alexander was brought up by the Swiss Laharpe, who was considered by many to be a staunch republican. The prince received a good Western-style education.

Alexander believed in the possibility of creating an ideal, humane society, he sympathized with the French Revolution, felt sorry for the Poles deprived of statehood, and was skeptical of the Russian autocracy. Time, however, dispelled his belief in such ideals ...

Alexander I became Emperor of Russia after the death of Paul I, as a result of a palace coup. The events that took place on the night of March 11-12, 1801, affected the life of Alexander Pavlovich. He was very worried about the death of his father, and guilt haunted him all his life.

Domestic policy of Alexander I

The emperor saw the mistakes made by his father during his reign. main reason conspiracy against Paul I is the abolition of the privileges of the nobility, which Catherine II introduced. First of all, he restored these rights.

Domestic politics had a strictly liberal connotation. He declared an amnesty for people who were repressed during his father's rule, allowed them to travel abroad freely, reduced censorship and returned to the foreign press.

He carried out a large-scale reform of public administration in Russia. In 1801, the Permanent Council was created - a body that had the right to discuss and cancel the decrees of the emperor. The indispensable council had the status of a legislative body.

Instead of collegiums, ministries were created, headed by responsible persons. Thus, the Cabinet of Ministers was formed, which became the most important administrative body of the Russian Empire. During the reign of Alexander I, undertakings played a big role. He was a talented man with great ideas in his head.

Alexander I distributed all sorts of privileges to the nobility, but the emperor understood the seriousness of the peasant issue. Many titanic efforts were made to alleviate the position of the Russian peasantry.

In 1801, a decree was adopted, according to which merchants and philistines could buy free lands and organize economic activity using hired labor. This decree destroyed the monopoly of the nobility on land ownership.

In 1803, a decree was issued, which went down in history as the “Decree on free cultivators”. Its essence was that now, the landowner could make a serf free for a ransom. But such a deal is possible only with the consent of both parties.

Free peasants had the right to property. Throughout the reign of Alexander I, there was continuous work aimed at solving the most important internal political issue - the peasant one. Various projects were developed to give freedom to the peasantry, but they remained only on paper.

There was also a reform of education. The Russian Emperor understood that the country needed new highly qualified personnel. Now educational institutions were divided into four successive levels.

The territory of the Empire was divided into educational districts, headed by local universities. The university provided personnel and educational programs to local schools and gymnasiums. In Russia, 5 new universities were opened, many gymnasiums and colleges.

Foreign policy of Alexander I

His foreign policy is primarily "recognizable" by the Napoleonic wars. Russia was at war with France, most of the reign of Alexander Pavlovich. In 1805, a major battle took place between the Russian and French armies. The Russian army was defeated.

Peace was signed in 1806, but Alexander I refused to ratify the treaty. In 1807, the Russian troops were defeated near Friedland, after which the emperor had to conclude the Tilsit peace.

Napoleon sincerely considered the Russian Empire his only ally in Europe. Alexander I and Bonaparte seriously discussed the possibility of joint military operations against India and Turkey.

France recognized the rights of the Russian Empire to Finland, and Russia, the rights of France to Spain. But due to a number of reasons, Russia and France could not be allies. The interests of the countries clashed in the Balkans.

Also, the existence of the Duchy of Warsaw, which prevented Russia from conducting profitable trade, became a stumbling block between the two powers. In 1810, Napoleon asked for the hand of Alexander Pavlovich's sister, Anna, but was refused.

In 1812 the Patriotic War began. After the expulsion of Napoleon from Russia, foreign campaigns of the Russian army began. During the events of the Napoleonic wars, many worthy people inscribed their names in golden letters in the history of Russia:, Davydov, ...

Alexander I died on November 19, 1825 in Taganrog. The emperor died of typhoid fever. The unexpected departure of the emperor from life gave rise to many rumors. There was a legend among the people that a completely different person was buried instead of Alexander I, and the emperor himself began to wander around the country and, having reached Siberia, settled in this area, leading the life of an old hermit.

Summing up, we can say that the reign of Alexander I can be characterized in positive terms. He was one of the first to speak about the importance of limiting autocratic power, introducing a duma and a constitution. Under him, voices calling for the abolition of serfdom and a lot of work has been done in this respect.

During the reign of Alexander I (1801 - 1825), Russia was able to successfully defend itself against an external enemy that conquered all of Europe. became the personification of the unity of the Russian people, in the face of external danger. The successful defense of the borders of the Russian Empire is undoubtedly a great merit of Alexander I.

1) First quarter of the 19th century marked by reforms, primarily in the field of public administration. These reforms are associated with the names of Emperor Alexander I and his closest associates - M. Speransky and N. Novosiltsev. However, these reforms were half-hearted and were not completed.

The main reforms carried out under Alexander I:

Decree "On free cultivators";
ministerial reform;
preparation of the reform plan by M. Speransky;
granting constitutions to Poland and Bessarabia;
preparation of a draft Russian Constitution and a program for the abolition of serfdom;
establishment of military settlements.

The purpose of these reforms was to improve the mechanism of public administration, the search for optimal management options for Russia. The main features of these reforms were their half-hearted nature and incompleteness. These reforms led to minor changes in the system of public administration, but did not solve the main problems - the peasant question and the democratization of the country.

2 ) Alexander I came to power as a result of a palace coup in 1801, which was carried out by opponents of Paul I, dissatisfied with the abrupt departure of Paul I from Catherine's orders. During the coup, Paul I was killed by conspirators and Alexander I, the eldest son of Paul and grandson of Catherine, was elevated to the throne. The short and tough 5-year reign of Paul I ended. At the same time, a return to Catherine's order - the idleness and permissiveness of the nobility - would be a step backwards. The way out was limited reforms, which were an attempt to adapt Russia to the requirements of the new century.

3 ) To prepare reforms in 1801, an Unofficial Committee was created, which included the closest associates - the "young friends" of Alexander I:

N. Novosiltsev;
A. Czartoryski;
P. Stroganov;
V. Kochubey.

This committee for 4 years (1801 - 1805) was the think tank of the reforms. Most of Alexander's supporters were supporters of constitutionalism and European orders, but most of their radical proposals were not implemented due to the indecision of Alexander I, on the one hand, and the possible negative reaction of the nobles who brought him to the throne, on the other.

The main issue dealt with by the Unofficial Committee in the first years of its existence was the development of a program for the abolition of serfdom in Russia, the supporters of which were the majority of the committee members. However, after long hesitation, Alexander I did not dare to take such a radical step. Instead, in 1803, the emperor issued a Decree “On Free Plowmen” of 1803, which for the first time in the history of serfdom Russia allowed landowners to release peasants into freedom for a ransom. However, this Decree did not solve the peasant problem. The chance to abolish serfdom in a timely manner was missed. Other reforms of the Private Committee were:

ministerial reform - instead of the Petrine collegiums, European-style ministries were created in Russia;
reform of the Senate - the Senate became a judicial body;
education reform - several types of schools were created: from the simplest (parish) to gymnasiums, universities were given broad rights.

In 1805, the Secret Committee was disbanded due to its radicalism and disagreements with the emperor.

4 ) In 1809, Alexander I ordered to prepare new plan reforms to Mikhail Speransky - Deputy Minister of Justice and a talented lawyer-statist. The purpose of the reforms planned by M. Speransky was to give the Russian monarchy a "constitutional" appearance, without changing its autocratic essence. During the preparation of the reform plan, M. Speransky put forward the following proposals:

while maintaining the power of the emperor, introduce in Russia the European principle of separation of powers;

to do this, create an elected parliament - the State Duma (legislative power), the Cabinet of Ministers (executive power), the Senate (judicial power);

to elect the State Duma through popular elections, to endow it with legislative advisory functions; give the emperor the right, if necessary, to dissolve the Duma;

to divide the entire population of Russia into three estates - the nobles, the "middle state" (merchants, philistines, townspeople, state peasants), "working people" (serfs, servants);

to give the right to vote only to the nobles and representatives of the “average state”;

to introduce a system of local self-government - to elect a provincial duma in each province, which would form the provincial council - the executive body;

The Senate - the highest judicial body - to form from representatives elected by the provincial dumas, and, thus, to concentrate "folk wisdom" in the Senate;

The cabinet of ministers of 8 - 10 ministers should be formed by the emperor, who would personally appoint the ministers, and who would be personally responsible to the autocrat;

make a special body, the State Council, appointed by the emperor, which would coordinate the work of all branches of power and be a “bridge” between them and the emperor, as a link between the three branches of power - the State Duma, the Judicial Senate and the Cabinet of Ministers;

at the top of the entire system of power was to be the emperor - the head of state endowed with broad powers and the arbiter between all branches of power.

Of all the main proposals of Speransky, only a small part of them was actually implemented:

in 1810, the Council of State was created, which became the legislative body appointed by the emperor;

at the same time, the ministerial reform was improved - all ministries were organized according to a single model, ministers began to be appointed by the emperor and bear personal responsibility to him.

The rest of the proposals were rejected and remained the plan.

5 ) The turning point in the course of the reforms was the Note on the Ancient and new Russia in its political and civil relations”, sent in 1811 to the emperor by the famous historian and public figure N. Karamzin. N. Karamzin's "Note" became a manifesto of conservative forces opposed to Speransky's reforms. In this "Note on Ancient and New Russia", N. Karamzin, analyzing the history of Russia, spoke out against reforms that would lead to unrest, and for the preservation and strengthening of autocracy - the only salvation of Russia.

In the same year, 1811, Speransky's reforms were terminated. In March 1812, M. Speransky was appointed Governor-General of Siberia - in fact, he was sent into an honorable exile.

6 ) After the Patriotic War of 1812, reform activity resumed again. Reforms took place in two directions:

improvement of the national-state structure;
preparation of the draft Constitution of Russia.

Within the first direction:

Alexander I granted the Constitution to the Kingdom of Poland in 1815;
autonomy was granted to Bessarabia, which in 1818 was also granted a constitutional document - the "Charter of the formation of the Bessarabia region."

In the framework of the second direction, in 1818, the preparation of an all-Russian draft of the Constitution began. The work on the preparation of the project was headed by N.N. Novosiltsev. The prepared draft - the State statutory charter of the Russian Empire "- contained the following main provisions:

a constitutional monarchy was established in Russia;
a parliament was established - the State Seimas, consisting of two chambers - the Senate and the Chamber of Ambassadors;
The embassy chamber was elected by the noble assemblies, after which the deputies were approved by the emperor;
The Senate was wholly appointed by the emperor;
the initiative to propose laws was assigned only to the emperor, but the laws had to be approved by the diet;
the emperor alone exercised executive power through the ministers appointed by him;
Russia was divided into 10 - 12 governorships, united on the basis of a federation;
the governorships had their own self-government, which in many respects copied the all-Russian one;
fundamental civil liberties were consolidated - freedom of speech, press, the right to private property;
serfdom was not mentioned at all (it was planned to begin its phased abolition simultaneously with the adoption of the Constitution).

The main problem that hindered the adoption of the Constitution was the question of the abolition of serfdom and the procedure for its abolition. To this end, 11 projects were submitted to the emperor, each of which contained the most different offers about this question. The first step in implementing these proposals was the partial abolition of serfdom in Russia, initially carried out in the Baltics.

in 1816, the emperor issued the "Regulations on the Estonian Peasants", according to which the peasants in the territory of Estonia (Estonia) were freed from serfdom;
in 1817 and 1819 similar regulations were issued concerning the peasants of Courland and Livonia;
the Baltic peasants became personally free, but were freed without land, which remained the property of the landowners;
the liberated peasants had the right to lease the land or buy it out.

However, the decision to abolish serfdom throughout Russia was never made. Its consideration dragged on for several years, until Emperor Alexander I died in 1825, after which it was generally removed from the agenda. The main reasons for the delay in solving the peasant question (and with it the adoption of the Constitution) were the personal indecision of Alexander I and the opposition of the elite of the nobility.

7) In the 1820s surrounded by Alexander I, the conservative-punitive trend prevailed. His personification was P. Arakcheev, who began his career as a military adviser to Alexander and in the 1820s. became in fact the second person in the state. This period of decline of reforms was called "Arakcheevshchina". It was during this period that plans to adopt the Constitution and abolish serfdom were finally thwarted. The most odious decision of P. Arakcheev was the creation in Russia of new cells of society - military settlements. Military settlements were an attempt to combine in one person and in one way of life a peasant and a soldier:

since the upkeep of the army was expensive for the state, Arakcheev proposed that the army be "self-financed";
for these purposes, soldiers (yesterday's peasants) were forced, simultaneously with military service, to engage in peasant labor;
the usual military units and barracks and other attributes of the life of soldiers in peacetime were replaced by special communities - military settlements;
military settlements were scattered throughout Russia;
in these settlements, the peasants part of the time were engaged in drill and military training, and part of the time - agriculture and ordinary peasant labor;
strict barracks discipline and semi-prison orders reigned in the military settlements.

Military settlements under Arakcheev received wide use. In total, about 375 thousand people were transferred to the regime of military settlements. The military settlements did not enjoy authority among the people and caused hatred among the majority of the settlers. Peasants often preferred serfdom to life in such military-peasant camps. Despite partial changes in the state administration system, the reforms of Alexander I did not solve the main issues:

the abolition of serfdom;
adoption of the Constitution;
democratization of the country.

Synopsis on the history of Russia

Domestic political activities of Alexander 1(1801-1825), who ascended the throne as a result, was controversial, especially before the war of 1812. The very first manifestos of the new emperor testified to his break with the policy of the previous reign.

He immediately declared that he would rule "according to the law and the heart." This was followed by orders on the removal of restrictions on trade with England, on amnesty and restoration of the rights of persons subjected to .

Alexander 1 confirmed Catherine's letters of commendation to the nobility and cities. Instead of the abolished Pavlovian Council at the royal court, the Decree of March 30, 1801 "to discuss state affairs" was established by the Indispensable Council.

The secret committee

However, all the work of the new emperor in preparing the transformations he had conceived was concentrated in secret committee, which consisted of liberal-minded nobles and was nicknamed by the reactionaries the "Jacobin gang". The secret committee worked for a year, but the only result was the creation of 8 ministries instead of Peter's colleges. The ministries corresponded to their local institutions. This made it possible to better manage the branches of government. The ministers reported directly to the emperor. The Senate became the highest judicial body of the empire. He also supervised the observance of the rule of law in the country and the activities of administrative bodies.

Liberal reformism of Alexander 1

The domestic policy of Alexander 1 at the beginning of his reign was characterized by a certain desire for liberal reformism. However, these undertakings in no way touched the foundations of the state - autocracy and. In 1803, he issued a decree "On free cultivators", which allowed landowners to release serfs into the wild with allotment of land to them for a ransom. This aroused the discontent of the nobles, the decree was not widely used, although the government recognized the fundamental possibility of liberating the peasants, legislatively determined the conditions for this liberation and the rights of the liberated.

In March 1804 followed new reforms. Alexander I forbade the sale of peasants without land in the territories of the Lifland and Estland provinces, abolished the intervention of the landowner when his serfs entered into marriage, established the election of lower courts, and forbade landowners to punish peasants with more than fifteen blows with a cane. The distribution of state peasants in any form was stopped.

In 1810, the State Council was established, which was supposed to become the highest governing body, but turned out to be only an advisory body under the tsar. The decisions of the council were not valid without their approval by the monarch. It consisted of officials appointed by the emperor. Public administration reforms led to further centralization of administration, bureaucratization, and strengthening of autocratic power.

Alexander's domestic policy was progressive. in education: many secondary and higher educational institutions, including universities (Kazan, Kharkov, St. Petersburg, Dorpat) and lyceums close to them according to the program. For some time, Alexander was influenced by the reformer M.M. Speransky, the son of a village priest, who reached the post of state secretary without patronage. But Speransky aroused the discontent of the high-ranking nobility. Intrigues begin against him and he is removed from business.

Ultimately, apart from the established ministries no reforms were carried out. They were considered premature, in particular because of the difficult international situation. In Europe, the Napoleonic wars unfolded one after another.

The results of the domestic policy of Alexander 1

After the internal politics of Alexander 1, she lost her former liberal touch. On his initiative, a "Holy Alliance" is being created, uniting European monarchs to fight the revolutionary movement in Europe.

Alexander I's refusal to carry out reforms is explained both by obvious opposition from the ruling circles and the nobility as a whole, and by his own fears of causing a peasant revolt "by touching the foundations of the existing system." As contemporaries noted, since 1822 the emperor lost interest in state affairs. At the same time, A.A. Arakcheev took the first place among his advisers. For the last four years of Alexander's reign, he ruled as an all-powerful favorite.

The country has established Arkacheev regime. Censorship has been introduced, progressive-minded people are being persecuted, religious consciousness. Serfdom intensified. The most ugly manifestation of feudal-serf oppression arises - military settlements. In them, the peasants had to serve their military service for life and engage in agriculture in order to feed themselves and their families. Their children automatically became soldiers. The life of military settlements proceeded in the conditions of cane discipline. By 1825, about a third of the entire army had been transferred to the settlements. They formed a special corps of military settlements under the command of Arakcheev. The system of military settlements violated the existing economic structures and caused increased resistance: several uprisings of military settlers broke out. The most famous of them happened in 1819 in the city of Chuguev. Unrest was also observed in the army, for example, the uprising of the soldiers of the Semyonovsky regiment (1820).

In 1801, the eldest son of Paul I, Alexander I Pavlovich, ascended the Russian throne. He was the favorite grandson of Catherine II, and, bypassing the son of Pavel Petrovich, Catherine II prepared him for the throne. The education and upbringing of Alexander took place under the personal control of the powerful empress. A brilliant staff of teachers was selected, which included well-known Russian and foreign professors. Catherine II entrusted the moral education of the heir to the well-known Swiss politician, "republican" F. S. de La Harpe. He was a well-known liberal in Europe, an opponent of slavery. True, the Swiss politician had no idea either about the country to which he was invited, or about the Russian people in general. He tried to instill the lofty ideals of freedom, equality and fraternity for 11 years, while in France after the revolution of 1789 the implementation of these ideas led to the execution of the French king Louis XVI and cruel revolutionary terror, and Western society itself had already begun deviate from these principles. One of the main results of such upbringing was that F.S. de La Harpe shook the confidence of Alexander Pavlovich - the future monarch - in his right to absolute power. Alexander Pavlovich began to believe that the autocracy of the Russian emperor should be limited by the constitution. In 1793, when Alexander was not even 16 years old, Catherine II married him to the 14-year-old Princess Louise of Baden, named Elizaveta Alekseevna in Orthodoxy.
On March 12, 1801, 24-year-old Alexander Pavlovich ascended the throne after the assassination of Paul I by conspirators. The manifesto of Alexander I of March 12, 1801 announced that Emperor Paul I had suddenly died of apoplexy. Petersburg society enthusiastically received Alexander I. And to many then the young Russian emperor seemed to be the chosen one of Fate - "...well, everything is for him: appearance, and mind, and a powerful empire, and a beautiful wife ...". Alexander I was determined to carry out liberal transformations in the country: to give society a constitution, to abolish serfdom.

liberal initiatives. Alexander I began to rule with the abolition of the decrees of Paul I regarding the nobility. 10 thousand officers and officials dismissed by Pavel for bribes were reinstated in the service, the validity of the "Charters of Letters" to the nobility and cities was confirmed, the Secret Expedition (the center of political investigation) was abolished, the free travel of Russians abroad was allowed, the import of any books, torture was prohibited.
In the first years of his reign, the young emperor relied on a small circle of friends that had developed even before the beginning of his reign, which included P.A. Stroganov, A. Czartorysky, N.N. Novosiltsev, V.P. Kochubey. This environment of Alexander I began to be called "Unspoken Committee". Its members were young, tried to keep up with the spirit of the times, but had no experience in those state affairs that they discussed and decided to reform.
The new emperor began to carry out reforms in the field of central administration, the peasant question and education.

Public administration reforms. In 1802-1811. ministerial reform. Instead of boards, 11 ministries were introduced. In contrast to the collegiums in the ministry, affairs were decided solely by the minister, responsible only to the emperor. A Committee of Ministers was established for the joint discussion of general matters by the ministers. The Senate was given the right to control the created ministries and became the country's highest judicial body.
The ministerial reform contributed to the improvement of the central administrative apparatus.
Alexander I considered the introduction of a constitution in the country, i.e. limiting their absolute power, good. But he realized that it was impossible to introduce a constitution in Russia while maintaining serfdom. And he decided to prepare society for the introduction of the constitution. To this end, he decided to reorganize the entire system of power and administration in Russia according to Western European models.
At the end of 1808, Alexander I entrusted the development of a comprehensive state reform to one of the most capable officials, his secretary of state - MM. Speransky . MM. Speransky came from the family of a poor rural priest, but thanks to his extraordinary diligence, broad outlook, and education, he made a brilliant career. In addition, M.M. Speransky was known in metropolitan circles as an ardent admirer of the French Emperor Napoleon I.
In October 1809 M.M. Speransky presented to the tsar a draft state reform called "Introduction to the Code state laws" . (See textbook material) M.M. Speransky created a coherent system of local and central institutions on the principle of "separation of powers" - legislative, executive, judicial. New approach M.M. Speransky to the problem of the formation of new authorities was that the actions of the authorities, both central and local, should be brought under the control of society. The judiciary must be independent of other branches of government. The executive branch must be accountable to the legislative branch. Election was introduced into the judicial and executive bodies of four levels - at the level of the volost, county, province, empire. Participation in management should be granted to persons who possessed a certain property qualification. Artisans, domestic servants, serfs did not participate in the elections, but enjoyed civil rights. The highest representative body of the society under state power should have become The State Duma, reflecting the "opinion of the people." Under the emperor, the State Council was created, which prepared and discussed bills.
MM. Speransky believed that Europeanized state institutions would prepare new people who would learn how to manage power in the interests of the whole society.
The plans of M.M. Speransky caused sharp resistance from the highest dignitaries. Renowned historian N.M. Karamzin in 1811 he submitted to the tsar a note "On Ancient and New Russia". N.M. Karamzin argued that government in Russia must be unconditionally autocratic. The constitution is appropriate where it is civil society order, literacy, good morals. In Russia, it's all about the people. There will be people in leadership positions spiritually on top - the state will prosper, will wallow in vices - no constitution will make people better.
Alexander I had to choose between M.M. Speransky and N.M. Karamzin. By this time, Russian-French relations had deteriorated. And the project of reforms by M.M. Speransky was rejected. In 1810, a legislative advisory Council of State was only established. (See textbook material) It included all the ministers, as well as officials appointed by the emperor. In March 1812 M.M. Speransky was arrested and exiled to Nizhny Novgorod.
In subsequent years, the reformist sentiments of Alexander I were reflected in the introduction of a constitution in the Kingdom of Poland. According to the Congress of Vienna 1814 - 1815. Russia included the lands of Central Poland. From these lands, the Kingdom of Poland was formed as part of Russia. In November 1815, Alexander I signed the constitution of the Kingdom of Poland. Poland began to enjoy the widest autonomy. The emperor of Russia was considered the head of the Kingdom of Poland. Higher legislature belonged to the Sejm of Poland and the Council of State. The right to vote was limited by the property qualification. Freedom of the press and the individual was proclaimed, Catholicism was declared the state religion, but equality was also granted to other religions.
At the opening of the Sejm in March 1818 in Warsaw, Alexander I delivered a speech in which he declared that he intended to "extend the constitutional order in Poland to all the countries entrusted to my care."
In 1818, Alexander I instructed the Minister of Justice N.N. Novosiltsev to prepare a constitutional draft for Russia, which was called the Charter Russian Empire". It used the principles of the Polish constitution. The main point of the project proclaimed the sovereignty of the imperial power. In addition, the creation of a bicameral parliament was proclaimed. The right to introduce laws into the parliament belonged to the tsar. The project also intended to provide Russians with freedom of speech, religion, equality of all before the law. By The "statutory charter" provided for a federal structure of the state, but this project was not carried out.

Changes in the peasant question. At the very beginning of his reign, Alexander I took measures to alleviate the situation of the peasants. In 1801, it was allowed to buy and sell uninhabited lands to merchants, petty bourgeois, and state peasants. In 1803, a decree was issued "On free cultivators", (See textbook material), according to which the landlords, by mutual agreement with the peasants, received the right to release the peasants with land for a ransom. The peasants, liberated by decree of 1803, were transferred to a special class of "free cultivators". Now they had their own land and carried duties only in favor of the state. But during the entire reign of Alexander I, less than 0.5% of the serfs passed into the category of "free cultivators". In 1804 - 1805. in the Ostsee region (Latvia, Lithuania), peasants - householders received personal freedom, but for the allotments of landlords' land provided to them, they had to bear the former duties - corvée and dues.
In 1816, Alexander I approved a decree on the complete abolition of serfdom in Estonia, while maintaining land for the landowners. In 1818-1819. the same laws were adopted in relation to the peasants of Courland and Livonia.
the project for the liberation of the peasants, the emperor instructed to draw up A.A. Arakcheev , who fulfilled the order in 1818. According to the project, the tsar had to allocate 5 million rubles annually to buy out the estates of landowners who would agree to make such a decision. But the project of A.A. Arakcheev was not carried out. IN last years the reign of Alexander I, the rights of the landowners were expanded and their power over the peasants was strengthened. In 1822, the landowners again received the right to exile their peasants without trial to a settlement in Siberia. The peasant question was no longer discussed during the life of Alexander I.
The transformations in the peasant question undertaken by Alexander I did not encroach on the rights and privileges of the landowners, but were serious concessions to the development of capitalist relations in the country.

Reform in the field of education. In 1802, for the first time in the history of Russia, a ministry of public education was created. From now on, the enlightenment of the people became the concern of the state. In 1803, a new regulation on the organization of educational institutions was issued.

All educational institutions were divided into 4 levels:

universities.
provincial schools or gymnasiums;
county schools;
rural parochial schools;

The education system was based on the principles of classlessness, free of charge at the lower levels, and the continuity of curricula. All these types of educational institutions, according to the plan, were supposed to constitute a complete system of public education.
Prior to that, only one university operated in Russia - Moscow, opened in 1755. During the reign of Alexander I, five more were opened - in Dorpat (Tallinn), Vilna (Vilnius), St. Petersburg, Kharkov, Kazan. In 1804, the university charter was adopted. Universities received broad autonomy: the right to choose a rector, professors, and independently decide administrative and financial matters.
In 1804, the most liberal in the nineteenth century was adopted. censorship statute. (See textbook material)
The reign of Alexander was characterized by the widest religious tolerance. Alexander I himself was indifferent to Orthodoxy. Evidence of this indifference was the appointment in 1803 of Freemason A.N. Golitsyn was the chief procurator of the Holy Synod.

military settlements. Patriotic War of 1812-1814 caused great damage to the country's economy. The financial system of the state was upset.
Under these conditions, the government decided to reduce the cost of maintaining the army through a special form of recruiting and maintaining the army - military settlements . The idea of military settlements belonged to Emperor Alexander I. Even before the Patriotic War of 1812, he was carried away by the Prussian experience, where at that time the soldier who was in the service did not leave his native places, remained connected with the land, worked on it and cost the treasury cheaply. Alexander I tried to transfer the Prussian experience of self-sufficiency of the army to Russian soil.
The development of the project of military settlements was entrusted to General A.A. Arakcheev, who was then appointed chief commander of the military settlements. The first military settlements were created in 1808, they began to be created en masse in 1815-1816. Military settlements began to be set up on the lands of state-owned peasants in the Mogilev, Novgorod, Petersburg, and Kharkov provinces. At public expense, the same type, symmetrically located houses were built. Regiments of soldiers along with their families were settled in them. The local state peasants were "militaryized". The wives of soldiers and peasants also became villagers. The state took upon itself the maintenance and preparation for the service of the children of military settlers. Upon reaching the age of 7, the boys were enrolled in the cantonist battalions, and from the age of 18 they became active for 25 years. Upon reaching the age of 45, military settlers were transferred to the category of "disabled". They had to simultaneously engage in agriculture and military service. They were also given loans, provided horses, cattle, machinery, seeds. Daily life in military settlements was strictly regulated, for the slightest infractions the peasants were subjected to corporal punishment, contacts with outside world were strictly prohibited. By 1825, already 1/3 of the soldiers were transferred to the category of military settlers.
Military settlements performed the task of saving military expenses: from 1825 to 1850. 50 million rubles were saved, but the very idea of military settlements did not take root in society. Breaking the Russian peasant way of life in the Prussian manner caused discontent among the settlers. The situation of military settlers was perceived by society as "enslavement", "St. George's Day". The performances of peasants and soldiers against military settlements began, sometimes they openly developed into riots. In 1817, a major uprising took place in Novgorod among the schismatics, who were transferred to the position of military settlers; in 1819 - in Chuguev. As a result of the suppression of the Chuguev rebellion, 70 people were spotted with gauntlets. In 1831, during the reign of Nicholas I, military settlements began to be gradually abolished, and in 1857 they were completely liquidated.
Curtailment of reforms. In the 1920s, it became obvious that the reforms were bringing positive changes, but one of their results was an increase in tension in society. Opposition moods began to spread, rumors began to reach Alexander I about the emergence of revolutionary organizations that aimed to overthrow the monarchy.
At the same time, there are important changes in his religious outlook. His soul suddenly reached for Orthodoxy. The emperor was arranged several meetings with the well-known Orthodox monk Photius in St. Petersburg. And Alexander I was shocked: he discovered Orthodoxy for himself. Previously, he believed that all currents of Christianity are true and have a right to exist. Everyone can profess the course of Christianity that he likes. Therefore, representatives of various currents of Christianity and sects that preached the denial of Orthodoxy, the church and church rites, received wide support from the highest circles in Russia. Now Alexander I came to the conclusion that for Russia the true faith is paternal (Orthodoxy). Russia must be Orthodox. Woe to Russia if the tsar in it is not Orthodox. Alexander I felt like a stranger in his country. The isolation of Alexander I from Orthodoxy became the cause of his personal drama.
In the 20s. in domestic policy, Alexander I moved further and further away from liberal ideas of his youth. In 1817, the Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Public Education was created. It concentrated in its hands the control over education, upbringing and the religious life of society. In 1821, a number of professors at Moscow and St. Petersburg universities were put on trial for propagating revolutionary ideas. In 1822, Alexander I banned the activities of all Masonic lodges.
Then Alexander I realized that his policy aimed at the liberalization of society had failed. Inside the country, in society, in the army opposition moods were ripening. Peasant riots, Masonic circles, secret societies of noble youth - all this worried Alexander I. In addition, constant remorse about indirect involvement in the death of his father turned into a painful sensation towards the end of his life. Alexander I more and more he began to move away from state affairs. The only speaker to him on all issues was A.A. Arakcheev. The shock was for him a terrible flood in 1824 in St. Petersburg. The same flood was in the year of his birth - 1777. Alexander I decided that in this way fate outlined his life path.
happiness in family life also was not. He and Elizaveta Alekseevna lived their lives separately from each other. Two of their daughters died young. Alexander I had no more heirs. Both felt deeply unhappy: at the end of their lives - no children, no successful reign. But both suddenly discovered each other. Now they spent all the time together and still could not talk enough. The emperor and empress began to live the life of private people and traveled a lot. In October 1825, during one of these trips to Taganrog, Alexander I caught a cold. Less than a month later, he suddenly died. His sudden death gave rise to many rumors. There were legends that the tsar, tired of power, went to distant Siberia and became the elder Fyodor Kuzmich.
A year after the death of Alexander I, Elizaveta Alekseevna died.

Foreign policy. The main directions in foreign policy were western and eastern.
1. East direction. In the 90s. 18th century Russia's position in Transcaucasia and the Caucasus began to strengthen. But by this time, the Caucasus and Transcaucasia were already the sphere of influence of Turkey and Iran. Seeing Russia's offensive in the Caucasus, Turkey and Iran stepped up their expansion into Georgia. They made literally devastating raids on Georgia. The small Georgian people needed a strong patron. Georgia at that time was going through a period of feudal fragmentation and was divided into five principalities. By this time Kakheti And Kartaliniya united in Eastern Georgia, Imereti, Mengrelia, Guria - Western Georgia. In 1783 Eastern Georgia came under the patronage of Russia. Since 1798, the ruler of Kartli - the Kakhetian kingdom was George XII Bagrationi . Being near death and having no strength to fight the aggression of Iran, George XII turned to Russia with a request to take Eastern Georgia into the citizenship of the Russian state and liquidate the Georgian throne so that it would not be a source of contention between the Georgians. In 1801, Eastern Georgia became part of Russia, the Georgian throne was liquidated, and the administration of Eastern Georgia passed to the royal governor. In 1803 - 1804. on the same terms, the principalities of Western Georgia became part of the Russian Empire. But for Russia, this meant war with Turkey and Iran.

Russian-Iranian war (1804 - 1813). The Persian Shah presented Russia with an ultimatum on the withdrawal of Russian troops from Transcaucasia and began military operations against Georgia. The Russian government rejected the ultimatum. England and France sided with the Shah. A war broke out between Russia and Iran. In general, it was successful for Russia. In 1813 was signed Gulistan peace treaty . (See textbook material) Russia defended Georgia and annexed a number of khanates that made up Northern Azerbaijan: Haji, Karabakh, Tekin, Shirvan, Derbent, Cuban, Baku, Talysh. Dagestan and Abkhazia were also annexed. Russia received the exclusive right to have its own fleet in the Caspian. Thus, Georgia and Northern Azerbaijan became part of Russia.
Russian-Turkish war (1806 - 1812). The reason for it was the removal of the rulers by the Turkish Sultan Moldova And Wallachia (contrary to the Iasi peace treaty of 1791) and the appointment of proteges of Napoleon Bonaparte in their place. The Russian army won a number of successful victories on land (taking the fortresses of Bendery, Ackerman, Galati, Bucharest) and at sea (Admiral D.N. Senyavin defeated the Turkish fleet in the Dardanelles and Athos battles in 1807). In 1812, the Turks were forced to conclude Bucharest Peace Treaty . Departed for Russia Bessarabia , a number of regions of Transcaucasia, the privileges of Christian peoples were confirmed Ottoman Empire- Moldavia, Wallachia and Serbia for autonomous control, as well as the right of Russia to the protection of all Christians - subjects of Turkey.

2. The Western direction of foreign policy was a priority. In 1789, the monarchy was overthrown in France and republican rule was established. European states led by England start a war against republican France. The French army defeated the first (1781), then the second (1798) anti-French coalition . In 1799, the young General Napoleon Bonaparte committed in France coup d'état and actually became the ruler of France. In 1804, having personally placed the crown of the emperor of the French Republic on himself, Napoleon decided to conquer Europe, and then the whole world. Napoleon needed a war. After the execution, on the orders of Napoleon, of a member of the French royal family, the Duke of Enghien, all monarchist Europe took up arms against him. In 1805, at Austerlitz, Napoleon defeated the third anti-French coalition of European states, which already included Russia. Europe has never seen such a debacle. In 1807, in a series of battles near Preussisch-Eylau and Friedland, the fourth anti-Napoleonic coalition was defeated. All of Europe was at the feet of Napoleon. Only island England and Russia remained. In 1807, Alexander I and Napoleon met to conclude a peace treaty. Alexander I was forced to sign Peace of Tilsit with France, according to which Russia was supposed to join the economic blockade of England, which was disadvantageous for her, and on the border with Russia, Napoleon created the Duchy of Warsaw as a springboard for aggression against Russia. A temporary truce between France and Russia lasted until the summer of 1812. Back in 1810, Napoleon declared: "In five years I will be the master of the world. Only Russia remains, but I will crush it."

Patriotic War of 1812 On the morning of June 12, 1812, the 500,000-strong "Great Army" of Napoleon Bonaparte crossed the Neman River and invaded Russia. When Alexander I found out about this, he immediately sent his adjutant General A.I. Balashova. To all the proposals of Alexander I about peace, Napoleon had only one answer - "no!". Napoleon Bonaparte hoped in a short campaign to defeat the Russian army, and then force Russia to join the orbit of French foreign policy.
The regular Russian army numbered more than 220 thousand people. It was divided into three parts, far apart from each other. The first army under the command M.B. Barclay de Tolly was in Lithuania, the second - General P.I. Bagration - in Belarus, the third - general A.P. Tormasova - in Ukraine. From the very beginning of the war, Emperor Alexander I adopted the most irreconcilable policy towards Napoleon. He showed personal courage and all this time was at the headquarters of the army of M.B. Barclay de Tolly.
In Russia, Napoleon Bonaparte expected to apply his usual tactics, with which he defeated the Western European armies in cramped Europe: the destruction of the Russian army in parts with lightning-fast, powerful blows. The French army quickly advanced deep into the territory of Russia, trying to deliver a crushing blow to the first army of M.B. Barclay de Tolly. The strategic situation required the speedy connection of the forces of the first and second Russian armies, which, for various reasons, was impossible to quickly accomplish. The superiority of the French army raised the question of the rapid replenishment of the Russian army. On July 6, 1812, Alexander I issued a manifesto calling for the creation of a people's militia. (See textbook material) This marked the beginning of the guerrilla war of the Russian people against Napoleon's army.
Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army M.B. Barclay de Tolly chose the right tactic in those circumstances - retreat. Near Smolensk, he managed to unite the first and second Russian armies and on August 2 give battle to the French. The battle near Smolensk lasted two days. In it, the French army lost 20 thousand officers and soldiers, and the Russian army lost 6 thousand.
The Russian army continued to retreat, the war began to take on a protracted character. This caused public discontent. M.B. Barclay de Tolly was accused of betrayal and aiding the French. They began to demand from Alexander I to put a Russian man at the head of the army. August 8 instead of M.B. Barclay de Tolly appointed Suvorov general as commander-in-chief M.I. Kutuzov . M.I. Kutuzov realized that Russia's allies against the French would be time and space. About the French, he said: "They themselves came, they themselves will leave." M.V. Kutuzov continued the tactics of the previous commander, but it seemed easier for the Russian troops to retreat with M.I. Kutuzov than with the "German Barclay". M.B. Barclay de Tolly accepted his resignation courageously, but worried about this for the rest of his life.
Nevertheless, on August 26, 1812, near the village of Borodino (124 km north of Moscow), M.I. Kutuzov decided to give a general battle to the French. The battlefield was chosen near the village of Borodino. For his troops M.V. Kutuzov chose the following disposition: on the left flank, the army of P.I. Bagration, covered with artificial earthen fortifications - flashes (later they were called Bagrationovskiye flashes). An earth mound was poured in the center, on which the artillery and troops of General N.N. Raevsky. The right flag was covered by the army of M.B. Barclay de Tolly. Napoleon adhered to offensive tactics. He intended to break through the Russian positions in the center, bypass the left flank, push the Russian troops back from the Old Smolensk road and free the road to Moscow.
On August 26, at half past six in the morning, the French launched an offensive. Napoleon brought down the main blow on Bagration's flushes. Their assault continued without interruption for six hours. Around noon, the French took the flushes, but the left flank was not broken through. During the battle, both sides suffered heavy losses. General P.I. was mortally wounded. Bagration. The troops of the left flank retreated in an organized manner. After that, the French directed the main blow to the battery of General N.N. Raevsky. M.I. Kutuzov ordered the Cossacks of Ataman M.I. Platov and the cavalry corps of F.P. Uvarov to make a raid behind French lines in order to distract them from the attack on N.N. Raevsky. The French were forced to interrupt the offensive for 2 hours. At this time, fresh forces of Russian troops were brought up to the center. Battery of General N.N. Raevsky was captured by the French only by 16 pm. (See textbook material)
The battle did not end with the victory of the Russian troops, but nevertheless the offensive onslaught of the French dried up. Napoleon did not dare to bring into battle his last reserve - the imperial guard. Losses on both sides were huge. The French lost 58 thousand soldiers, 47 generals; Russian army - 40 thousand soldiers, 24 generals. Half of the Russian army was destroyed. In such a situation, it was risky to continue the battle the next day with the French. M.I. Kutuzov decided to save the army. The Russian army after Borodino began to retreat to Moscow. (See textbook material) On September 1, at the military council of the Russian army in the village of Fili, it was decided to leave Moscow. On the morning of September 2, 1812, the Russian army, together with the inhabitants, left Moscow.
By the evening of September 2, 1812, Napoleon's troops entered Moscow. Napoleon was accustomed to the servility of the West and waited a long time at the outpost for the Russians to bring him the keys to the city. But in the ancient Russian capital, a different meeting awaited the French. Moscow is on fire. Meanwhile, the Russian army was retreating from Moscow along the Ryazan road. M.I. Kutuzov was pursued by French troops under the command of I. Murat. Then the Russian troops made Tarutino maneuver - changed drastically eastbound to the south - we went to the Kaluga road. This allowed the Russian troops to break away from the French. A camp was set up in Tarutino, where the troops were able to rest, replenished with fresh regular units, weapons and food supplies.
Over the next two months, all of Russia rebelled against Napoleon's troops: 300 thousand militia were put up and 100 million rubles were collected.
Napoleon Bonaparte himself was in Moscow at that time. During the month of his stay in an empty and hungry, burning in the fires of Moscow, his army was almost completely demoralized. Now the French emperor offered Alexander I to make peace. These days, Alexander I said significant words that "he would rather go with his people into the depths of the Asian steppes, grow a beard and eat potatoes, than make peace, as long as at least one armed enemy remains on Russian soil".
October 6, 1812 Napoleon left Moscow. French troops retreated west along the Kaluga road. The French army was still a force, but it was already doomed: it drew huge convoys with silver, furs, porcelain, silks. The Napoleonic army, once the best in Europe, has turned into an army of marauders. And that was her death. She melted before our eyes.
On October 12, a battle between Russian and French troops took place near the city of Maloyaroslavets. After that, Russian troops blocked the French retreat along the Kaluga road. The French were forced to turn onto the Smolensk road, along which they advanced on Moscow in August. In October - December 1812, the partisan movement in the country reached its highest level. M.I. became the organizer of the partisan movement. Kutuzov. Among the leaders of the partisan movement was a famous poet, hussar colonel D.V. Davydov . Partisan detachments were led by landowners, soldiers and peasants who had escaped from captivity. In the Moscow region, more than 5 thousand peasants fought in the detachment of the serf Gerasim Kurin. In the Smolensk province, Vasilisa Kozhina's detachment included women and teenagers. The patriotic upsurge in society was so great that even the gypsies went to join the partisans. The war of 1812 became truly popular.
Further, the tactics of the Russian army consisted in the parallel pursuit of the French army. The Russian army, without engaging in battles with Napoleon, destroyed his army in parts. The battle of November 14 - 17, 1812, when the French crossed the Berezina River, completed the defeat of the French army. Napoleon Bonaparte himself at that time handed over command of the miserable remnants of his army to I. Murat and secretly left for Paris to recruit new soldiers. Only 30,000 French soldiers crossed the Russian border.
On December 25, Alexander I issued a Manifesto, according to which the Patriotic War of 1812 was declared completed, and the Russian army began a foreign campaign to finally cleanse Europe of Napoleonic troops.
The Patriotic War of 1812 became a significant event in Russian history. The invasion of the Napoleonic troops caused a rapid growth of national identity. The liberation war of 1812 became Patriotic War, because not only the regular army fought against Napoleon's troops, but almost the entire population of the country. Russian society again, as in the Time of Troubles, they rallied to resist the invaders. 2 million people died in the war. Many western regions of the country were devastated by fires and robberies, the country's economy suffered significant damage, but Russia again defended its territorial integrity and independence. The unity of society, the patriotic impulse in the fight against the enemy made a huge impression on contemporaries and will forever remain in the memory of posterity. (See textbook material)

Liberation campaign of the Russian army (1813-1814). The best part of the French army was destroyed in Russia. But Napoleon still kept the whole of Europe in subjection. He assembled a new army, greatly outnumbering the forces acting against him, and left no hegemonic plans behind. To prevent a new aggression, it was necessary to transfer hostilities outside of Russia and achieve the complete surrender of Napoleon.
In January 1813, Russian troops entered the territory of Poland. Has begun foreign campaign of the Russian army . The entry of the Russian army into Europe served as a signal for a general uprising of the European peoples against the rule of Napoleon. A new anti-Napoleonic coalition of European states was concluded - consisting of Russia, England, Prussia, Austria and Sweden.
In October 1813, between the new army of Napoleon and the armies of the allies, a decisive battle near Leipzig , which went down in history as the "Battle of the Nations". More than half a million people participated in it from both sides. The French army was utterly defeated, but Napoleon himself was able to get out of the encirclement. In January 1814, the allied troops entered the territory of France. In March 1814, Russian Colonel M.F. Orlov accepted the surrender of Paris. Napoleon was exiled to the island of Elba in the Mediterranean. The old royal Bourbon dynasty returned to the French throne. The monarchy in France was restored. But Napoleon once again amazed the world. A year later, with a detachment of 1,100 people, he unexpectedly left Elba and went to Paris. Already at the first meeting with government troops, he, unarmed, went towards the soldiers: "Soldiers, do you recognize me? Who among you wants to shoot at his emperor? Shoot!" The French soldiers rushed to Napoleon and began to cry and hug him. For them, he was the personification of their honor and glory. Regiments, divisions, corps sent by the Bourbons against Napoleon were powerless. The army unconditionally went over to the side of Napoleon. Without firing a shot, Napoleon occupied Paris. But this time his reign lasted only 100 days. In June 1815 near the village waterloo in Belgium, he suffered a crushing defeat from the combined troops of England, Holland and Prussia. Napoleon was captured and this time exiled to Saint Helena off the west coast of Africa under the supervision of his worst enemies - the British.
Six for long years he languished on an abandoned island in the Pacific, deprived of the title of emperor, far from his beloved France, from his soldiers. Rejected by the whole world, the former great emperor reflected on his life path, about the reasons for his crushing defeat. In his memoirs, he wrote: "The biggest mistake in my life was the war against Russia". May 5, 1821 Napoleon Bonaparte died. In 1840, his ashes were transported from St. Helena and buried in Les Invalides (Pantheon of the great commanders of France) in Paris to the jubilant cries of thousands of French people. France received its emperor.

Congress of Vienna (September 1814 - June 1815). In September 1814, the congress of states participating in the war against Napoleon began its work in Vienna. Congress of Vienna was supposed to decide the fate of the post-war structure of Europe and satisfy the territorial claims of the victorious countries. 216 states took part in the work of the congress, but Russia, England, and Austria played the main role. The Russian delegation was represented by Alexander I. The Congress of Vienna eliminated the political changes and transformations that had taken place as a result of the French Revolution of 1789 and the Napoleonic Wars. France was returned to pre-revolutionary borders. The Congress of Vienna restored monarchical regimes in France, Italy, Spain and other states. According to the decisions of the Vienna Congress, Central Poland with Warsaw went to Russia. From the Polish and part of the Lithuanian lands, the Kingdom of Poland was formed as part of Russia. During the Napoleonic wars, serfdom was swept away in a number of Western European countries, but the victorious countries did not dare to restore it.

Holy Union. In September 1815, at the initiative of Alexander I, the monarchs of Russia, Austria and Prussia signed the Act of Education in Paris Holy Union . Then almost all European monarchs joined the Holy Alliance. Alexander I became the head of the Holy Alliance. In those days, the Russian emperor was the most popular person in Europe. Wherever he appeared - youthful, handsome, in the uniform of a cavalry guard regiment - he immediately became the center of attention. Kings and generals crowded into his waiting room, he was the most welcome guest at balls with the most august persons, in the salons of the first beauties of Europe ... Russia's influence on European politics was prevalent.

The purpose of the Holy Alliance was:

support for the old monarchical regimes based on the principle of legitimism (recognition of the legitimacy of maintaining their power);
struggle against revolutionary movements in Europe.

At the subsequent congresses of the Holy Alliance in Aachen (1818) and Troppau (1820), a decision was made that gave the right to interfere with the internal affairs of states by the members of the Holy Alliance in order to suppress revolutionary actions in them.
The significance of the Vienna system and the Holy Alliance was that in the next 10 to 15 years they ensured universal peace and stability in the tormented Napoleonic wars Europe. Then the Holy Alliance broke up.

Decembrist movement. During the foreign campaign of the Russian army, thousands of Russian noblemen visited Western Europe as winners. They not only smashed Napoleon's troops, but also paid attention to the daily life of the Western European peoples, to the political structure in their states. They are amazed high level freedom of the individual in France, democratic morals, freedom of speech. Then they returned to their homeland, where most of the peasants were serfs. And the contrast between the winners and the vanquished shocked the youth of the nobility. Some officers - nobles came to the conclusion that Western European society is more progressive than Russian. In their opinion, the reason for the backwardness of Russian society is autocracy and serfdom.
The reign of Alexander I is the time of the formation of the revolutionary ideology and revolutionary movement. From 1811 to 1825 in Russia there were more than 30 revolutionary secret organizations of the nobility. Most of them were military officers.

At the end of 1824, the leaders of both societies agreed on a joint action in the summer of 1826.

Uprising in Petersburg on December 14, 1825 After the unexpected death on October 19, 1825 in Taganrog of Alexander I, an interregnum arose in Russia. The Decembrists decided to take advantage of this. On December 14, 1825, on the day of the promulgation of the manifesto of the new emperor, the Decembrists called for an uprising. They intended to force the Senate to accept their Manifesto to the Russian People document and proclaim the transition to constitutional government.
Early in the morning, members of the "Northern Society" began agitation among the troops of St. Petersburg. Only at 11 o'clock Senate Square managed to withdraw the Life Guards Moscow Regiment. At one o'clock in the afternoon, the sailors of the Guards naval crew and some other parts of the St. Petersburg garrison joined the rebels - a total of about 3 thousand people. It turned out that the swearing-in took place earlier than planned, the members of the Senate had already dispersed. In addition, the dictator of the uprising, S.P. Trubetskoy did not appear at the place of performance. The new Emperor Nicholas I began negotiations with the rebels. They were delayed by six o'clock in the evening and did not bring any results. But after the Decembrist P.G. Kakhovsky mortally wounded the governor-general of St. Petersburg Count M.A. Miloradovich, the tsar ordered to shoot at the rebels. Two or three canister shots dispersed the rebellious troops. By evening, the leaders of the uprising were arrested, and the Decembrists' uprising was suppressed. Head of the Southern Society P.I. By this time Pestel had been arrested and betrayed all the plans of the conspirators. However, on December 29, 1825, S.I. Muravyov-Apostol and M.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin raised an uprising of the Chernigov regiment in the south. On January 3, 1826, government troops suppressed this uprising as well.
The arrests of members of the society and the investigation began. In the case of the Decembrists, 579 people were involved, 289 people. were found guilty. Five people - P.I. Pestel, K.F. Ryleev, S.I. Muravyov-Apostol, M.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin and P.G. Kakhovsky were hanged. The rest, depending on the degree of guilt, were sent to hard labor, to a settlement in Siberia, demoted to soldiers, transferred to the Caucasus in active army. The Decembrists were pardoned only by the son of Nicholas I Alexander II after his coronation.

Evaluation of the activities of the Decembrists. There are various assessments of the activities of the Decembrists. IN Soviet time the point of view prevailed that the Decembrists were honest and noble people that their policy provisions on the elimination of autocracy, the abolition of serfdom, the estate system, the creation of a republic - reflected the most pressing problems of the progressive development of Russia. The merit of the Decembrists is that they laid the foundation for that social movement, whose struggle will lead to the fall of the autocracy and the abolition of the serfdom. There is another point of view on the activities of the Decembrists. The Decembrist uprising is a utopian movement. The Decembrists' projects to introduce a republican form of government or even a constitutional monarchy into Russia were politically reckless. On the first day of the speech, the leaders of the movement did not go to Senate Square, which betrayed their comrades and the soldiers involved in the rebellion. The Decembrists were "terribly far from the people." They did not know their country, did not understand the peculiarities of development Russian society. They looked for the problem of Russia's lagging behind not in the economy, but in the absence in Russia of the political and cultural ideas of Europe. The Decembrists did not take into account that the democratic institutions that have developed in Europe are the result of a long and peculiar European history.