Eastern direction of the foreign policy of Alexander I. Foreign policy of Alexander I main directions eastern western
Sweden and Naples: S conducting major military operations in Bavaria and Austria; S November 20, 1805 - the defeat of the Russian-Austrian troops from Napoleon near Austerlitz in Moravia
Peace of Tilsit between Russia and France: S registration of the Russian-French alliance and division of spheres of influence (France - Western and Central Europe; Russia - Northern and Southern Europe); S Russia's consent to the creation of the Duchy of Warsaw from the torn away former Polish lands; S accession of Russia to the continental blockade of England; S limiting the presence of Russia in the Mediterranean Sea and the transfer to France of the Ionian Islands and the Bay of Kotor, occupied by the Russian fleet
Fourth coalition - (1806-1807) in alliance with England, Sweden, Prussia and Saxony: S Carrying out the main military operations on the territory of Prussia; S January 26-27, 1807 - a bloody battle of Russian and French troops near the Prussian village. Preussish-Eylau; S June 2, 1807 - the defeat of the Russian army led by General L. Bennigsen from Napoleon at Friedland in East Prussia
Erfurt Allied Convention between Russia and France (September 30, 1809) S confirmation of the terms of the Peace of Tilsit; S recognition by France of Russia's rights to Finland, Moldavia and Wallachia
In 1808, Russia, adhering to the terms of the Treaty of Tilsit and an alliance with Napoleon, entered the war with Sweden, which refused to break off trade relations with England. In 1809 Sweden was defeated. Russia annexed Finland. The created Grand Duchy of Finland, headed by Russian emperor, became part of Russia with broad internal autonomy (Table 17).
Table 17
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Tensions developed on the southern borders (Table 18). Turkey did not want to recognize the conquest of the Black Sea coast by Russia, and first of all, the annexation of Crimea at the end of the 18th century. The main tasks of Russia were as follows: to provide the most
Table 18
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more favorable regime in the Black Sea straits of the Bosporus and the Dardanelles and to prevent foreign warships from entering the Black Sea.
Russia actively used the right of patronage of the Balkan Christians, subjects of the Ottoman Empire, received by it under the Kyuchuk-Kainarji (1774) and Yassy (1791) treaties. The contradictions between Russia and Turkey led in 1806 to a new war, which ended in 1812 with the victory of Russia. Under the terms of the Treaty of Bucharest signed in May 1812, Bessarabia and a significant section of the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus, along with the city of Sukhumi, were ceded to Russia. Moldova, Wallachia and Serbia, remaining within the Ottoman Empire, received autonomy.
The treaty, concluded a month before Napoleon's attack on Russia, made it possible to concentrate all forces on the fight against Napoleonic aggression.
In the Caucasus, where the interests of Russia, Turkey and Iran clashed, the Russian government also pursued an active policy. In 1801, Georgia voluntarily became part of the Russian Empire. The result of the Russian-Iranian war of 1804-1813. was the inclusion in Russia of the territory of Northern Azerbaijan and Dagestan. The first stage of the accession of the Caucasus to the Russian Empire was completed.
10.7. Patriotic War of 1812
On the eve of 1812, relations with France became increasingly tense. Russia was not satisfied with the Peace of Tilsit, and from 1810 it actually did not observe the continental blockade. In addition, Alexander 1 did not want to recognize Napoleon's desire for absolute domination in Europe. In turn, the emperor of France did not want to reckon with Russia in his policy of conquest. All this led to serious contradictions between Russia and France, which escalated into hostilities, called in our history the Patriotic War of 1812 (Scheme 137).
The active aspirations of the French emperor were opposed by Alexander I, who himself sought influence on European politics. Russia's violation of the continental blockade was one of the reasons for France's entry into the war.
In June 1812, the French army was concentrated on the Russian border, the number of which reached 647 thousand people (including reserves). 448 thousand soldiers crossed the border, who took part in the hostilities on Russian territory June to December
| Scheme 137 |
1812 The core of the French army was the old guard (10 thousand people).
The army of "twelve languages" included contingents of the French Empire, the Italian kingdom, Austrian Empire, the kingdom of Naples and both Sicilies, Prussia, Denmark, Bavaria, Saxony, Württemberg, Westphalia and others. There were less than half of the French in Napoleon's "great" army.
The invading armies were opposed by Russian forces. Russia was mainly diplomatically supported by England, Spain, Portugal and Sweden.
Most of the French regiments had a significant number of recruits. The quality of the French weapons was better than that of the Russians: the guns were easier to repair, their parts were interchangeable. The carriage in artillery pieces was based on metal axles, which allowed the French to move them at high speed. Experienced marshals commanded the army: N. Oudinot, M. Ney, I. Murat and others.
The Russian army was not inferior in potential to the French, its strength during the war reached 700 thousand people (including Cossacks and the militia). In terms of fighting spirit and patriotic enthusiasm, weapons and food supplies, and artillery power, the Russian army had an advantage.
But in the initial period of the war, the first echelon of French troops that invaded Russia (448 thousand people) outnumbered the Russian armies (320 thousand people), covering the western borders. At that time, the 1st Army under the command of M.B. Barclay de Tolly was located in the Baltic States (Lithuania, the region of Kovno-Vilno), the 2nd Army under the command of P.I. Bagration was in Belarus (between the Neman and Bug rivers), the 3rd army of A.P. Tormasova occupied positions in Northern Ukraine (Lutsk region). Napoleon's goal in this war, as is sometimes claimed, was not the conquest of Russia - he understood that this was impossible - but the defeat of the main Russian forces during a short campaign and the conclusion of a new, tougher treaty obliging Russia to follow in the wake of French policy.
Russia's strategic plan was different. She tried to avoid pitched battles, focusing on rearguard battles, and to drag the French inland. And although such a doctrine of warfare seemed to many to be wrong (General P.I. Bagration was especially ardently opposed to it) and even treacherous, it was approved by Emperor Alexander I. And the course of hostilities in 1812 fully confirmed its legitimacy (Table 19) .
Table 19
Preparation of Russia and France for the war of 1812
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The beginning of the war. On June 12, 1812, French troops launched an invasion of Russia, forcing the river. Neman. The Russian armies covering the western border fought rearguard battles and retreated inland, the 1st and 2nd Russian armies united in the Smolensk region, where a bloody battle took place on August 4-6, 1812. Our soldiers defended with dignity (soldiers and officers of the corps of Generals D.S. Dokhturov and N.N. Raevsky especially distinguished themselves), but for the sake of preserving the army, according to general plan yet left the city.
This caused some discontent in the army and society. Therefore, on August 8, 1812, Emperor Alexander I appointed M.I. Kutuzov. On August 17, 1812, he arrived at the troops and began preparations for a general battle, a place for which was chosen 110 km from Moscow, near the village. Borodino.
Battle of Borodino (August 26, 1812). On the eve of the battle, the parties set themselves different strategic tasks: the Russians - not to let the invaders' army to Moscow, the French - to defeat the Russian army in the decisive battle, which they had been looking for under the leadership of Napoleon since the beginning of the military campaign. All this manifested itself during the battle itself: Napoleon constantly attacked, hoping to knock the Russians out of their positions, and Kutuzov methodically defended himself, counterattacking (Scheme 138).
The battle began with a French attack on the positions of the Russian army, which were called Bagration's flushes. The onslaught lasted seven hours, the fortifications changed hands several times, Bagration himself was seriously wounded and taken out of the battlefield. In the middle of the day, Napoleon shifted the direction of the main attack to the center of the Borodino field, where the battery of General Raevsky held the defense.
The Russians fought heroically, and, despite the capture by the enemy of Bagration's flashes and Raevsky's battery, the offensive impulse of the French army dried up and it failed to achieve a decisive advantage. With the onset of twilight, the battle subsided, both sides suffered huge losses, the issue of which is controversial and is still being discussed in historical science: the number of losses ranges from 20 to 40 thousand people among the French, from 30 to 50 thousand among the Russians.
“Of the 50 battles I have given,” Napoleon said, “this was the battle in which the most valor was shown and the least results were achieved.”
Historians argue: who won this "battle of the giants"? To answer this question, we must again turn to the objectives of the parties. Obviously,
S victory of the Russian troops (M.I. Kutuzov) -, S victory of the French troops (Napoleon); S draw, as the parties failed to achieve the complete defeat of each other's armies (modern historians)
 Scheme 139 |
The people's militia was created in Russia as a strategic reserve to repulse French aggression on the basis of the tsar's manifestos of July 6 and 18, 1812. It was staffed by provinces and was led by experienced military leaders. So, before being appointed commander-in-chief of the Russian troops M.I. Kutuzov headed the people's militia of the Petersburg province. The Moscow and Smolensk militias participated in the Battle of Borodino, showing stamina and heroism together with regular military units.
The partisan movement played a significant role in the people's war against the French invasion. One of the initiators of the creation of partisan "flying detachments" separated from the army was Minister of War M.B. Barclay de Tolly. In total, 36 Cossack, seven cavalry and five infantry regiments operated behind enemy lines. The most famous partisan commanders were A.N. Seslavin, A.S. Figner, D.V. Davydov, A.Kh. Benkendorf, F.F. Winzingerode and others.
Great assistance to the army was provided by peasant partisan detachments, which arose spontaneously. They were led by Fedor Potapov, Yermolai Chetvertakov, Gerasim Kurin, Vasilisa Kozhina.
M.I. Kutuzov called the partisan movement a "small war" and always emphasized the enormous contribution of the partisans to the cause of the common victory in the Patriotic War of 1812.
After the battle of Borodino, Kutuzov decided to leave Moscow in order to save the army. Russian troops, having come to the city, made the so-called Tarutinsky maneuver, setting up a military camp 80 km from Moscow on the river. Nare near vil. Tarutino and thereby closing the passage to the French in the south of the country.
On September 2, 1812, Napoleon entered Moscow, and almost immediately a fire broke out in it, destroying a significant part of the city's buildings. The French army had serious difficulties: military discipline fell, robberies and looting intensified, there were interruptions in food and fodder provision. While in Moscow, Napoleon repeatedly turned to Alexander I with proposals for a peace, but was invariably refused.
During the five weeks in Moscow, the French army lost about 30 thousand people, which was approximately equal to their losses on the Borodino field. As a result, Napoleon was forced to give the order to leave the city.
On October 11, 1812, Napoleon's main forces left Moscow and tried to break through to the southwest. But the army of M.I., rested and replenished with reserves, stood in their way. Kutuzov. On October 12, 1812, a major battle took place in Maloyaroslavets, which changed hands several times. Not having achieved victory, Napoleon gave the order to retreat towards the western border. Russian troops pursued the French and inflicted a number of significant blows on them (October 22 - near Vyazma, November 3-6 - near the village of Krasnoy, November 14-16 - on the Berezina River). A disorderly flight of the remnants of the French troops began. On December 3, 1812, the once “great army” of Napoleon left Russia (Table 20).
The following circumstances contributed to the victory of the Russian army in the Patriotic War of 1812:
Selflessness and heroism of the Russian people (army, militia, partisans), united in a single patriotic impulse to defend the fatherland;
The military talent of M.I. Kutuzova, M.B. Barclay de Tolly and other military leaders;
Miscalculations and mistakes of Napoleon, expressed in ignorance of the natural and climatic conditions of Russia and its resources;
Irreplaceable losses of personnel, difficulties in providing food and fodder for the French.
The Patriotic War of 1812 played a significant role in the fate of Russia and was of great historical significance (Scheme 140).
In 1813-1814. Russian troops entered the territory of Europe, where they continued to fight with the recreated Napoleonic army (Table 21). The military initiative remained with Russia and its allies - Prussia and Austria. They won a number of victories
Table 20
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over Napoleon (August 17-18, 1813 - near Kulm, October 4-7, 1813 - near Leipzig) and in January 1814 entered the territory of France. March 18, 1814 Allied troops entered Paris. Napoleon was dethroned and exiled to Fr. Elba in the Mediterranean. In France, the monarchy of the Bourbon dynasty was restored.
Having defeated Napoleon, it was not easy for the Allies to agree on the post-war reorganization of Europe because of serious contradictions on territorial issues.
| Foreign campaigns of the Russian army in 1813-1814. |
The Congress of Vienna fixed the borders of states and the inviolability of monarchies. The created system was designed to maintain the European balance, and it was precisely on it that Russia's foreign policy was oriented after 1815 (Scheme 141).
Table 21
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| Historical meaning | |
| Patriotic War of 1812 |
 Scheme 140 |
Creation of the Holy Alliance
Congress of Vienna (September 1814 -
June 1815) Main decisions: S deprivation of France of conquests, and preservation of the territory corresponding to the borders of 1722; S transfer to England Malta
and the Ionian Islands; S extension of Austrian power to northern Italy and a number of Balkan provinces; ✓ division of the Duchy of Warsaw between Russia, Prussia and Austria. The entry of most of it into the Russian Empire under the name of the Kingdom of Poland
"100 days" of Napoleon (March - June 1815) return to power; defeat at Waterloo; link to o. Saint Helena in the Atlantic Ocean
Holy Alliance (September 14, 1815) - Russia, Austria, Prussia. The goal is to preserve the European borders established by the Congress of Vienna and fight against revolutionary movements. Accession to the Holy Alliance of most European states
To ensure the inviolability of the decisions of the congress, the monarchs of Russia, Prussia, and Austria created the Holy Alliance (Union of Monarchs), which actively suppressed revolutionary explosions, with Russia playing an important role.
Very soon, contradictions began to grow in the Holy Alliance between the participants. England and Austria sought to limit the increased influence of Russia after the defeat of Napoleonic France on international politics.
10.8. Decembrist movement
In the first decades of the XIX century. part of the representatives of the nobility are beginning to realize the destructiveness of autocracy and serfdom for further development country. Among them, a system of views is being formed, the implementation of which should change the foundations of Russian life (Scheme 142). The following contributed to the formation of the ideology of future noble revolutionaries:
Russian reality with its inhuman serfdom, the lack of rights of the bulk of the population, the absence of representative power from among the elected from the estates and the constitution with the unlimited power of the emperor;
The patriotic upsurge caused by the victory in the Patriotic War of 1812, and the successful participation of the Russian army in the foreign campaigns of 1813-1814. The Russian recruit soldier defeated the strongest army in Europe, but this did not improve his life and the well-being of the whole country. And the contrast between Russian and European reality was so striking and painful that it could not help but make some of the Russian officers think about the fate of Russia;
The influence of the humanistic ideas and views of the French enlighteners (Voltaire, J. Rousseau, M. Montesquieu), perceived by a significant part of the future Decembrists;
The unwillingness of the government of Alexander I to consistently start reforming the foundations of Russian society.
At the same time, it should be noted that the worldview of those who are commonly called Decembrists was not unified and there were sharp disagreements between them. Among the Decembrists were both supporters of the revolutionary and violent reorganization of society, and adherents of evolutionary-moderate transformations in the country. But all of them were opposed to the autocratic-feudal regime in Russia and sought to participate in its change.
Decembrist movement
The state of Russian reality with the lack of rights of the bulk of the population and the dominance of serfdom
Patriotic upsurge and the growth of national consciousness
The influence of the humanistic ideas of the French Enlightenment
Indecisiveness of Alexander I in carrying out reforms
Reform and revolutionary tendencies
The germs of the future Westernism and Slavophilism
National Patriotic and International Trends
Orthodox dogmas and religious indifference
Cxefta 142
The organizations of the future Decembrists arose in the midst of many different secret societies that were rich in the social and secular life of Russia in the first decades of the 19th century. These societies included, first of all, some Masonic lodges, which included N. Muravyov, M. Lunin, S. Muravyov-Apostol, P. Pestel and other future oppositionists. There were also officer artels in the guards regiments that operated in 1814-1816. (in the Life Guards Semenovsky Regiment, General Staff).
In 1816, the first secret organization of the Decembrists, the Union of Salvation, or the Society of True and Faithful Sons of the Fatherland, was formed in St. Petersburg, on the initiative of Colonel of the General Staff A.N. Muraviev. It included young guards officers N.M. Muravyov, brothers M.M. and S.M. Muravyov-Apostles, S.P. Trubetskoy, A.D. Yakushkin, P.I. Pestel. In total, there were about 30 members in this organization. Their main goal was to introduce constitutional government and the destruction of serfdom, but the means of achieving it were not yet clear, and there was also no program of political transformation. Disagreements among the members of the Salvation Union intensified in the autumn of 1817, after which it was decided to dissolve this organization and create a new one (Table 22).
In January 1818, under the name of the Union of Welfare, such an organization was created. It was more numerous (about 200 members) and played an important role in the development of the organizational and program principles of Decembristism, set out in the charter of the Union, which was called the "Green Book". In its first part, the main task of the activity was outlined, which was to form an advanced public opinion favorable in the future for the implementation of the transformational plans of the Decembrists. The second part of the charter contained the main political goals organizations: the introduction of a constitution and legally free representation, the abolition of slavery, the equality of citizens before the law, the elimination of military settlements. The Welfare Union had several secret boards, which were located in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Poltava, Tulchin (at the headquarters of the 2nd Army in Ukraine). Members of this organization, among which stood out P.I. Pestel, A.P. Yushnevsky, V.F. Raevsky, M.F. Orlov, F.N. .F. Ryleev, advocated advanced science and literature, bought talented self-taught people from serfdom, created Lancaster schools for mutual education in military units, submitted projects to the government for the liberation of peasants, stigmatized stick discipline and military settlements. In 1820, P.I. Pestel and N.M. Muravyov were instructed to prepare the program documents of the secret society. But once again the contradictions between the radical and moderate members of society escalated, which led the Union of Welfare to a crisis. The goal is to overcome it at the congress
Table 22
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| Secret organizations of future Decembrists |
The end of the table. 22
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representatives of the administrations in January 1821 in Moscow, it was decided to dissolve themselves. Members of the Tulchinsk Council in Ukraine, headed by P.I. Pestel, did not agree with the decision of the Moscow Congress to dissolve the Welfare Union and in March 1821 created the Southern Society.
The Northern Society was organized in 1822 in St. Petersburg on the initiative of N.M. Muravyov and N.I. Turgenev.
The Society of United Slavs arose back in 1818 autonomously from the Union of Welfare in Ukraine and was originally called the Society of the First Accord. In 1823 it was transformed into the Society of United Slavs. Its leaders were the brothers A. and P. Borisov, Yu. Lyublinsky, I. Gorbachevsky. Unlike other Decembrists, they were people of humble and poor origin and advocated the creation of a federal state of all Slavic peoples. In the autumn of 1825, the Society of United Slavs merged into the Southern Society, thanks, first of all, to the efforts of M.L. Bestuzhev-Ryumin.
The basis of the activities of the Southern and Northern Societies was the development of programmatic constitutional projects for the future reorganization of Russia (Table 23). In 1821 -1825. such projects were created: in the Southern Society - "Russian Truth" P.I. Pestel, in the Northern society - "Constitution" N.M. Muravyov (each document had several versions) (Scheme 143).
Despite a number of programmatic and personal-subjective disagreements, members of the Southern and Northern societies were closely connected with each other. In March 1824 P.I. Pestel came to St. Petersburg, where he discussed the "Russian Truth" written by him with future Decembrists and insisted on its acceptance as an ideological platform for possible transformations after the coup. His project aroused many objections from the northerners, moreover, the personality of P.I. Pestel, who was considered a dictator by nature. Nevertheless, it was decided in 1826 to convene a congress of both societies to develop a single platform.
Initially, it was proposed to time the performance of members of the secret society to the general army exercises scheduled for the summer of 1826, during which a coup d'etat could be carried out. But circumstances decreed otherwise. On November 19, 1825, Emperor Alexander I died unexpectedly in Taganrog. He had no children, and in accordance with the law on succession to the throne, his brother Konstantin was to become king. But few people knew that he had renounced the throne even earlier. There has been an interregnum. The oath to the ascendant Nicholas, the younger brother of Alexander I, was scheduled for December 14, 1825. The Decembrists decided to take advantage of this to carry out a coup d'état (Scheme 144).
Table 23
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On December 13, 1825, the last meeting of the members of the Northern Society took place at the apartment of K. Ryleev. They decided to withdraw the troops under their influence to the Senate Square in St. Petersburg and force the Senate and the State Council not to swear allegiance to Nicholas I, but to adopt the "Manifesto to the Russian people", which declared the following:
"one. Destruction of the former government.
2. Establishment of a temporary, until the establishment of a permanent ...
5. Destruction of the right of property that extends to people.
6. Equality of all estates before the law...
On the morning of December 14, several military units were brought to Senate Square. The first to arrive was the Moscow Life Guards Regiment, led by staff captains brothers Alexander and Mikhail Bestuzhev and Dmitry Shchepin-Rostovsky. The regiment formed up in a square (combat quadrangle) near the monument to Peter I. The hero of the Patriotic War of 1812 rode up to the rebels on horseback.
At the beginning of the XIX century. Russia pursued an active foreign policy. Its main directions were western (European) and southern. The quintessence of European foreign policy was the struggle between Russia and France for leadership on the continent. The southern direction included relations with Iran (Persia) and Turkey ( Ottoman Empire) (Scheme 135).
In 1805, a third coalition was formed in Europe against France, consisting of Russia, England and Austria. The outbreak of hostilities did not bring good luck to the allies: in the battle of Austerlitz in 1805, their troops suffered a serious defeat. This coalition soon fell apart.
In 1806, with the active participation of Russia, a fourth coalition was created, which included Russia, Prussia, England, Saxony, and Sweden. The defeat and surrender of Prussia, and then the Russian army in the battle of Friedland, forced Alexander I to start peace negotiations with the French emperor.
Modern historians tend to believe that the coalition wars of 1805-1807. were predatory on both sides, with a clear predominance in the policy of the coalitions of the "spirit of reaction" over the "spirit of revival". These wars waged by the governments brought numerous misfortunes to their peoples. According to the historian N.A. Troitsky, the goals of the third and fourth coalitions boiled down to two main areas: territorial expansion, the seizure and robbery of new lands, as a minimum, and dominance in Europe, as a maximum; the preservation of the survivors on the continent and the restoration of the overthrown French Revolution and Napoleonic feudal regimes.
Scheme 135
In 1807, in Tilsit, France and Russia signed an agreement, according to which Russia undertook to join the continental blockade of England and break off political relations with her. The Treaty of Tilsit also provided for the creation of the Duchy of Warsaw under the protectorate of Napoleon from the Polish lands torn away from Prussia (Scheme 136). Subsequently, they will serve as a springboard for an attack on Russia.
Scheme 136
The Treaty of Tilsit caused damage to the Russian economy due to the severance of traditional trade ties with England. Nevertheless, he gave the country a temporary respite and allowed to intensify policy in the northwest and south.
The Erfurt meeting of the two emperors in 1809 confirmed their previous agreements and for some time stabilized the situation on the European continent.
In 1808, Russia, adhering to the terms of the Treaty of Tilsit and an alliance with Napoleon, entered the war with Sweden, which refused to break off trade relations with England. In 1809 Sweden was defeated. Russia annexed Finland. The created Grand Duchy of Finland, headed by the Russian emperor, became part of Russia with broad internal autonomy (Table 17).
Table 17
Russo-Swedish War 1808–1809
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Sweden's refusal to join the continental blockade and its allied relations with England. The desire of Russia to seize Finland and thereby eliminate the centuries-old threat to the northern borders of the country. France pushing Russia to aggression against Sweden |
|
|
February 1808 - the invasion of Russian troops into Finland and the capture of most of the Finnish territory. March 1809 - the campaign of Russian troops on the ice of the Gulf of Bothnia. The capture of the Åland Islands and the invasion of the territory of Sweden. March - August 1809 - the movement of Russian troops along the northern coast of the Gulf of Bothnia to Stockholm. Surrender of the Swedish army |
|
|
September 5, 1809 - Friedrichham Peace Treaty Russia and Sweden, according to which: ü Sweden pledged to join the continental blockade and break the alliance with England; ü Finland became part of Russia with broad rights of internal autonomy |
Tensions developed on the southern borders (Table 18). Turkey did not want to recognize the conquest of the Black Sea coast by Russia, and first of all, the annexation of Crimea at the end of the 18th century. The main tasks of Russia were as follows: to ensure the most favorable regime in the Black Sea straits of the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles and to prevent foreign warships from entering the Black Sea.
Table 18
The southern direction of the foreign policy of Alexander I
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The course of hostilities |
|||
|
Russo-Iranian War 1804-1813 |
The clash of interests of Russia and Persia (Iran) in the Transcaucasus. Accession of Georgia to Russia. In 1804, Russian troops occupied the Ganja Khanate (for raids on Georgia), Iran declared war on Russia |
|
Conclusion in 1813 of the Gulistan peace treaty, according to which: ü Russia received the right to have a fleet on the Caspian Sea; ü Iran recognized the annexation of northern Azerbaijan and Dagestan to Russia |
|
Russo-Turkish War 1806-1812 |
Contradictions between Russia and Turkey:
|
|
Conclusion in 1812 of the Treaty of Bucharest, according to which: ü Russia received Bessarabia, the border along the river. Prut and a number of regions in Transcaucasia; ü Russia was provided with the right to protect Christians who were subjects of Turkey |
Russia actively used the right of patronage of the Balkan Christians, subjects of the Ottoman Empire, received by it under the Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhy (1774) and Yassky (1791) treaties. The contradictions between Russia and Turkey led in 1806 to a new war, which ended in 1812 with the victory of Russia. Under the terms of the Bucharest peace treaty signed in May 1812, Bessarabia and a significant section of the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus, along with the city of Sukhumi, were ceded to Russia. Moldova, Wallachia and Serbia, remaining within the Ottoman Empire, received autonomy.
The treaty, concluded a month before Napoleon's attack on Russia, made it possible to concentrate all forces on the fight against Napoleonic aggression.
In the Caucasus, where the interests of Russia, Turkey and Iran clashed, the Russian government also pursued an active policy. In 1801, Georgia voluntarily became part of the Russian Empire. The result of the Russian-Iranian war of 1804-1813. was the inclusion in Russia of the territory of Northern Azerbaijan and Dagestan. The first stage of the accession of the Caucasus to the Russian Empire was completed.
In the initial period of the reign of Alexander I, the eastern foreign policy direction was of great importance, where Russia traditionally had difficult relations with the Ottoman Empire and Persia (Iran).
The key issue here can be considered the problem of control over the Black Sea straits (Bosphorus, Dardanelles) and the division of spheres of influence in the Balkan Peninsula, which belongs to Turkey, but has a Slavic and predominantly Orthodox population. The Caucasus, where Russia sought to establish its power, was also of fundamental economic and military-strategic importance.
In accordance with the Treaty of St. George (1783) , Eastern Georgia, fearing a Persian and Turkish invasion, came under the protection of Russia. At the end of 1800, the last Georgian king from the Bagratid dynasty abdicated in favor of the Russian sovereign. During 1801–1804 the whole of Georgia voluntarily became part of the Russian Empire, and a Russian administration was created on its territory, headed by a governor appointed in St. Petersburg.
Russian expansion in Transcaucasia aroused the indignation of the Persian Shah.
In 1804, the Russian-Iranian war began, which lasted until 1813. Russian army had a huge superiority over the poorly armed and poorly organized Persian troops. As a result, on October 12, 1813, a peace treaty was signed in the village of Gulistan, according to which Iran recognized not only Georgia, but also Dagestan and Northern Azerbaijan as part of the Russian Empire, and in addition, Russia received the exclusive right to keep a navy in the Caspian Sea .
In 1806, relying on the support of France, the Turkish Sultan Selim III closed the Black Sea straits for Russian courts. He also replaced the Russian-friendly rulers of Moldavia and Wallachia (Ypsilanti and Muruzi), which was a direct violation of existing Russian-Turkish agreements. The war, which began in December 1806, continued until 1812. Among the Russian commanders who took part in it, it should be noted General I.I. Michelson and Vice Admiral D.N. Sinyavin, who defeated the Turkish fleet in the Battle of Athos (June 19, 1807). In the spring of 1811 General M.I. Kutuzov, who in October 1811 won a major battle at Ruschuk. May 28, 1812 M.I. Kutuzov signed Bucharest Peace , according to which Bessarabia became part of Russia (the border was established along the Prut River), and Moldova, Wallachia and Serbia received autonomy as part of the Ottoman Empire. This treaty was signed a few days before Napoleon's invasion of Russia and ensured the neutrality of Turkey in the upcoming Patriotic War of 1812.
The main foreign policy interests of Russia during the entire reign of Alexander I (1801–1825) were concentrated towards the west .
At the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. France, Great Britain and Austria began another redistribution of Europe, which went down in history under the name « Napoleonic Wars». Of course the Russian Empire, which has the status of a great European power and is constantly striving to increase its influence on the continent, could not but take part in this process.
At first, the government of Alexander I tried to take the position of an arbitrator in European affairs, and "become desirable for everyone, without assuming any obligations in relation to anyone." Already in March - June 1801 steps were taken to normalize relations with Great Britain, in September 1801 a peace agreement was signed with France. There was a temporary lull in Europe that lasted until the spring of 1805, when the third anti-Napoleonic coalition was created(Russia, Great Britain, Austria). Napoleon acted decisively.
In October 1805 he defeated Austria and occupied Vienna.
On November 20, 1805, a major battle took place near Austerlitz, in which the allied Russian-Austrian troops, led by M.I. Kutuzov, were defeated. This defeat forced Alexander I to withdraw his army from Europe and in June 1806 sign an unfavorable peace with France.
However, already at the end of 1806, a new (fourth) anti-Napoleonic coalition was formed, in which Prussia and Sweden took the place of Austria. The French emperor attacked the allies in the autumn of 1806. In October, he occupied Berlin, defeating the Prussian army near Jena. Here he announced the establishment of a continental blockade of England.
At the beginning of 1807, a major battle took place near Preussisch-Eylau between the French and the Russian army, commanded by General L.L. Bennigsen. Napoleon failed to win a decisive victory then, but already on June 2 of the same year in the battle of Friedland, Bennigsen was defeated and was forced to retreat behind the Neman.
On June 25, 1807, Alexander I and Napoleon met in Tilsit, as a result of which the emperors not only signed peace, but also signed an alliance treaty. The terms of this peace were extremely disadvantageous and even insulting for Russia.
Alexander I had to recognize all the French conquests in Europe and approve the creation of the Duchy of Warsaw (meanwhile, the revival of Polish statehood was contrary to the interests of Russia).
Alexander also pledged to break off relations with Great Britain and join the continental blockade. This condition violated the economic and political sovereignty of the Russian Empire.
The union of Alexander and Napoleon also had positive consequences for Russia - France approved the expansionist plans of the Russian Empire in relation to northern Europe.
From February 1808 to August 1809 the last Russian-Swedish war in history took place, ending with the signing of the Friedrichsham Peace Treaty. Under its terms, Finland (which received wide autonomy) and the Åland Islands became part of Russia, and Sweden pledged to join the continental blockade.
Obviously, the Tilsit Peace Treaty did not resolve, but only exacerbated the contradictions between France and Russia. The situation remained tense even after the meeting of the two emperors in Erfrut (September–October 1808). In 1811, the Russian Empire actually withdrew from the continental blockade, increased its army, looked for allies, and prepared for an attack on the Duchy of Warsaw.
During the Patriotic War of 1812 and the foreign campaign of 1813-1814, Russia's attention was diverted from Turkey and the Balkans. However, the Russian government continued to consider the eastern direction of its policy as one of the most important. During the period of the Holy Alliance, Russian diplomacy sought to act within its framework and adhere to the principle of legitimism. Everything contentious issues with Turkey, Alexander sought to resolve by diplomatic means. He understood that the great powers had their own interests in the East, opposed to Russia. Nevertheless, he was a supporter of concerted action with the European powers in the Eastern question, the use of the Holy Alliance in order to strengthen Russia's influence in the Middle East. History of Russia. XIX century: In 2 parts / Ed. V.G. Tyukavkin. - M., 2001. .
In 1812-1814, the international situation in Southeastern Europe remained extremely tense. Turkey, forced by the Bucharest peace treaty to cede Bessarabia to Russia, confirm the autonomy of the Danube principalities and provide self-government to Serbia, sought political revenge, the restoration of its positions in the Balkans. Religious fanaticism, anti-Slavic and anti-Russian sentiments were kindled in the Ottoman Empire. They were also fueled by French diplomacy, which consistently fought against Russia in the Eastern question.
In 1813, having gathered huge forces, the Turks began military operations against the ongoing uprising of the Serbs and defeated it. The new Serbian ruler Milos Obrenovic accepted Turkish terms who restored many of the old orders. In 1815, an uprising broke out again in Serbia. Russia, which by this time had won a victory over Napoleon, was able to come out more decisively in defense of the Serbs. She supported them through diplomatic means, insisting on Turkey's strict implementation of the conditions of the Bucharest peace treaty on the autonomy of Serbia. As a result, in 1816 between Turkey and Serbia was signed new world, according to which the Sultan finally recognized the Serbian autonomy Mironenko SV Pages of the secret history of the autocracy. Political history Russia in the first half of the 19th century. - M., 1990 ..
In 1816, Count G. A. Stroganov was sent to Constantinople on a special mission. His task was to achieve from the Porte the strict implementation of the terms of the Treaty of Bucharest. No less acute was the question of freedom of navigation in the straits and the trade of Russian subjects in the Ottoman Empire. All these issues should have been resolved by peaceful, diplomatic means, without bringing matters to a new armed conflict. However, things did not move forward.
Pursuing a moderate and restrained policy towards Turkey, Russia gradually lost its influence in the eastern Mediterranean, where the positions of England were significantly strengthened.
In the 1820s, the Eastern question received a new development in connection with a broad national liberation uprising in Greece. In 1814 in Odessa, Greek patriots created a secret organization "Filiki Eteria" ("Society of Friends") and began preparations for the liberation of the Balkans. In 1817-1820, the activities of the Eterists spread to Moldavia, Wallachia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece proper, and Greek communities abroad. In all the plans of Filiki Eteria, the main place was occupied by the preparation of an uprising in Greece simultaneously with anti-Turkish demonstrations in other regions of the Balkans. The government of Alexander I fundamentally condemned the activities of the secret Greek society, but in general continued to patronize the Greeks. The head of the "Filiki Eteria" was A. Ypsilanti, major general of the Russian service and adjutant of the emperor (in 1816-1817).
In January 1821, an uprising broke out in Wallachia, aimed at undermining the power of the Porte (Turkish troops brutally suppressed it). And in March 1821, detachments of Greeks under the command of Ypsilanti crossed the border and invaded the Danubian principalities, hoping to cross from there to Greece. The expedition failed, but the appeal thrown by Ypsilanti was picked up, the uprising flared throughout Greece. Its purpose was to proclaim the independence of the country.
Initially, the Russian government took a tougher stance towards the Greek movement than the rebels had expected. Ypsilanti was dismissed from the Russian service without the right to return to Russia. Alexander I made a demarche condemning the Greek revolution (“it is unworthy to undermine the foundations of the Turkish empire with a shameful and criminal act of a secret society”) and brought it to the attention of European courts and the Porte. Alexander, who believed in the existence of a pan-European secret organization with a single center, believed that the Greek uprising was aimed at destroying the Holy Alliance (since the start of a Russian-Turkish war would mean the actual collapse of the Union). Alexander told Kapodistrias: "Peace in Europe has not yet been consolidated, and the instigators of the revolution would not want anything more than to drag me into a war with the Turks." However, internally, Alexander approved of Ypsilanti's behavior and did not hide it from others. Yes, and among all segments of the Russian population prevailed opinion about the need to help the Greeks History of Russian foreign policy. The first half of the 19th century (from the wars of Russia against Napoleon to the Peace of Paris in 1856). - M .: International relations, 1995 ..
On April 10, 1821, the day of Easter, the Turks killed Patriarch Gregory of Constantinople. This was followed by executions and violence. After that, Alexander presented an ultimatum to the Sultan, demanding to stop the atrocities against the peaceful Greek population. The ultimatum was rejected. On July 29, Alexander I recalled his ambassador from Constantinople. Russia began to prepare for war. But Alexander changed his mind, which was in conflict with the principles of the Holy Alliance, within which Alexander sought to conduct his policy. The consistent implementation of the principle of legitimism required to put the Greek uprising in line with the ongoing revolution in Spain. At the same time, there was a threat of an uprising in the Polish lands, which connected Russia with other participants in the partitions of Poland - Austria and Prussia. Therefore, Alexander I suspended his intervention in the Greek-Turkish conflict and signed a joint declaration of the monarchs at the congress in Verona, which obliged the Greeks to return under Turkish rule, and the Turks not to take revenge on the Greeks.
Russia tried to achieve concerted action by the European powers and collective pressure on Turkey to resolve the Greek issue. But she ran into opposition from England and Austria, who sabotaged all Russian plans to "appease" the Greeks. Castlereagh openly said that the defeat of the rebellious Greeks from Turkey is for his cabinet the best option and "will be the simplest way to eliminate the complications that have arisen in the East." This position of the European powers forced Alexander I to temporarily retreat on this issue. The Austrian envoy Lebzeltern wrote to Metternich about Alexander I: “The dignity, honor, interests of the empire and his august person have been sacrificed. He knows that ... Russia has lost respect ... The Port has ceased to reckon with it.
Meanwhile, British policy began to change. The actual self-removal of Russia from the Ottoman possessions was beneficial to London. After the death of R. Castlereagh new minister Foreign Affairs of England J. Canning in March 1823 recognized the Greeks as a belligerent. English banks provided them with assistance in the amount of 800 thousand pounds. British diplomacy undertook complex diplomatic maneuvers, not so much to ensure real help Greeks, how much in order to tie Russia's hands in this international problem, to prevent the start of a Russian-Turkish war. Meanwhile, the military situation of the Greeks was rapidly deteriorating. Their camp was weakened by civil strife, the struggle for power.
At the beginning of 1825, the St. Petersburg Conference met, in which Russia, Austria, Prussia, England and France took part. She was the last try Russian government coordinate the actions of the powers. The program of the Russian government was met with hostility by Austria and England, coolly by France and Prussia. Turkey rejected proposals for mediation from the participants of the conference History of Russian Foreign Policy. First half of the 19th century. - M., 1985 ..
In February 1825, two well-armed and French-trained divisions of the Sultan's vassal, the Egyptian Pasha Muhammad Ali, arrived to help the Turks. The Greek revolution was on the verge of complete military defeat. On the other hand, the positions of Russia's rivals, Britain and France, were strengthening in the Balkans. revolutionary movement in Europe by this time it was possible to suppress. As a result, in a note dated August 6, 1825, Alexander I declared to the allies that he was regaining independence of action in the Eastern question, that in relation to Turkey, Russia from now on "will exclusively follow its own views and be guided by its own interests." Despite the protests of the allies, the concentration of Russian troops on the borders with Turkey began.
Thus, the foreign policy of Russia after the victory over Napoleon was associated with the creation of the Vienna territorial-political system in Europe (which turned out to be quite stable) and the formation of the Holy Alliance. The inspirer of this alliance was Emperor Alexander I. The purpose of the alliance was to protect the principles of legitimism and prevent revolutionary upheavals in Europe. The wave of Western European revolutions of the early 1820s was repulsed. But the "protective" trend in Russian foreign policy came into conflict with other international interests, which was clearly manifested during the Greek uprising that began in 1821.
Ultimately, the decision of Alexander I to act independently and decisively in the Eastern question became a serious threat to the existence of the Holy Alliance.
Foreign policy Alexander I at the beginning of the 19th century
Russia at the beginning of the 19th century had the following directions of foreign policy - eastern, western, northern: eastern direction - the struggle with Turkey for the Balkans and with Iran for the Transcaucasus; western (European) direction - participation in wars against Napoleonic France; northern - the war with Sweden over the coast of the Baltic Sea.
One of the first acts of the new Emperor Alexander I was the return of the detachment of Cossacks sent by Paul I to conquer India and the restoration of relations with England. However, Alexander did not want to come into conflict with France either.
East direction. The normalization of relations with England and France allowed Russia to intensify its policy in the east - in the region of Transcaucasia. Turkey and Iran undertook expansion into Georgia. In 1800, King George XII of Eastern Georgia turned to the Russian government with a request for patronage.
In 1801-1804. Georgia became part of Russia. This pushed Russia against Iran and Turkey. (See the diagram "The Eastern Direction of the Foreign Policy of Alexander I") War with Iran 1804-1813. was carried out successfully. According to the Peace of Gulistan in 1813, Northern Azerbaijan was annexed to Russia. The war with Turkey (Ottoman Empire) of 1806-1812 was also successful. In 1806, Russian troops occupied Moldova and Wallachia, and in 1807 the squadron of D.N. Senyavina defeated the Ottoman fleet. Commander of the Danube Army M.I. Kutuzov defeated the Turkish army at the Ruschuk fortress. On May 28, 1812 (a month before Napoleon's invasion), Kutuzov signed the Treaty of Bucharest with Turkey. Bessarabia went to Russia. (See the historical map "The territory of the Caucasus, ceded to Russia by the 1830s")
North direction. In northern Europe, as a result of the Russian-Swedish war of 1808-1809, which broke out over the coast of the Baltic Sea, Finland was conquered, which greatly strengthened the northwestern borders of Russia. The Grand Duchy of Finland was created, headed by the Russian emperor. Finland became part of Russia as an autonomous state governed by its own internal laws, which has its own treasury and the Sejm (Parliament). (Finland withdrew from Russia in December 1917).
Thus, in early nineteenth in. Russia strengthened its position and expanded its territory in the east and north.
Western direction. Early XIX in. was marked by a period of Napoleonic wars, in which all European countries were involved, including Russia. The main contradictions developed between England and France. In 1803, Napoleon declared war on England and set about preparing an invasion of England across the English Channel. The British government took energetic steps to forge a new coalition against France. This was helped by the unceremonious actions of Napoleon himself. In 1804, on his orders, the Duke of Enghien, a relative of many European monarchs, was shot, accused of plotting against Napoleon. "The shedding of crowned blood" stirred up the European courts. Alexander I protested, and mourning was defiantly declared in St. Petersburg. The proclamation of Napoleon as emperor in 1804 further inflamed the situation.
3rd Anti-Napoleonic Coalition. England managed to create a third coalition against France consisting of England, Russia, Austria, Sweden. But only Russian and Austrian troops were sent against Napoleon, England limited itself to providing monetary subsidies. The Russian-Austrian troops were defeated on December 2, 1805 in the Battle of Austerlitz, the anti-Napoleonic coalition broke up.
4th Anti-Napoleonic Coalition. Further aggressive actions of Napoleon and the threat of his capture of Prussia were the reason for the creation against him in 1806 of a new, fourth coalition consisting of Prussia, England, Sweden and Russia. However, only Prussian and Russian troops participated in the war. The Prussian army was defeated by Napoleon. The Russian army also suffered a series of defeats, and Alexander I was forced to negotiate peace with Napoleon and conclude the Tilsit peace.
In 1808 - 1812. Russia was formally at war with England, but there were no actual military operations. The peace of Tilsit turned out to be only a temporary respite before Patriotic War 1812 The war ended with a brilliant victory for Russia, thanks to which Europe was liberated from Napoleon and a new European order was established, worked out at the Congress of Vienna.
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