Alexander the First and his domestic policy. Brief biography of Brezhnev

Hello, in our time, more and more people are interested in the history of the fatherland and its popularity is growing literally before our eyes. Many pass the Unified State Exam in history, which becomes more complicated every year and today, albeit briefly, we will talk about, perhaps, one of the most interesting and controversial moments in the history of Russia - the domestic policy of Alexander 1, which took place against the backdrop of the era of revolutions in Europe and the era of Enlightenment .

Emperor Alexander the First

Childhood and adolescence

The future manager spent his childhood under the strict supervision of his grandmother and personal tutor, the Swiss Laharpe. It was they who introduced him to the works of the great French enlighteners such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau. During this period, the young man had already established liberal values ​​in his head, which later influenced his reign.

Where did it all begin? “The days of Alexander’s are a great start…”

The reign of Alexander 1 began in 1801. Then, on the night of March 23-24, the father of the future emperor, Paul 1, was killed by a group of conspirators in the Mikhailovsky Castle, and with the tacit consent of his son, for which he would then feel remorse for the rest of his life. Not having time to ascend the throne, the young ruler began a storm of activity to change the situation within the country.

Reforms began to be carried out to change all aspects of the Russian state, together with the wisest manager M.M. Speransky, who had the greatest influence, and even Napoleon himself noted his literacy and abilities.

The same M.M. Speransky

It was the time from 1801-1806 that was considered the peak of reforms, and the period before the Patriotic War A.S. Pushkin aptly called "Alexander's Days, a wonderful beginning ..."

• In 1801, an indispensable council was created to help the monarch. The young ruler fell into a kind of "Bermuda triangle" from the courtiers of Catherine 2, Paul 1 and newly minted people. The activity of this council was aimed at the abolition of the father's unpopular reforms and the discussion of bills, but then lost its role and was abolished in 1810. During its operation, the granted letters of nobility were restored, the import of foreign literature was allowed, and the nobles were allowed to travel abroad.
• In 1801-1803, the Unspoken Council was convened, which included Prince Kochubey, Count Stroganov, Novosiltsev and Prince Czartorysky. It was here that the most important reforms were prepared.
• 1802 Ministerial reform, the idea of ​​which was to replace collegiums with ministries. If in the colleges a group of people did the work, then in the ministries he was alone. Ministries such as military, naval, foreign affairs, internal affairs, justice, finance, commerce and public education were created.
• The country had serfdom which hindered progress in Russia. It was necessary to solve the peasant question. Alexander 1 did not begin to remove it, although in 1804-1805 it was completely abolished in the Baltic states, and therefore he issued a decree on free cultivators in 1803. Peasants could become free "free farmers" for ransom and the consent of the landowner.
• It is also worth mentioning the education system, because it was during this period that it was formed as a compulsory one, but it was estate-based and was divided into 4 levels. 1) Parish church annual schools for peasants, where they taught to count, read and write. 2) County two-class schools for townspeople and merchants. 3) Provincial four-class gymnasiums for the nobility. 4) Universities for the nobility and especially gifted people of other classes. The emperor in every possible way contributed to the development of education in the country and believed that everything should be built on it. From 1802 to 1819, universities were opened in Dorpat, Vilna, Kharkov, Kazan and St. Petersburg. In 1804, a "university charter" was issued, which established the autonomy of higher educational institutions thanks to which the state did not interfere in their affairs.
• 1810 -Establishment of the Council of State. It was the highest advisory body in the Russian Empire and existed until its very end. The most important bills were considered here. The emperor could listen to advice, but only he himself made the decision.
• 1810 - Creation of military settlements. Soldiers could live in a certain territory, take care of their household and live with their families.
• This allowed the peasants to combine military service with ordinary life.

Middle and end of reign. "Arakcheevshchina"

After the victory in Alexander dramatically changed his worldview. He was afraid of the spread of revolutionary people and changed the reform activity to "reaction".

Favorite of Tsar A.A. Arakcheev

The removal of Speransky from power and the rise of Arakcheev became the cause of reactionary activity. This period lasted from 1812 until the death of the ruler in 1825. It is characterized by police despotism and cane discipline, the harsh suppression of any unrest. It is inextricably linked with military settlements in which the iron order was established. However, despite this, the government took steps to gradually introduce a constitution

• In 1815 a constitution was granted to the Kingdom of Poland. Poland was allowed to have its own army and leave their ancient government agency- Sejm, as well as freedom of the press.
• The Charter of the Russian Empire was developed. Its introduction would mean colossal changes in the lives of citizens and, in fact, the introduction of a constitutional monarchy. With the rise of Arakcheev, this plan was abandoned and forgotten. The strengthening of autocracy began.

Output

The domestic policy of Alexander 1 can be described as a controversial period, which is divided into two stages. First, these are fundamental transformations and reforms, then the reaction and strengthening of autocratic power. But one cannot deny the contribution of this historical figure to our country.

And replaced revolutionary anarchy with a strong military dictatorship. The murder of Paul in 1801 did not take place without the participation of the British, who wanted to prevent a hostile Russo-French rapprochement. , having ascended the throne, based his foreign policy on the rejection of an alliance with Bonaparte, but did not return to the anti-French coalition, deciding that Russia still needed peace.

Portrait of Alexander I. Artist F. Gerard, 1817

In the next few years, however, Napoleon's influence in Europe increased dangerously. He strengthened his power in France, proclaiming himself first consul for life (1802), and then emperor (1804). Considering that the ambition of Bonaparte threatened to destroy the European balance, Alexander I in late 1804 - early 1805 joined the new, Third, coalition against France. In addition to Russia, its main participants were again England and Austria.

The Russian army of Kutuzov moved to the West, but even before its arrival, Napoleon managed to force the main Austrian army to surrender near Ulm and soon took Vienna. The balance of power was now such that Kutuzov advised to avoid a decisive battle with the French, but Alexander I insisted on giving it at Austerlitz (November 20, 1805). Napoleon won in this battle a complete victory over the Russians and the remnants of the Austrians. A month later, the Austrian Emperor Franz signed the Treaty of Pressburg with the French, and the Third Coalition ceased to exist.

Napoleon at the Battle of Austerlitz. Painting by F. P. S. Gerard, 1810

The unprecedented strengthening of France now prompted the Prussians, who in the Third Coalition War behaved favorably towards Napoleon, to oppose her. In the summer of 1806 the efforts foreign policy Alexander I, the Fourth Coalition against France was formed, whose main participants were Russia, Prussia and England. However, Bonaparte, acting swiftly this time, managed to defeat the main Prussian army in the double battle of Jena and Auerstedt (October 14, 1806) before the Russians arrived. Most of Prussia was occupied by the French, and in its eastern provinces, the troops of Alexander I started a stubborn struggle with them. On January 26-27, 1807, a stubborn two-day battle of the French and Russians at Preussisch-Eylau took place - the bloodiest battle fought hitherto by Napoleon. It ended in a draw, in many European capitals even the army of Alexander I was considered the winner. But in the summer of 1807 Napoleon concentrated the predominant forces in East Prussia and on June 2 defeated the Russian commander Bennigsen near Friedland.

Alexander I could continue the struggle, but for Russia it was hampered by the war with the Turks that began in 1806 and the struggle against the Persians in the Caucasus that began in 1804. In addition, Alexander resented the selfish behavior of Russia's allies. The whole brunt of both the Third and the Fourth Coalition War fell on the Russian shoulders. Austria and Prussia were defeated, making almost no contribution to the struggle, and England limited itself to seizing French colonies on the seas. Turkey, which participated in the Second and Third Coalitions as a partner of Russia, after the Battle of Austerlitz hastened to go over to the side of Bonaparte.

Realizing that Russia remains a very formidable adversary, Napoleon himself offered Alexander I an alliance and a favorable peace. According to its terms, the Russians and the French were to share dominance over the European continent: Napoleon got hegemony in the west, and Alexander I in the east. After the signing of the Russian-French alliance, Sweden, friendly to the British, became an enemy of Russia, and Bonaparte invited Alexander I to take Finland away from her. France promised not to interfere with the defeat of the Turks by the Russians. In exchange for this, Alexander I had to agree to the territorial reduction of Prussia and join the continental blockade - the commercial boycott of England, which Napoleon ordered to arrange in all Western European harbors.

Alexander I accepted these conditions. Having personally met on June 13, 1807 with Napoleon on rafts in the middle of the Neman River against the city of Tilsit, the tsar signed the Peace of Tilsit with him. With this treaty, Alexander I left his former European friends and entered into an alliance with Napoleon against them. However, such an act could not be considered a "betrayal": on the contrary, in the Second, Third and Fourth coalitions, the former friends of the tsar always cared only about their own benefits to the detriment of the interests of Russia's foreign policy.

The following years were marked by the rapid growth of Russian power. In the war of 1808-1809, the armies of Alexander I took Finland from the Swedes. A glorious episode of this war was the heroic transition of Russian troops across the ice of the Gulf of Bothnia to the outskirts of Stockholm. Finland was annexed to Russia on the basis of wide autonomy, as a special "grand principality".

Retreat of the French in 1812. Painting by I. Pryanishnikov

In Poland, opposition to the Russian authorities grew, despite all the generous benevolence of Alexander I (granting the Poles broad autonomy, their own government, their own parliament-sejm, permission to create a special Polish army, large financial and customs benefits at the expense of the Russian regions, which in a matter of years provided the ruined in years of Napoleonic domination of the country material prosperity). The Polish aristocracy began to demand the revival of an independent Commonwealth within the borders of 1772 (along the Dnieper in the east). In the last years of Alexander I, Russian foreign policy was hampered by several clashes between the tsar and the Polish Sejm. They were not too sharp, but the further growth of the Polish movement led to the uprising of 1830-1831 in the reign of Nicholas I. Its main slogan was the restoration of the borders of the Commonwealth in 1772 and the separation from Russia not only of the Polish regions proper, but also of Lithuania, Right-Bank Ukraine and more parts of Belarus.

This war began at the initiative of Iran. His army numbered 140,000 cavalry and 60,000 infantry, but it was poorly armed and equipped. The Russian Caucasian army was initially led by General I.V. Gudovich. In a short time, his troops managed to conquer the Ganja, Sheki, Karabakh, Shirvan, Quba and Baku khanates. However, after the unsuccessful assault on the city of Erivan (Yerevan) in 1808, General A.P. Tormasov was appointed commander. He won several more victories.

In 1810. Persians and Turks made an alliance against Russia, which, however, did not help them much. In 1812. Russian troops of General P. S. Kotlyarevsky, consisting of 2 thousand people, attacked the 10 thousandth Persian army led by Crown Prince Abbas Mirza and put it to flight, after which they occupied Arkevan and Lankaran. October 24, 1813. was signed Gulistan peace treaty. The Shah of Iran recognized the territories of Georgia, Dagestan, Shirvan, Mingrelia, Imeretia, Abkhazia and Guria for Russia. He was forced to conclude a military alliance with Russia and grant her the right to free navigation in the Caspian. The result of the war was a serious expansion and strengthening of the southern borders of Russia.

Rupture of the Russian-French alliance.

Alexander unsuccessfully demanded that Napoleon refuse to support the intentions of the Poles to annex the lands of Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine to the Duchy of Warsaw. Finally in February 1811 Napoleon dealt another blow to his " dear ally"- annexed the Duchy of Oldenburg in Germany to France, the crown prince of which was married to Alexander's sister Catherine. In April 1811, the Franco-Russian alliance was broken. Both countries began intensive preparations for an inevitable war.

Patriotic War of 1812 (briefly)

The cause of the war was the violation by Russia and France of the terms of the Tilsit Treaty. Russia actually abandoned the blockade of England, accepting ships with English goods under neutral flags in its ports. France annexed the Duchy of Oldenburg, and Napoleon considered Alexander's demand for the withdrawal of French troops from Prussia and the Duchy of Warsaw insulting. A military clash between the two great powers was becoming inevitable.

June 12, 1812. Napoleon at the head of a 600,000-strong army, crossing the river. Neman, invaded Russia. With an army of about 240 thousand people, the Russian troops were forced to retreat before the French armada. On August 3, the 1st and 2nd Russian armies joined forces near Smolensk, and a battle was fought. Napoleon failed to win a complete victory. In August, M.I. was appointed commander-in-chief. Kutuzov. Kutuzov decided to give battle near the village of Borodino. A good position was chosen for the troops. The right flank was defended by the Koloch River, the left was defended by earthen fortifications - flushes, they were defended by the troops of P.I.Bagration. In the center stood the troops of General N.N. Raevsky and artillery. Their positions were closed by Shevardinsky redoubt.

Napoleon intended to break through the Russian formation from the left flank, and then direct all efforts to the center and press Kutuzov's army to the river. He directed the fire of 400 guns at Bagration's flashes. The French launched 8 attacks, which began at 5 o'clock in the morning, suffering huge losses in them. Only by 4 o'clock in the afternoon did the French manage to advance in the center, temporarily capturing Raevsky's batteries. In the midst of the battle, a desperate raid behind French lines was made by the lancers of the 1st Cavalry Corps F.P. Uvarova and the Cossacks of Ataman M.I. Platov. This held back the attacking impulse of the French.

The battle ended late in the evening. The troops suffered huge losses: the French - 58 thousand people, the Russians - 44 thousand.

September 1, 1812. At a meeting in Fili, Kutuzov decides to leave Moscow. The retreat was necessary for the preservation of the army and the further struggle for the independence of the Fatherland.

Napoleon entered Moscow on September 2 and stayed there until October 7, 1812, awaiting peace proposals. During this time, most of the city was destroyed by fires. Bonaparte's attempts to make peace with Alexander I were unsuccessful.

Leaving Moscow in October, Napoleon tried to go to Kaluga and spend the winter in a province not devastated by the war. On October 12, near Maloyaroslavets, Napoleon's army was defeated and began to retreat along the devastated Smolensk road, driven by frost and hunger. Pursuing the retreating French, the Russian troops destroyed their formations in parts. The final defeat of Napoleon's army took place in the battle near the river. Berezina November 14-16. Only 30 thousand French soldiers were able to leave Russia. On December 25, Alexander I issued a manifesto on the victorious end of the Patriotic War.

Nicholas I

Emperor Nicholas 1 was born on June 25 (July 6), 1796. He was the third son of Paul 1 and Maria Feodorovna. He received a good education, but did not recognize the humanities. He was versed in the art of war and fortification. He was good at engineering. However, despite this, the king was not loved in the army. Cruel corporal punishment and coldness led to the fact that the nickname of Nicholas 1, Nikolai Palkin, was fixed among the soldiers.

Alexandra Fedorovna- wife of Nicholas 1, possessing amazing beauty, - became the mother of the future Emperor Alexander 2.

Nicholas 1 ascended the throne after the death of his elder brother Alexander 1. Constantine, the second pretender to the throne, renounced his rights during the life of his older brother. Nicholas 1 did not know about this and at first swore allegiance to Constantine. This short period would later be called the Interregnum. Although the manifesto on the accession to the throne of Nicholas 1 was issued on December 13 (25), 1825, legally the reign of Nicholas 1 began on November 19 (December 1). And the very first day was overshadowed by the Decembrist uprising on Senate Square, which was suppressed, and the leaders were executed in 1826. But Tsar Nicholas 1 saw the need to reform the social system. He decided to give the country clear laws, while relying on bureaucracy, since trust in the nobility was undermined.

The domestic policy of Nicholas 1 was characterized by extreme conservatism. The slightest manifestations of free thought were suppressed. He defended autocracy with all his might. The secret office under the leadership of Benckendorff was engaged in political investigation.

The reforms of Nicholas 1 were limited. Legislation has been streamlined. Under the leadership of Speransky, the publication of the Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire began. Kiselev carried out a reform of the management of state peasants. Peasants were allotted land when they moved to uninhabited areas, first-aid posts were built in the villages, and innovations in agricultural technology were introduced. In 1839 - 1843. a financial reform was also carried out, which established the ratio between the silver ruble and banknotes. But the question of serfdom remained unresolved.

The foreign policy of Nicholas 1 pursued the same goals as the domestic policy. During the reign of Nicholas 1, Russia fought the revolution not only within the country, but also outside it.

Nicholas 1 died on March 2 (February 18), 1855 in St. Petersburg, and his son, Alexander 2, ascended the throne.

Brief biography of Alexander 2

The domestic policy of Alexander 2 was strikingly different from the policy of Nicholas 1 and was marked by many reforms. The most important of them was the peasant reform of Alexander 2, according to which in 1861, on February 19, serfdom was abolished. This reform caused an urgent need for further changes in many Russian institutions and led Alexander II to carry out bourgeois reforms.

In 1864. Zemstvo reform was carried out by decree of Alexander II. Its goal was to create a system of local self-government, for which the institute of the county zemstvo was established.

In 1870. the city reform was carried out, which had a positive effect on the development of industry and cities. City dumas and councils were established, which were representative bodies of power.

The judicial reform of Alexander 2, carried out in 1864, was marked by the introduction of European legal regulations, but, some features of the previously existing judicial system were retained, for example, a special court for officials.

The military reform of Alexander 2. Its result is universal military service, as well as army organization close to European standards.

In the course of the financial reform of Alexander II, the State Bank was created, and official accounting was born.

The foreign policy of Alexander 2 was very successful. During his reign, Russia regained its military power, which had been shaken under Nicholas 1.

The great reforms of Alexander II were interrupted by his death. March 1, 1881 On that day, Tsar Alexander II intended to sign Loris-Melikov's large-scale economic and administrative reform project. The assassination attempt on Alexander 2, committed by the People's Will Grinevitsky, led to his severe injury and the death of the emperor.

Alexander 3 - the policy of counter-reforms (briefly)

April 29, 1881 - Manifesto, in which the emperor declared his will to preserve the foundations of autocracy and thereby eliminated the hopes of the democrats to transform the regime into a constitutional monarchy.

Alexander III replaced liberal figures in the government with hardliners. The concept of counter-reforms was developed by its main ideologist KN Pobedonostsev.

To strengthen the autocratic system, the system of zemstvo self-government was subjected to changes. In the hands of the zemstvo chiefs, the judicial and administrative power. They had unlimited power over the peasants.

Published in 1890 The "Regulations on Zemstvo Institutions" strengthened the role of the nobility in Zemstvo institutions and the administration's control over them. The representation of landowners in zemstvos increased significantly by introducing a high property qualification.

In 1881. the “Regulations on Measures to Preserve State Security and Public Peace” were issued, which granted numerous repressive rights to the local administration (declare a state of emergency, expel without trial, bring them to a military court, close educational institutions). This law was used until the reforms of 1917 and became a tool for fighting the revolutionary and liberal movement.

In 1892. A new “City regulation” was issued, which infringed on the independence of city governments. The government included them in common system government agencies, thereby putting under control.

Alexander 3 by law of 1893 forbade the sale and pledge of peasant lands, nullifying all the successes of previous years.

In 1884. Alexander undertook a university counter-reform, the purpose of which was to educate an intelligentsia obedient to the authorities. The new university charter severely limited the autonomy of universities, placing them under the control of trustees.

Under Alexander 3, the development of factory legislation began, which restrained the initiative of the owners of the enterprise and excluded the possibility of workers fighting for their rights.

The results of the counter-reforms of Alexander 3 are contradictory: the country managed to achieve an industrial boom, refrain from participating in wars, but at the same time social unrest and tension intensified.

Emperor Nicholas 2 (Nikolai Alexandrovich Romanov)

Nicholas 2 (May 18, 1868 - July 17, 1918) - last Russian emperor , son of Alexander III.

May 26, 1896. The coronation of Nicholas II and his wife took place. On holidays, a terrible event takes place, called "Khodynki", as a result of which 1282 people died in a stampede.

During the reign of Nicholas 2, Russia experienced a rapid economic recovery. The agricultural sector is strengthening - the country becomes the main exporter of agricultural products in Europe, a stable gold currency is introduced. The industry was actively developing: cities grew, enterprises and railways were built. Nicholas 2 was a reformer, he introduced a standardized day for workers, provided them with insurance, and carried out reforms in the army and navy. The emperor supported the development of culture and science in Russia.

But, despite significant improvements in the country, there were popular unrest. In January 1905, the first Russian revolution took place, the impetus for which was Bloody Sunday. As a result, on October 17, 1905, a manifesto "On the improvement of the state order" was adopted. It talked about civil liberties. A parliament was created, which included the State Duma and the State Council. On June 3 (16), 1907, the “Third of June coup” took place, which changed the rules for elections to the Duma.

In 1914, the First World War began, as a result of which the situation inside the country worsened. Failures in battles undermined the authority of Tsar Nicholas 2. In February 1917, an uprising broke out in Petrograd, which reached grandiose proportions. On March 2, 1917, fearing mass bloodshed, Nicholas 2 signed the act of abdication.

On March 9, 1917, the provisional government arrested the entire Romanov family and sent them to Tsarskoye Selo. In August they are transported to Tobolsk, and in April 1918 to their last destination - Yekaterinburg. On the night of July 16-17, the Romanovs were taken to basement, read out the death sentence and executed the execution. After a thorough investigation, it was determined that none of the royal family managed to escape.

Russia in World War I

The First World War was a consequence of the contradictions that arose between the states of the Triple Alliance (Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary) and the Entente (Russia, England, France). At the heart of these contradictions was the conflict between England and Germany, including economic, naval and colonial claims. There were disputes between France and Germany over the regions of Alsace and Lorraine taken from France, as well as Germany's claims to French colonies in Africa.

The reason for the start of the war was the murder in Sarajevo on June 25, 1914 of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife. August 19, 1914 Germany declared war on Russia.

Military operations in Europe were divided into two fronts: Western (in France and Belgium) and Eastern - Russian. Russian troops operated on the North-Western Front (East Prussia, the Baltic states, Poland) and the South-Western (Western Ukraine, Transcarpathia). Russia entered the war without having had time to complete the rearmament of its troops.

Successful operations were carried out against German troops near Warsaw and Lodz.

Autumn 1914. Turkey took the side of the Triple Alliance. The opening of the Caucasian front greatly complicated the position of Russia. The troops began to experience an acute need for ammunition, the situation was complicated by the helplessness of the allies.

In 1915. Germany, concentrating its main forces on Eastern Front, conducted a spring-summer offensive, as a result of which Russia lost all the gains of 1914 and partly the territories of Poland, the Baltic States, Ukraine and Western Belarus.

Germany transferred its main forces to the Western Front, where it began active fighting near the fortress of Verdun.

Two offensive attempts - in Galicia and Belarus ended in defeat. The Germans managed to capture the city of Riga and the Moonsund archipelago.

October 26, 1917. The 2nd All-Russian Congress of Soviets adopted the Decree on Peace, in which all the belligerents were asked to start peace negotiations. On November 14, Germany agreed to conduct negotiations, which began on November 20, 1917 in Brest-Litovsk.

A truce was concluded, Germany put forward demands, which the delegation headed by L. Trotsky rejected and left Brest-Litovsk. To this, the German troops responded with an offensive along the entire front. On February 18, the new Soviet delegation signed a peace treaty with Germany on even more difficult terms.

Russia lost Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, part of Belarus. The military presence of Soviet troops in the Baltic states, Finland, and Ukraine was excluded.

Russia undertook to demobilize the army, transfer the ships of the Black Sea Fleet to Germany, and pay a monetary contribution.

February Revolution of 1917 (briefly)

The difficult economic situation pushed the government to involve the bourgeoisie in managing the economy. Numerous committees and bourgeois unions appeared, the purpose of which was to provide assistance to the victims of the war. Military-industrial committees dealt with issues of defense, fuel, transport, food, etc.

At the beginning of 1917. the level of the strike movement has reached a critical point. In January-February 1917, 676,000 workers went on strike, presenting mainly (95% of the strikes) political demands. The growth of the workers' and peasants' movement showed the "unwillingness of the lower classes to live in the old way."

February 14, 1917 A demonstration took place near the Tauride Palace demanding that the deputies of the State Duma create a "government of people's salvation". At the same time, the Bolsheviks, calling on the workers to a one-day general strike, led 90,000 people out onto the streets of Petrograd. The revolutionary explosion was facilitated by the introduction of bread cards, which caused its rise in price and panic among the population. On February 22, Nicholas II left for Mogilev, where his Headquarters was located. On February 23, the Vyborg and Petrograd sides went on strike, pogroms of bakeries and bakeries began in the city.

The success of the revolution began to depend on which side the Petrograd garrison would take. On the morning of February 26, soldiers of the Volynsky, Preobrazhensky and Lithuanian regiments joined the rebels, they captured the armory and arsenal.

Political prisoners held in the Kresty prison were released. By the end of the day, most of the units of the Petrograd garrison went over to the side of the rebels.

The corps under the command of N.I. Ivanov, sent to suppress the demonstrators, was disarmed on the outskirts of the city. Without waiting for support and realizing the futility of resistance, on February 28, all the other troops, led by the commander of the military district, General S.S. Khabalov, surrendered.

The rebels have established control over the most important objects in the city.

On the morning of February 27, members of the "working group" at the Central Military Industrial Committee announced the creation of a "Provisional Executive Committee of Soviets of Workers' Deputies" and called for the election of representatives to the Soviet.

Nicholas II from Headquarters tried to break through to Tsarskoye Selo. In a situation of a developing revolutionary crisis, the emperor was forced to sign a manifesto on abdication for himself and his young son Alexei in favor of his brother, Mikhail Alekseevich Romanov. However, Michael refused the throne, stating that the issue of power should be decided by the Constituent Assembly.

October Revolution of 1917 in Russia

The Great October Socialist Revolution took place on October 25-26, 1917. This is one of the greatest events in the history of Russia, as a result of which there were cardinal changes in the position of all classes of society.

The October Revolution began as a result of a number of good reasons:

• In 1914-1918. Russia was involved in the First World War, the situation at the front was not the best, there was no sensible leader, the army suffered heavy losses. In industry, the growth of military products prevailed over consumer products, which led to an increase in prices and caused discontent among the masses. The soldiers and peasants wanted peace, and the bourgeoisie, who profited from the supply of military equipment, longed for the continuation of hostilities.
• national conflicts.
• The intensity of the class struggle. The peasants, who for centuries dreamed of getting rid of the oppression of the landowners and kulaks and taking possession of the land, were ready for decisive action.
• The fall of the authority of the Provisional Government, which was unable to solve the problems of society.
• The Bolsheviks had a strong authoritative leader V.I. Lenin, who promised the people to solve all social problems.
• The prevalence of socialist ideas in society.

The Bolshevik Party achieved tremendous influence over the masses. In October, there were already 400,000 people on their side. On October 16, 1917, the Military Revolutionary Committee was created, which began preparations for an armed uprising. During the revolution, by October 25, 1917, all the key points in the city were occupied by the Bolsheviks, led by V.I. Lenin. They're taking over the Winter palace and arrest the provisional government.

On October 26, the Decree on Peace and Land was adopted. At the congress, a Soviet government was formed, called the "Council of People's Commissars", which included: Lenin himself (chairman), L.D. Trotsky (People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs), I.V. Stalin (People's Commissar for National Affairs). The “Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia” was introduced, which stated that all people have equal rights to freedom and development, there is no longer a nation of masters and a nation of oppressed.

As a result of the October Revolution, the Bolsheviks won, and the dictatorship of the proletariat was established. Class society was liquidated, the landlords' land was transferred into the hands of the peasants, and industrial facilities: factories, plants, mines - into the hands of the workers.

Civil War and intervention (briefly)

The civil war began in October 1917 and ended with the defeat of the White Army in the Far East in the autumn of 1922. During this time, various social classes and groups in Russia used armed methods to resolve the contradictions that arose between them.

The main reasons for the start of the civil war include:

The discrepancy between the goals of the transformation of society and the methods for achieving them,

Refusal to create a coalition government,

dispersal of the Constituent Assembly,

Nationalization of land and industry,

Elimination of commodity-money relations,

The establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat,

Creation of a one-party system,

The danger of the revolution spreading to other countries,

Economic losses of the Western powers during regime change in Russia.

Spring 1918. English, American and French troops landed in Murmansk and Arkhangelsk. within the limits Far East the Japanese invaded, the British and Americans landed in Vladivostok - the intervention began.

May 25 there was an uprising of the 45,000th Czechoslovak corps, which was transferred to Vladivostok for further shipment to France. A well-armed and well-equipped corps stretched from the Volga to the Urals. Under the conditions of decayed Russian army, he became the only real force at that time.

November-December 1918 English troops landed in Batumi and Novorossiysk, the French occupied Odessa. In these critical conditions, the Bolsheviks managed to create a combat-ready army by mobilizing people and resources and attracting military specialists from the tsarist army.

By the autumn of 1918. The Red Army liberated the cities of Samara, Simbirsk, Kazan and Tsaritsyn.

The revolution in Germany had a significant impact on the course of the civil war. Recognizing its defeat in the First World War, Germany agreed to annul the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and withdrew its troops from the territory of Ukraine, Belarus and the Baltic states.

The Entente began to withdraw its troops, providing only material assistance to the Whites.

By April 1919. The Red Army managed to stop the troops of General A.V. Kolchak. Driven into the depths of Siberia, they were defeated by the beginning of 1920.

Summer 1919. General Denikin, having captured Ukraine, moved to Moscow and approached Tula. The troops of the first cavalry army under the command of M.V. Frunze and the Latvian riflemen concentrated on the Southern Front. In the spring of 1920, near Novorossiysk, the "Reds" defeated the Whites.

In the north of the country, the troops of General N.N. Yudenich fought against the Soviets. In the spring and autumn of 1919 they made two unsuccessful attempts to capture Petrograd.

In April 1920. the conflict started Soviet Russia with Poland. In May 1920, the Poles captured Kyiv. The troops of the Western and Southwestern fronts launched an offensive, but failed to achieve a final victory.

Realizing the impossibility of continuing the war, in March 1921 the parties signed a peace treaty.

The war ended with the defeat of General P.N. Wrangel, who led the remnants of Denikin's troops in the Crimea. In 1920, the Far Eastern Republic was formed, by 1922 it was finally liberated from the Japanese.

Formation of the USSR (briefly)

In 1918, the "Declaration of the Rights of the Working and Exploited People" was adopted, proclaiming the principle of the future structure of the country. Its federal basis, as a free union of republics, assumed the right of nations to self-determination. Following this, the Soviet government recognized the independence of Finland and the statehood of Poland.

The collapse of the Russian Empire and the imperialist war led to the establishment of Soviet power throughout Russia.

Proclaimed in 1918. The RSFSR occupied 92% of the entire territory and was the largest of all Soviet republics, where more than 100 peoples and nationalities lived. It partly included the territories of Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan. In fact, until 1922, the Far Eastern Republic functioned in its likeness.

From 1920 to 1921. units of the Red Army occupied these states without visible resistance and established the laws of the RSFSR there. The Sovietization of Belarus passed easily.

In Ukraine, it was not without a struggle with the pro-Kiev course. The process of establishing Soviet power in the Central Asian Soviet People's Republics - Bukhara and Khorezm - was going on heavily. Detachments of the local armed opposition continued to resist there.

Most of the communist leaders of the republics were worried about the existence of "Great Russian chauvinism", so that the unification of the republics into a single whole would not become the creation of a new empire. This problem was perceived especially painfully in Georgia and Ukraine.

The unity and rigidity of the repressive bodies served as powerful factors in the unification of the republics.

Developing the principles of national state structure engaged in the commission of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee. Autonomous, federal and confederal options for building a single state were considered.

The plan for the declared autonomous entry of the Soviet republics into the RSFSR was proposed by the People's Commissar for Nationalities, Stalin. However, the commission accepted Lenin's proposal for a union federal state. He gave future republics formal sovereignty.

Lenin clearly understood that a single party and a single repressive system were a sure guarantee of the integrity of the state. Lenin's project could attract other peoples to the union, and not scare them away, as Stalin's version.

December 30, 1922. At the First Congress of Soviets, the formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was proclaimed. The Congress adopted the Declaration and the Treaty.

The Central Executive Committee (CEC) was elected as the supreme legislative body, which consisted of two chambers: the Union Council and the Council of Nationalities.

January 31, 1924. The II All-Union Congress of Soviets adopted the first Constitution of the USSR, which stipulated the principles of the Declaration and the Treaty.

The foreign policy of the USSR was quite active. Progress has been made in relations with the countries of the capitalist camp. An agreement on economic cooperation was signed with France (1966). The Treaty on the Limitation of Strategic Nuclear Arms (SALT-1) is concluded. an important role in the removal international tension played the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) in 1975. The USSR maintained and strengthened ties with developing countries.

The 1980s were a time of radical change and restructuring in the USSR. It led to problems in the social sphere and social production, the impending crisis in the economy of the USSR, caused by a devastating arms race for the country. Course towards democratization public life and publicity was announced by M.S. Gorbachev.

But perestroika could not prevent the collapse of the USSR.

Among the main reasons for the collapse of the USSR are the following:

• The actual destruction of the philosophy of communism, the spirit of which was lost first by the ruling elite of the country, and then by all its citizens.
• The imbalance in the development of industry in the USSR - as in the pre-war years, the main attention was paid to heavy industry, as well as defense and energy. The development of light industry and the level of production of consumer goods were clearly insufficient.
• The ideological failure also played its role. Life behind the Iron Curtain seemed beautiful and free to most Soviet people. And benefits like free education and medicine, housing and social security were taken for granted, people did not know how to appreciate them.
• Prices in the USSR, relatively low, were artificially "frozen", but there was a problem of shortage of many goods, often also artificial.
• The Soviet man was completely controlled by the system.
• Many experts say that one of the reasons for the fall of the USSR was a sharp drop in oil prices and the prohibition of religions.

The Baltic republics (Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia) were the first to secede from the USSR.

After the collapse of the USSR, Russia declared itself the heir to a great empire. The 1990s turned into a severe crisis for the country in all spheres. The production crisis led to the actual destruction of many industries, the contradictions between the legislative and executive authorities - to a crisis situation in the political sphere.

THE GREAT PATRIOTIC WAR

At dawn on June 22, 1941, Nazi Germany attacked Soviet Union. On the German side were Romania, Hungary, Italy and Finland. In accordance with the Barbarossa plan developed in 1940, Germany planned to enter the Arkhangelsk-Volga-Astrakhan line as soon as possible. It was a setting for a blitzkrieg - a lightning war. Thus began the Great Patriotic War.

The main periods of the Great Patriotic War. The first period (June 22, 1941 - November 18, 1942) from the beginning of the war to the start of the Soviet offensive near Stalingrad. It was the most difficult period for the USSR, called the Battle of Stalingrad.

Having created a multiple superiority in people and military equipment in the main directions of the offensive, the German army has achieved significant success. By the end of November 1941, the Soviet troops, having retreated under the blows of superior enemy forces to Leningrad, Moscow, Rostov-on-Don, left the enemy a vast territory, lost about 5 million people killed, missing and captured, most of the tanks and aircraft .

The second period (November 19, 1942 - the end of 1943) - a radical turning point in the war. Having exhausted and bled the enemy in defensive battles, on November 19, 1942, Soviet troops launched a counteroffensive, surrounding 22 fascist divisions near Stalingrad, numbering more than 300 thousand people. On February 2, 1943, this grouping was liquidated. At the same time, enemy troops were expelled from the North Caucasus. By the summer of 1943, the Soviet-German front had stabilized.

The third period (the end of 1943 - May 8, 1945) is the final period of the Great Patriotic War. In 1944, the Soviet economy reached its highest boom ever during the war. Industry, transport, and agriculture developed successfully. War production grew especially rapidly.

1944 was marked by the victories of the Soviet Armed Forces. The entire territory of the USSR was completely liberated from the fascist invaders. The Soviet Union came to the aid of the peoples of Europe - the Soviet Army liberated Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, fought its way to Norway. Romania and Bulgaria declared war on Germany. Finland left the war.

During the winter offensive of 1945, the Soviet Army pushed the enemy back more than 500 km. Poland, Hungary and Austria were almost completely liberated, East End Czechoslovakia. The Soviet Army reached the Oder. On April 25, 1945, a historic meeting of Soviet troops with American and British troops took place on the Elbe, in the Torgau region.

The fighting in Berlin was exceptionally fierce and stubborn. On April 30, the banner of Victory was hoisted over the Reichstag. On May 8, the act of unconditional surrender of Nazi Germany was signed. May 9 - became Victory Day.

Development of the USSR in 1945-1953

The main task post-war period was the restoration of the destroyed economy. In March 1946, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted a plan for the reconstruction and restoration of the national economy.

The demilitarization of the economy and the modernization of the military-industrial complex began. Heavy industry was declared a priority area, mainly engineering, metallurgy, and the fuel and energy complex.

By 1948, production reached pre-war levels thanks to the heroic labor of the Soviet people, the free labor of Gulag prisoners, the redistribution of funds in favor of heavy industry, the transfer of funds from the agricultural sector and light industry, the attraction of funds from German reparations, and strict economic planning.

In 1945, the gross agricultural output of the USSR was 60% of the pre-war level. The government tried to bring the industry out of the crisis by punitive measures.

In 1947, a mandatory minimum of workdays was established, the law “For encroachment on collective farm and state property” was tightened, the tax on livestock maintenance was increased, which led to its mass slaughter.

The areas of individual allotments of collective farmers have been reduced. Reduced wages in kind. Collective farmers were denied passports, which limited their freedom. At the same time, farms were enlarged and control over them was tightened.

These reforms were not successful, and only by the 1950s did they manage to reach the pre-war level of agricultural production.

In 1945 the State Defense Committee was abolished. The work of public and political organizations has been resumed

In 1946, the Council of People's Commissars was transformed into the Council of Ministers, and the people's commissariats into ministries.

Since 1946, the drafting of a new Constitution of the USSR began. In 1947, the Politburo of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks submitted the question “On the draft of a new program of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks” for consideration.

There have been changes in science and culture. Compulsory seven-year education was introduced in 1952, evening schools were opened. The Academy of Arts and the Academy of Sciences with its branches in the republics were formed. Postgraduate courses are open in many universities. Television began to broadcast regularly.

In 1948, the persecution of "cosmopolitans" began. Bans were imposed on contacts and marriages with foreigners. A wave of anti-Semitism swept across the country.

Khrushchev's foreign and domestic policy

Khrushchev's activities played a significant role in organizing mass repressions, both in Moscow and in Ukraine. During the Great Patriotic War, Khrushchev was a member of the military councils of the fronts, and by 1943 he had received the rank of lieutenant general. Also, Khrushchev led the partisan movement behind the front line.

One of the most famous post-war initiatives was the strengthening of the collective farms, which contributed to the reduction of bureaucracy. In the autumn of 1953, Khrushchev took the highest party post. The reign of Khrushchev began with the announcement of a large-scale project for the development of virgin lands. The purpose of the development of virgin lands was to increase the volume of grain harvested in the country.

Khrushchev's domestic policy was marked by the rehabilitation of the victims of political repression and by the improvement in the standard of living of the population of the USSR. Also, he made an attempt to modernize the party system.

Foreign policy changed under Khrushchev. Thus, among the theses put forward by him at the 20th Congress of the CPSU, there was also the thesis that the war between socialism and capitalism is by no means inevitable. Khrushchev's speech at the 20th Congress contained rather harsh criticism of Stalin's activities, the personality cult, and political repressions. It was perceived ambiguously by the leaders of other countries. An English translation of this speech was soon published in the United States. But the citizens of the USSR were able to get acquainted with it only in the 2nd half of the 80s.

In 1957 a conspiracy was created against Khrushchev, which was not crowned with success. As a result, the conspirators, which included Molotov, Kaganovich and Malenkov, were dismissed by the decision of the Plenum of the Central Committee.

Brief biography of Brezhnev

During the Great Patriotic War, Brezhnev L.I. served as head of the Southern Front, and received the rank of major general in 1943. At the end of hostilities, Brezhnev successfully builds a political career. He consistently works as secretary of the regional committee of Ukraine and Moldova. Since 1952, he became a member of the Presidium of the Central Committee, and after Khrushchev came to power, he was appointed secretary of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan.

By 1957, Brezhnev returned to the Presidium and after 3 years held the position of Chairman of the Presidium. During the Brezhnev years, the country refuses to implement the ideas of the previous leader, Khrushchev. Since 1965, Brezhnev's unhurried and outwardly more modest reforms began, the goal of which was to build "developed socialism." Enterprises are gaining greater independence than in previous years, and the standard of living of the population is gradually improving, which is especially noticeable in the villages. However, already by the beginning of the 1970s, stagnation appeared in the economy.

In international relations, Khrushchev's course is maintained, and dialogue with the West continues. The agreements on disarmament in Europe, enshrined in the Helsinki Accords, are also important. Tension in international relations reappears only after the entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan.

Brief biography of Gorbachev Mikhail Sergeevich

Party career Gorbachev M.S. turned out to be successful. BUT high yields in the Stavropol region they created a good reputation for him. In an effort to introduce more rational methods of agricultural labor, Gorbachev publishes articles in the regional and central press. As secretary of the Central Committee, he deals with the problems of the country's agriculture.

Gorbachev came to power in 1985. Later, he held other high posts in the USSR. Gorbachev's rule was marked by serious political reforms designed to put an end to stagnation. The most famous were such actions of the country's leadership as the introduction of cost accounting, acceleration, money exchange. The famous dry law of Gorbachev caused a sharp rejection of almost all citizens of the Union. Unfortunately, the decree "On strengthening the fight against drunkenness" had an absolutely opposite effect. Most of the liquor stores were closed. However, the practice of home brewing has spread almost everywhere. There was also fake vodka. Prohibition was repealed in 1987 by virtue of economic reasons. However, fake vodka remained.

Gorbachev's perestroika was marked by a weakening of censorship and, at the same time, a deterioration in the standard of living of Soviet citizens. This happened due to ill-conceived domestic policy. Contributed to the growth of tension in society and ethnic conflicts in Georgia, Baku, Nagorno-Karabakh, etc. The Baltic republics already during this period headed for secession from the Union.

Gorbachev's foreign policy, the so-called "policy of new thinking", contributed to the detente of the difficult international situation and the end of the Cold War.

In 1989, Mikhail Sergeevich Gorbachev took the post of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, and in 1990 he became the first and only president of the USSR.

In 1990, M. Gorbachev received the Nobel Peace Prize as a person who did a lot to ease international tension. But the country at that time was already in a deep crisis.

As a result of the August putsch of 1991, organized by the former supporters of Gorbachev, the USSR ceased to exist. Gorbachev resigned after the signing of the Belovezhskaya Accords. Subsequently, he continued his social activities, headed the Green Cross and Gorbachev Foundation organizations.

RUSSIA DURING B.N. YELTSIN

June 12, 1991 B.N. Yeltsin was elected President of the Russian Federation. After his election, the main slogans of B. Yeltsin were the fight against the privileges of the nomenklatura and the independence of Russia from the USSR.

On July 10, 1991, Boris Yeltsin took an oath of allegiance to the people of Russia and the Russian Constitution, and took office as president of the RSFSR.

In August 1991, the confrontation between Yeltsin and the putschists began, which led to a proposal to ban the activities of the Communist Party, and on August 19, Boris Yeltsin delivered a famous speech from a tank, in which he read out a decree on the illegitimate activities of the GKChP. The coup is defeated, the activities of the CPSU are completely banned.

In December 1991, the USSR officially ceased to exist.

December 25, 1991 B.N. Yeltsin received full presidential power in Russia in connection with the resignation of the President of the USSR Mikhail Gorbachev and the actual collapse of the USSR.

1992 - 1993 - a new stage in the construction of the Russian state - privatization has begun, economic reform is being carried out.

In September-October 1993, a confrontation between Boris Yeltsin and the Supreme Soviet began, which led to the dissolution of parliament. Unrest in Moscow, which peaked on October 3-4, supporters of the Supreme Soviet seized the television center, the situation was brought under control only with the help of tanks.

In 1994, the 1st Chechen War, which led to a huge number of casualties among both the civilian population and the military, as well as among law enforcement officers.

May 1996 Boris Yeltsin forced to sign an order in Khasavyurt on the withdrawal of troops from Chechnya, which theoretically means the end of the first Chechen war.

In 1998 and 1999 in Russia, as a result of unsuccessful economic policy, a default occurs, then a government crisis.

On December 31, 1999, in a New Year's address to the people of Russia, B. Yeltsin announced his early resignation. Prime Minister V.V. Putin, who provides Yeltsin and his family with guarantees of complete security.

Already on the day of his accession to the throne, the young emperor announced that he intended to govern the state in accordance with the principles that his late grandmother had instilled in him,. Both in official papers and in private conversations, he constantly emphasized that he was going to replace personal arbitrariness in all spheres of public life with strict legality, since he considered the arbitrariness of those in power to be the main drawback of the state order in the empire.

Based on these intentions, from the very beginning of his reign, he took a course on liberal reforms and the development of fundamental laws. Literally within a month of his reign, he allowed everyone who was dismissed by his father to return to the service, lifted the ban on the import of many goods, including those that were prohibited by strict censorship - notes and books, and also reintroduced noble elections.

Government reform

From the very beginning, the young emperor was surrounded by a group of comrades who, at his request, helped him in carrying out reforms. They were V.P. Kochubey, P.A. Stroganov, N.N. Novosiltsev, A. Czartoryski. During 1801 - 1803. this so-called "Unspoken Committee" developed projects for reforms in the state.

It was decided to start with the central control. From the spring of 1801, a permanent "Indispensable Council" began to operate, whose task was to discuss decisions and state affairs. It included 12 dignitaries of the highest rank. Later, in 1810, it was transformed into the State Council, and the structure was also revised: it included the General Assembly and four departments - military, laws, state economy and civil and spiritual affairs. The head of the Council of State was either the emperor himself or one of its members, who was appointed by the will of the monarch. The Council was an advisory body whose task was to centralize legislative procedures, ensure legal norms and avoid contradictions in laws.

In February 1802, the emperor signed a decree that declared the Senate the supreme governing body in Russia, in whose hands the administrative, controlling and judicial power was concentrated. However, the first dignitaries of the empire were not represented in it, and the Senate did not have the opportunity to directly contact the supreme authority, therefore, even taking into account the expansion of powers, the importance of this body did not increase.

At the beginning of 1802, Alexander I carried out a ministerial reform, according to which the colleges were replaced by 8 ministries, which consisted of a minister, his deputy and an office. The minister was in charge of the affairs of his ministry and was personally accountable to the emperor. In order to organize a joint discussion, a Committee of Ministers was established. In 1810, M.M. Speransky prepared a manifesto, according to which all state affairs were divided into 5 main parts, and new departments were proclaimed - the Ministry of Police and the Main Directorate of Spiritual Affairs.

Also prepared a draft government controlled, the purpose of which was the modernization and Europeanization of management through the introduction of bourgeois norms in order to strengthen the autocracy and preserve the class system, but the highest dignitaries did not support the idea of ​​​​transformation. At the insistence of the emperor, however, the legislative and executive authorities were reformed.

Education reform

In 1803, an imperial decree proclaimed new principles of the education system in Russia: classlessness, free lower levels of education, as well as the continuity of curricula. The education system was under the jurisdiction of the General Directorate of Schools. During the reign of the emperor, 5 universities were founded, which were then given significant independence. Lyceums were also created - secondary educational institutions.

Projects for solving the peasant question

Immediately after ascending the throne, Alexander I announced his intention to stop the distribution of state peasants. During the first nine years of his reign, he issued decrees allowing state peasants to buy land, as well as forbidding landowners to exile serfs to Siberia. In famine years, the landowner was obliged to supply his peasants with food.

With the deterioration of the economic situation in the state, however, some paragraphs of the laws on the peasantry were revised: for example, in 1810 - 11. More than 10,000 state-owned peasants were sold, and in 1822 the landowners were given back the right to exile peasants to Siberia. At the same time, Arakcheev, Guryev and Mordvinov developed projects for the liberation of the peasants, which were never implemented.

military settlements

The first experience of introducing such settlements was in 1810-12, but this phenomenon acquired a mass character at the end of 1815. The purpose of creating military settlements was to free the population from the need to provide for the army by creating a military agricultural estate that would support and recruit itself. standing army. Thus, it was supposed to maintain the number of troops at the wartime level. The reform was met with hostility by both the peasants and the Cossacks: they reacted with numerous riots. Military settlements were abolished only in 1857 G.

Results

If at the beginning of the reign of Emperor Alexander, his power was seen as a real opportunity to improve the life of all the estates of the empire, then by the middle, many were disappointed in him, almost publicly arguing that the ruler simply did not have the courage to follow those liberal principles, about which he so much and enthusiastically He speaks. Many researchers tend to believe that the main reason for the failure of the reforms of Alexander I was by no means corruption and the propensity of the people to conservatism, but the personal qualities of the sovereign.

In 1801, the eldest son of Paul I, Alexander I Pavlovich, ascended the Russian throne. He was the favorite grandson of Catherine II, and, bypassing the son of Pavel Petrovich, Catherine II prepared him for the throne. The education and upbringing of Alexander took place under the personal control of the powerful empress. A brilliant staff of teachers was selected, which included well-known Russian and foreign professors. Catherine II entrusted the moral education of the heir to the well-known Swiss politician, "republican" F. S. de La Harpe. He was a well-known liberal in Europe, an opponent of slavery. True, the Swiss politician had no idea either about the country to which he was invited, or about the Russian people in general. He tried to instill the lofty ideals of freedom, equality and fraternity for 11 years, while in France after the revolution of 1789 the implementation of these ideas led to the execution of the French king Louis XVI and cruel revolutionary terror, and the very western society already started to move away from these principles. One of the main results of such upbringing was that F.S. de La Harpe shook the confidence of Alexander Pavlovich - the future monarch - in his right to absolute power. Alexander Pavlovich began to believe that the autocracy of the Russian emperor should be limited by the constitution. In 1793, when Alexander was not even 16 years old, Catherine II married him to the 14-year-old Princess Louise of Baden, named Elizaveta Alekseevna in Orthodoxy.
On March 12, 1801, 24-year-old Alexander Pavlovich ascended the throne after the assassination of Paul I by conspirators. The manifesto of Alexander I of March 12, 1801 announced that Emperor Paul I had suddenly died of apoplexy. Petersburg society enthusiastically received Alexander I. And to many then the young Russian emperor seemed to be the chosen one of Fate - "...well, everything is for him: appearance, and mind, and a powerful empire, and a beautiful wife ...". Alexander I was determined to carry out liberal transformations in the country: to give society a constitution, to abolish serfdom.

liberal initiatives. Alexander I began to rule with the abolition of the decrees of Paul I regarding the nobility. 10 thousand officers and officials dismissed by Pavel for bribes were reinstated in the service, the validity of the "Charters of Letters" to the nobility and cities was confirmed, the Secret Expedition (the center of political investigation) was abolished, the free travel of Russians abroad was allowed, the import of any books, torture was prohibited.
In the first years of his reign, the young emperor relied on a small circle of friends that had developed even before the beginning of his reign, which included P.A. Stroganov, A. Czartorysky, N.N. Novosiltsev, V.P. Kochubey. This environment of Alexander I began to be called "Unspoken Committee". Its members were young, tried to keep up with the spirit of the times, but had no experience in those state affairs that they discussed and decided to reform.
The new emperor began to carry out reforms in the field of central administration, the peasant question and education.

Public administration reforms. In 1802-1811. ministerial reform. Instead of boards, 11 ministries were introduced. In contrast to the collegiums in the ministry, affairs were decided solely by the minister, responsible only to the emperor. A Committee of Ministers was established for the joint discussion of general matters by the ministers. The Senate was given the right to control the created ministries and became the country's highest judicial body.
The ministerial reform contributed to the improvement of the central administrative apparatus.
Alexander I considered the introduction of a constitution in the country, i.e. limiting their absolute power, good. But he realized that it was impossible to introduce a constitution in Russia while maintaining serfdom. And he decided to prepare society for the introduction of the constitution. To this end, he decided to reorganize the entire system of power and administration in Russia according to Western European models.
At the end of 1808, Alexander I entrusted the development of a comprehensive state reform to one of the most capable officials, his secretary of state - MM. Speransky . MM. Speransky came from the family of a poor rural priest, but thanks to his extraordinary diligence, broad outlook, and education, he made a brilliant career. In addition, M.M. Speransky was known in metropolitan circles as an ardent admirer of the French Emperor Napoleon I.
In October 1809 M.M. Speransky presented to the tsar a draft state reform called "Introduction to the code of state laws". (See textbook material) M.M. Speransky created a coherent system of local and central institutions on the principle of "separation of powers" - legislative, executive, judicial. New approach M.M. Speransky to the problem of the formation of new authorities was that the actions of the authorities, both central and local, should be brought under the control of society. Judicial branch should be independent of other branches of government. The executive branch must be accountable to the legislative branch. Electiveness was introduced in the judiciary and executive bodies four steps - at the level of the volost, county, province, empire. Participation in management should be granted to persons who possessed a certain property qualification. Artisans, domestic servants, serfs did not participate in the elections, but enjoyed civil rights. The State Duma, reflecting the "opinion of the people", was to become the highest representative body of society under state power. Under the emperor, the State Council was created, which prepared and discussed bills.
MM. Speransky believed that Europeanized state institutions would prepare new people who would learn how to manage power in the interests of the whole society.
The plans of M.M. Speransky caused sharp resistance from the highest dignitaries. Renowned historian N.M. Karamzin in 1811 he submitted to the tsar a note "On Ancient and New Russia". N.M. Karamzin argued that government in Russia must be unconditionally autocratic. The constitution is appropriate where there is a civil society, order, literacy, good morals. In Russia, it's all about the people. There will be people in leading positions spiritually at their best, the state will prosper, they will wallow in vices, no constitution will make people better.
Alexander I had to choose between M.M. Speransky and N.M. Karamzin. By this time, Russian-French relations had deteriorated. And the project of reforms by M.M. Speransky was rejected. In 1810, a legislative advisory Council of State was only established. (See textbook material) It included all the ministers, as well as officials appointed by the emperor. In March 1812 M.M. Speransky was arrested and exiled to Nizhny Novgorod.
In subsequent years, the reformist sentiments of Alexander I were reflected in the introduction of a constitution in the Kingdom of Poland. According to the Congress of Vienna 1814 - 1815. Russia included the lands of Central Poland. From these lands, the Kingdom of Poland was formed as part of Russia. In November 1815, Alexander I signed the constitution of the Kingdom of Poland. Poland began to enjoy the widest autonomy. The emperor of Russia was considered the head of the Kingdom of Poland. The highest legislative power belonged to the Sejm of Poland and the Council of State. The right to vote was limited by the property qualification. Freedom of the press and the individual was proclaimed, Catholicism was declared the state religion, but equality was also granted to other religions.
At the opening of the Sejm in March 1818 in Warsaw, Alexander I delivered a speech in which he declared that he intended to "extend the constitutional order in Poland to all the countries entrusted to my care."
In 1818, Alexander I instructed the Minister of Justice N.N. Novosiltsev to prepare a constitutional draft for Russia, which was called the Charter of the Russian Empire. It used the principles of the Polish constitution. The main point of the project proclaimed the sovereignty of the imperial power. In addition, the creation of a bicameral parliament was proclaimed. The right to introduce laws into parliament belonged to the king. The project also intended to provide the Russians with freedom of speech, religion, equality of all before the law. According to the Charter, a federal structure of the state was envisaged. But this project was not carried out.

Changes in the peasant question. At the very beginning of his reign, Alexander I took measures to alleviate the situation of the peasants. In 1801, it was allowed to buy and sell uninhabited lands to merchants, petty bourgeois, and state peasants. In 1803, a decree was issued "On free cultivators", (See textbook material), according to which the landowners, by mutual agreement with the peasants, received the right to release the peasants with land for a ransom. The peasants, liberated by decree of 1803, were transferred to a special class of "free cultivators". Now they had their own land and carried duties only in favor of the state. But during the entire reign of Alexander I, less than 0.5% of the serfs passed into the category of "free cultivators". In 1804 - 1805. in the Ostsee region (Latvia, Lithuania), peasants - householders received personal freedom, but for the allotments of landowners' land provided to them they had to bear the former duties - corvée and dues.
In 1816, Alexander I approved a decree on the complete abolition of serfdom in Estonia, while maintaining land for the landowners. In 1818-1819. the same laws were adopted in relation to the peasants of Courland and Livonia.
the project for the liberation of the peasants, the emperor instructed to draw up A.A. Arakcheev , who fulfilled the order in 1818. According to the project, the tsar had to allocate 5 million rubles annually to buy out the estates of landowners who would agree to make such a decision. But the project of A.A. Arakcheev was not carried out. In the last years of the reign of Alexander I, the rights of the landlords were expanded and their power over the peasants was strengthened. In 1822, the landowners again received the right to exile their peasants without trial to a settlement in Siberia. The peasant question was no longer discussed during the life of Alexander I.
The transformations in the peasant question undertaken by Alexander I did not encroach on the rights and privileges of the landowners, but were serious concessions to the development of capitalist relations in the country.

Reform in the field of education. In 1802, for the first time in the history of Russia, a ministry of public education was created. From now on, the enlightenment of the people became the concern of the state. In 1803, a new regulation on the organization of educational institutions was issued.

• All educational institutions were divided into 4 levels:
• universities.
• provincial schools or gymnasiums;
• county schools;
• rural parochial schools;

The education system was based on the principles of classlessness, free of charge at the lower levels, and the continuity of curricula. All these types of educational institutions, according to the plan, were supposed to constitute a complete system of public education.
Prior to that, only one university operated in Russia - Moscow, opened in 1755. During the reign of Alexander I, five more were opened - in Dorpat (Tallinn), Vilna (Vilnius), St. Petersburg, Kharkov, Kazan. In 1804, the university charter was adopted. Universities received broad autonomy: the right to choose a rector, professors, and independently decide administrative and financial matters.
In 1804, the most liberal in the nineteenth century was adopted. censorship statute. (See textbook material)
The reign of Alexander was characterized by the widest religious tolerance. Alexander I himself was indifferent to Orthodoxy. Evidence of this indifference was the appointment in 1803 of Freemason A.N. Golitsyn was the chief procurator of the Holy Synod.

military settlements. Patriotic War of 1812-1814 caused great damage to the country's economy. The financial system of the state was upset.
Under these conditions, the government decided to reduce the cost of maintaining the army through a special form of recruiting and maintaining the army - military settlements . The idea of ​​military settlements belonged to Emperor Alexander I. Even before the Patriotic War of 1812, he was carried away by the Prussian experience, where at that time the soldier who was in the service did not leave his native places, remained connected with the land, worked on it and cost the treasury cheaply. Alexander I tried to transfer the Prussian experience of self-sufficiency of the army to Russian soil.
The development of the project of military settlements was entrusted to General A.A. Arakcheev, who was then appointed chief commander of the military settlements. The first military settlements were created in 1808, they began to be created en masse in 1815-1816. Military settlements began to be set up on the lands of state-owned peasants in the Mogilev, Novgorod, Petersburg, and Kharkov provinces. At public expense, the same type, symmetrically located houses were built. Regiments of soldiers along with their families were settled in them. The local state peasants were "militaryized". The wives of soldiers and peasants also became villagers. The state took upon itself the maintenance and preparation for the service of the children of military settlers. Upon reaching the age of 7, the boys were enrolled in the cantonist battalions, and from the age of 18 they became active for 25 years. Upon reaching the age of 45, military settlers were transferred to the category of "disabled". They had to simultaneously engage in agriculture and military service. They were also given loans, provided horses, cattle, machinery, seeds. Daily life in military settlements was strictly regulated, for the slightest infractions the peasants were subjected to corporal punishment, contacts with outside world were strictly prohibited. By 1825, already 1/3 of the soldiers were transferred to the category of military settlers.
Military settlements performed the task of saving military expenses: from 1825 to 1850. 50 million rubles were saved, but the very idea of ​​military settlements did not take root in society. Breaking the Russian peasant way of life in the Prussian manner caused discontent among the settlers. The situation of military settlers was perceived by society as "enslavement", "St. George's Day". The performances of peasants and soldiers against military settlements began, sometimes they openly developed into riots. In 1817, a major uprising took place in Novgorod among the schismatics, who were transferred to the position of military settlers; in 1819 - in Chuguev. As a result of the suppression of the Chuguev rebellion, 70 people were spotted with gauntlets. In 1831, during the reign of Nicholas I, military settlements began to be gradually abolished, and in 1857 they were completely liquidated.
Curtailment of reforms. In the 1920s, it became obvious that the reforms were bringing positive changes, but one of their results was an increase in tension in society. Opposition moods began to spread, rumors began to reach Alexander I about the emergence of revolutionary organizations that aimed to overthrow the monarchy.
At the same time, important changes were taking place in his religious outlook. His soul suddenly reached for Orthodoxy. The emperor was arranged several meetings with the well-known Orthodox monk Photius in St. Petersburg. And Alexander I was shocked: he discovered Orthodoxy for himself. Previously, he believed that all currents of Christianity are true and have a right to exist. Everyone can profess the course of Christianity that he likes. Therefore, representatives of various currents of Christianity and sects that preached the denial of Orthodoxy, the church and church rites, received wide support from the highest circles in Russia. Now Alexander I came to the conclusion that for Russia the true faith is paternal (Orthodoxy). Russia must be Orthodox. Woe to Russia if the tsar in it is not Orthodox. Alexander I felt like a stranger in his country. The isolation of Alexander I from Orthodoxy became the cause of his personal drama.
In the 20s. in domestic politics, Alexander I moved further and further away from the liberal ideas of his youth. In 1817, the Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Public Education was created. It concentrated in its hands the control over education, upbringing and the religious life of society. In 1821, a number of professors at Moscow and St. Petersburg universities were put on trial for propagating revolutionary ideas. In 1822, Alexander I banned the activities of all Masonic lodges.
Then Alexander I realized that his policy aimed at the liberalization of society had failed. Inside the country, in society, in the army opposition moods were ripening. Peasant riots, Masonic circles, secret societies noble youth - all this bothered Alexander I. In addition, constant remorse about the indirect involvement in the death of his father turned into a painful sensation towards the end of his life. Alexander I more and more he began to move away from public affairs. The only speaker to him on all issues was A.A. Arakcheev. The shock was for him a terrible flood in 1824 in St. Petersburg. The same flood was in the year of his birth - 1777. Alexander I decided that in this way fate outlined his life path.
There was also no happiness in family life. He and Elizaveta Alekseevna lived their lives separately from each other. Two of their daughters died young. Alexander I had no more heirs. Both felt deeply unhappy: at the end of their lives - no children, no successful reign. But both suddenly discovered each other. Now they spent all the time together and still could not talk enough. The emperor and empress began to live the life of private people and traveled a lot. In October 1825, during one of these trips to Taganrog, Alexander I caught a cold. Less than a month later, he suddenly died. His sudden death spawned a lot of rumors. There were legends that the tsar, tired of power, went to distant Siberia and became the elder Fyodor Kuzmich.
A year after the death of Alexander I, Elizaveta Alekseevna died.

Foreign policy. The main directions in foreign policy were western and eastern.
1. East direction. In the 90s. 18th century Russia's position in Transcaucasia and the Caucasus began to strengthen. But by this time, the Caucasus and Transcaucasia were already the sphere of influence of Turkey and Iran. Seeing Russia's offensive in the Caucasus, Turkey and Iran stepped up their expansion into Georgia. They made literally devastating raids on Georgia. The small Georgian people needed a strong patron. Georgia at that time was going through a period feudal fragmentation and was divided into five principalities. By this time Kakheti And Kartaliniya united in Eastern Georgia, Imereti, Mengrelia, Guria - Western Georgia. In 1783 Eastern Georgia came under the patronage of Russia. Since 1798, the ruler of Kartli - the Kakhetian kingdom was George XII Bagrationi . Being near death and having no strength to fight the aggression of Iran, George XII turned to Russia with a request to take Eastern Georgia into the citizenship of the Russian state and liquidate the Georgian throne so that it would not be a source of contention between the Georgians. In 1801, Eastern Georgia became part of Russia, the Georgian throne was abolished, and the administration of Eastern Georgia passed to the royal governor. In 1803 - 1804. on the same terms, the principalities of Western Georgia became part of the Russian Empire. But for Russia, this meant war with Turkey and Iran.

• Russian-Iranian war (1804 - 1813). The Persian Shah presented Russia with an ultimatum on the withdrawal of Russian troops from Transcaucasia and began military operations against Georgia. The Russian government rejected the ultimatum. England and France sided with the Shah. A war broke out between Russia and Iran. In general, it was successful for Russia. In 1813 was signed Gulistan peace treaty . (See textbook material) Russia defended Georgia and annexed a number of khanates that made up Northern Azerbaijan: Haji, Karabakh, Tekin, Shirvan, Derbent, Cuban, Baku, Talysh. Dagestan and Abkhazia were also annexed. Russia received the exclusive right to have its own fleet in the Caspian. Thus, Georgia and Northern Azerbaijan became part of Russia.
• Russian-Turkish war (1806 - 1812). The reason for it was the removal of the rulers by the Turkish Sultan Moldova And Wallachia (contrary to the Iasi peace treaty of 1791) and the appointment of proteges of Napoleon Bonaparte in their place. The Russian army won a number of successful victories on land (taking the fortresses of Bendery, Ackerman, Galati, Bucharest) and at sea (Admiral D.N. Senyavin defeated the Turkish fleet in the Dardanelles and Athos battles in 1807). In 1812, the Turks were forced to conclude Bucharest Peace Treaty . Departed to Russia Bessarabia , a number of regions of Transcaucasia, the privileges of the Christian peoples of the Ottoman Empire - Moldavia, Wallachia and Serbia for autonomous control, as well as the right of Russia to patronize all Christians - subjects of Turkey, were confirmed.

2. Western direction foreign policy was a priority. In 1789, the monarchy was overthrown in France and republican rule was established. European states led by England start a war against republican France. The French army defeated the first (1781), then the second (1798) anti-French coalition . In 1799, the young General Napoleon Bonaparte carried out a coup d'état in France and actually became the ruler of France. In 1804, having personally placed the crown of the emperor of the French Republic on himself, Napoleon decided to conquer Europe, and then the whole world. Napoleon needed a war. After the execution, on the orders of Napoleon, of a member of the French royal family, the Duke of Enghien, all monarchist Europe took up arms against him. In 1805, at Austerlitz, Napoleon defeated the third anti-French coalition of European states, which already included Russia. Europe has never seen such a debacle. In 1807, in a series of battles near Preussisch-Eylau and Friedland, the fourth anti-Napoleonic coalition was defeated. All of Europe was at the feet of Napoleon. Only island England and Russia remained. In 1807, Alexander I and Napoleon met to conclude a peace treaty. Alexander I was forced to sign Peace of Tilsit with France, according to which Russia was supposed to join the economic blockade of England, which was disadvantageous for her, and on the border with Russia, Napoleon created the Duchy of Warsaw as a springboard for aggression against Russia. A temporary truce between France and Russia lasted until the summer of 1812. Back in 1810, Napoleon declared: "In five years I will be the master of the world. Only Russia remains, but I will crush it."

Patriotic War of 1812 On the morning of June 12, 1812, the 500,000-strong "Great Army" of Napoleon Bonaparte crossed the Neman River and invaded Russia. When Alexander I found out about this, he immediately sent his adjutant General A.I. Balashova. To all the proposals of Alexander I about peace, Napoleon had only one answer - "no!". Napoleon Bonaparte hoped in a short campaign to defeat the Russian army, and then force Russia to join the orbit of French foreign policy.
The regular Russian army numbered more than 220 thousand people. It was divided into three parts, far apart from each other. The first army under the command M.B. Barclay de Tolly was in Lithuania, the second - General P.I. Bagration - in Belarus, the third - general A.P. Tormasova - in Ukraine. From the very beginning of the war, Emperor Alexander I adopted the most irreconcilable policy towards Napoleon. He showed personal courage and all this time was at the headquarters of the army of M.B. Barclay de Tolly.
In Russia, Napoleon Bonaparte expected to apply his usual tactics, with which he defeated the Western European armies in cramped Europe: the destruction of the Russian army in parts with lightning-fast, powerful blows. The French army quickly advanced deep into the territory of Russia, trying to deliver a crushing blow to the first army of M.B. Barclay de Tolly. The strategic situation required the speedy connection of the forces of the first and second Russian armies, which, for various reasons, could not be quickly accomplished. The superiority of the French army raised the question of the rapid replenishment of the Russian army. On July 6, 1812, Alexander I issued a manifesto calling for the creation of a people's militia. (See textbook material) This marked the beginning of the guerrilla war of the Russian people against Napoleon's army.
Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army M.B. Barclay de Tolly chose the right tactic in those circumstances - retreat. Near Smolensk, he managed to unite the first and second Russian armies and on August 2 give battle to the French. The battle near Smolensk lasted two days. In it, the French army lost 20 thousand officers and soldiers, and the Russian army lost 6 thousand.
The Russian army continued to retreat, the war began to take on a protracted character. This caused public discontent. M.B. Barclay de Tolly was accused of betrayal and aiding the French. They began to demand from Alexander I to put a Russian man at the head of the army. August 8 instead of M.B. Barclay de Tolly appointed Suvorov general as commander-in-chief M.I. Kutuzov . M.I. Kutuzov realized that Russia's allies against the French would be time and space. About the French, he said: "They themselves came, they themselves will leave." M.V. Kutuzov continued the tactics of the previous commander, but it seemed easier for the Russian troops to retreat with M.I. Kutuzov than with the "German Barclay". M.B. Barclay de Tolly accepted his resignation courageously, but worried about this for the rest of his life.
Nevertheless, on August 26, 1812, near the village of Borodino (124 km north of Moscow), M.I. Kutuzov decided to give a general battle to the French. The battlefield was chosen near the village of Borodino. For his troops M.V. Kutuzov chose the following disposition: on the left flank, the army of P.I. Bagration, covered with artificial earthen fortifications - flashes (later they were called Bagrationovskiye flashes). An earth mound was poured in the center, on which the artillery and troops of General N.N. Raevsky. The right flag was covered by the army of M.B. Barclay de Tolly. Napoleon adhered to offensive tactics. He intended to break through the Russian positions in the center, bypass the left flank, push the Russian troops back from the Old Smolensk road and clear the road to Moscow.
On August 26, at half past six in the morning, the French launched an offensive. Napoleon brought down the main blow on Bagration's flushes. Their assault continued without interruption for six hours. Around noon, the French took the flushes, but the left flank was not broken through. During the battle, both sides suffered heavy losses. General P.I. was mortally wounded. Bagration. The troops of the left flank retreated in an organized manner. After that, the French directed the main blow to the battery of General N.N. Raevsky. M.I. Kutuzov ordered the Cossacks of Ataman M.I. Platov and the cavalry corps of F.P. Uvarov to make a raid behind French lines in order to distract them from the attack on N.N. Raevsky. The French were forced to interrupt the offensive for 2 hours. At this time, fresh forces of Russian troops were brought up to the center. Battery of General N.N. Raevsky was captured by the French only by 16 pm. (See textbook material)
The battle did not end with the victory of the Russian troops, but nevertheless the offensive onslaught of the French dried up. Napoleon did not dare to bring into battle his last reserve - the imperial guard. Losses on both sides were huge. The French lost 58 thousand soldiers, 47 generals; Russian army - 40 thousand soldiers, 24 generals. Half of the Russian army was destroyed. In such a situation, it was risky to continue the battle the next day with the French. M.I. Kutuzov decided to save the army. The Russian army after Borodino began to retreat to Moscow. (See textbook material) On September 1, at the military council of the Russian army in the village of Fili, it was decided to leave Moscow. On the morning of September 2, 1812, the Russian army, together with the inhabitants, left Moscow.
By the evening of September 2, 1812, Napoleon's troops entered Moscow. Napoleon was accustomed to the servility of the West and waited a long time at the outpost for the Russians to bring him the keys to the city. But in the ancient Russian capital, a different meeting awaited the French. Moscow is on fire. Meanwhile, the Russian army was retreating from Moscow along the Ryazan road. M.I. Kutuzov was pursued by French troops under the command of I. Murat. Then the Russian troops made Tarutino maneuver - sharply changed the east direction to the south - went to the Kaluga road. This allowed the Russian troops to break away from the French. A camp was set up in Tarutino, where the troops were able to rest, replenished with fresh regular units, weapons and food supplies.
Over the next two months, all of Russia rebelled against Napoleon's troops: 300 thousand militia were put up and 100 million rubles were collected.
Napoleon Bonaparte himself was in Moscow at that time. During the month of his stay in an empty and hungry, burning in the fires of Moscow, his army was almost completely demoralized. Now the French emperor offered Alexander I to make peace. These days, Alexander I said significant words that "rather he will go with his people into the depths of the Asian steppes, grow a beard and eat potatoes, than make peace, as long as at least one armed enemy remains on Russian soil".
October 6, 1812 Napoleon left Moscow. French troops retreated west along the Kaluga road. The French army was still a force, but it was already doomed: it drew huge convoys with silver, furs, porcelain, silks. The Napoleonic army, once the best in Europe, has turned into an army of marauders. And that was her death. She melted before our eyes.
On October 12, a battle between Russian and French troops took place near the city of Maloyaroslavets. After that, Russian troops blocked the French retreat along the Kaluga road. The French were forced to turn onto the Smolensk road, along which they advanced on Moscow in August. In October - December 1812, the partisan movement in the country reached its highest level. M.I. became the organizer of the partisan movement. Kutuzov. Among the leaders of the partisan movement was a famous poet, hussar colonel D.V. Davydov . Partisan detachments were led by landowners, soldiers and peasants who had escaped from captivity. In the Moscow region, more than 5 thousand peasants fought in the detachment of the serf Gerasim Kurin. In the Smolensk province, Vasilisa Kozhina's detachment included women and teenagers. The patriotic upsurge in society was so great that even the gypsies went to join the partisans. The war of 1812 became truly popular.
Further, the tactics of the Russian army consisted in the parallel pursuit of the French army. The Russian army, without engaging in battles with Napoleon, destroyed his army in parts. The battle of November 14 - 17, 1812, when the French crossed the Berezina River, completed the defeat of the French army. Napoleon Bonaparte himself at that time handed over command of the miserable remnants of his army to I. Murat and secretly left for Paris to recruit new soldiers. Only 30,000 French soldiers crossed the Russian border.
On December 25, Alexander I issued a Manifesto, according to which the Patriotic War of 1812 was declared completed, and the Russian army began a foreign campaign to finally cleanse Europe of Napoleonic troops.
The Patriotic War of 1812 became a significant event in Russian history. The invasion of the Napoleonic troops caused a rapid growth of national identity. The War of Liberation of 1812 became the Patriotic War, because not only the regular army, but almost the entire population of the country fought against Napoleon's troops. Russian society again, as in Troubled times rallied to resist the invaders. 2 million people died in the war. Many western regions of the country were devastated by fires and robberies, the country's economy suffered significant damage, but Russia again defended its territorial integrity and independence. The unity of society, the patriotic impulse in the fight against the enemy made a huge impression on contemporaries and will forever remain in the memory of posterity. (See textbook material)

Liberation campaign of the Russian army (1813-1814). The best part of the French army was destroyed in Russia. But Napoleon still kept the whole of Europe in subjection. He assembled a new army, greatly outnumbering the forces acting against him, and left no hegemonic plans behind. To prevent a new aggression, it was necessary to transfer hostilities outside of Russia and achieve the complete surrender of Napoleon.
In January 1813, Russian troops entered the territory of Poland. Has begun foreign campaign of the Russian army . The entry of the Russian army into Europe served as a signal for a general uprising of the European peoples against the rule of Napoleon. A new anti-Napoleonic coalition of European states was concluded - consisting of Russia, England, Prussia, Austria and Sweden.
In October 1813, between the new army of Napoleon and the armies of the allies, a decisive battle near Leipzig , which went down in history as the "Battle of the Nations". More than half a million people participated in it from both sides. The French army was utterly defeated, but Napoleon himself was able to get out of the encirclement. In January 1814, the allied troops entered the territory of France. In March 1814, Russian Colonel M.F. Orlov accepted the surrender of Paris. Napoleon was exiled to the island of Elba in the Mediterranean. The old royal Bourbon dynasty returned to the French throne. The monarchy in France was restored. But Napoleon once again amazed the world. A year later, with a detachment of 1,100 people, he unexpectedly left Elba and went to Paris. Already at the first meeting with government troops, he, unarmed, went towards the soldiers: "Soldiers, do you recognize me? Who among you wants to shoot at his emperor? Shoot!" The French soldiers rushed to Napoleon and began to cry and hug him. For them, he was the personification of their honor and glory. Regiments, divisions, corps sent by the Bourbons against Napoleon were powerless. The army unconditionally went over to the side of Napoleon. Without firing a shot, Napoleon occupied Paris. But this time his reign lasted only 100 days. In June 1815 near the village waterloo in Belgium, he suffered a crushing defeat from the combined troops of England, Holland and Prussia. Napoleon was captured and this time exiled to Saint Helena off the west coast of Africa under the supervision of his worst enemies - the British.
Six for long years he languished on an abandoned island in pacific ocean, deprived of the title of emperor, away from his beloved France, from his soldiers. Rejected by the whole world, the former great emperor reflected on his life path, about the reasons for his crushing defeat. In his memoirs, he wrote: "The biggest mistake in my life was the war against Russia". May 5, 1821 Napoleon Bonaparte died. In 1840, his ashes were transported from St. Helena and buried in Les Invalides (Pantheon of the great commanders of France) in Paris to the jubilant cries of thousands of French people. France received its emperor.

Congress of Vienna (September 1814 - June 1815). In September 1814, the congress of states participating in the war against Napoleon began its work in Vienna. Congress of Vienna was supposed to decide the fate of the post-war structure of Europe and satisfy the territorial claims of the victorious countries. 216 states took part in the work of the congress, but Russia, England, and Austria played the main role. The Russian delegation was represented by Alexander I. The Congress of Vienna eliminated the political changes and transformations resulting from French Revolution 1789 and the Napoleonic Wars. France was returned to pre-revolutionary borders. The Congress of Vienna restored monarchical regimes in France, Italy, Spain and other states. According to the decisions of the Vienna Congress, Central Poland with Warsaw went to Russia. From the Polish and part of the Lithuanian lands, the Kingdom of Poland was formed as part of Russia. During the Napoleonic wars, serfdom was swept away in a number of Western European countries, but the victorious countries did not dare to restore it.

Holy Union. In September 1815, at the initiative of Alexander I, the monarchs of Russia, Austria and Prussia signed the Act of Education in Paris Holy Union . Then almost all European monarchs joined the Holy Alliance. Alexander I became the head of the Holy Alliance. In those days, the Russian emperor was the most popular person in Europe. Wherever he appeared - youthful, handsome, in the uniform of a cavalry guard regiment - he immediately became the center of attention. Kings and generals crowded in his waiting room, he was the most welcome guest at the balls of the august persons, in the salons of the first beauties of Europe ... The influence of Russia on European politics was prevailing.

• The purpose of the Holy Alliance was:
• support for the old monarchical regimes based on the principle of legitimism (recognition of the legitimacy of maintaining their power);
• struggle against revolutionary movements in Europe.

At the subsequent congresses of the Holy Alliance in Aachen (1818) and Troppau (1820), a decision was made that gave the right to interfere with the internal affairs of states by the members of the Holy Alliance in order to suppress revolutionary actions in them.
The significance of the Vienna system and the Holy Alliance was that in the next 10 - 15 years they ensured general peace and stability in Europe, exhausted by the Napoleonic wars. Then the Holy Alliance broke up.

Decembrist movement. During the foreign campaign of the Russian army, thousands of Russian noblemen visited Western Europe as winners. They not only smashed Napoleon's troops, but also paid attention to the daily life of the Western European peoples, to the political structure in their states. They are struck by the high level of individual freedom in France, democratic morals, freedom of speech. Then they returned to their homeland, where most of the peasants were serfs. And the contrast between the winners and the vanquished shocked the youth of the nobility. Some officers - nobles came to the conclusion that Western European society is more progressive than Russian. In their opinion, the reason for the backwardness of Russian society is autocracy and serfdom.
The reign of Alexander I is the time of the formation of the revolutionary ideology and the revolutionary movement. From 1811 to 1825 in Russia there were more than 30 revolutionary secret organizations of the nobility. Most of them were military officers.

At the end of 1824, the leaders of both societies agreed on a joint action in the summer of 1826.

Uprising in Petersburg on December 14, 1825 After the unexpected death on October 19, 1825 in Taganrog of Alexander I, an interregnum arose in Russia. The Decembrists decided to take advantage of this. On December 14, 1825, on the day of the promulgation of the manifesto of the new emperor, the Decembrists called for an uprising. They intended to force the Senate to accept their Manifesto to the Russian People document and proclaim the transition to constitutional government.
Early in the morning, members of the "Northern Society" began agitation among the troops of St. Petersburg. Only by 11 o'clock on the Senate Square was it possible to withdraw the Life Guards of the Moscow Regiment. At one o'clock in the afternoon, the sailors of the Guards naval crew and some other parts of the St. Petersburg garrison joined the rebels - a total of about 3 thousand people. It turned out that the swearing-in took place earlier than planned, the members of the Senate had already dispersed. In addition, the dictator of the uprising, S.P. Trubetskoy did not appear at the place of performance. The new Emperor Nicholas I began negotiations with the rebels. They were delayed by six o'clock in the evening and did not bring any results. But after the Decembrist P.G. Kakhovsky mortally wounded the governor-general of St. Petersburg Count M.A. Miloradovich, the tsar ordered to shoot at the rebels. Two or three canister shots dispersed the rebellious troops. By evening, the leaders of the uprising were arrested, and the Decembrists' uprising was suppressed. Head of the Southern Society P.I. By this time Pestel had been arrested and betrayed all the plans of the conspirators. However, on December 29, 1825, S.I. Muravyov-Apostol and M.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin raised an uprising of the Chernigov regiment in the south. On January 3, 1826, government troops suppressed this uprising as well.
The arrests of members of the society and the investigation began. In the case of the Decembrists, 579 people were involved, 289 people. were found guilty. Five people - P.I. Pestel, K.F. Ryleev, S.I. Muravyov-Apostol, M.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin and P.G. Kakhovsky were hanged. The rest, depending on the degree of guilt, were sent to hard labor, to a settlement in Siberia, demoted to soldiers, transferred to the Caucasus in active army. The Decembrists were pardoned only by the son of Nicholas I Alexander II after his coronation.

Evaluation of the activities of the Decembrists. There are various assessments of the activities of the Decembrists. IN Soviet time the point of view prevailed that the Decembrists were honest and noble people, that their policy provisions on the elimination of autocracy, the abolition of serfdom, the estate system, the creation of a republic - reflected the most pressing problems of the progressive development of Russia. The merit of the Decembrists is that they laid the foundation for that social movement, the struggle of which will lead to the fall of the autocracy and the abolition of the serf system. There is another point of view on the activities of the Decembrists. The Decembrist uprising is a utopian movement. The Decembrists' projects to introduce a republican form of government or even a constitutional monarchy into Russia were politically reckless. On the first day of the speech, the leaders of the movement did not go to Senate Square, which betrayed their comrades and the soldiers involved in the rebellion. The Decembrists were "terribly far from the people." They did not know their country, did not understand the peculiarities of the development of Russian society. They looked for the problem of Russia's lagging behind not in the economy, but in the absence in Russia of the political and cultural ideas of Europe. The Decembrists did not take into account that the democratic institutions that have developed in Europe are the result of a long and peculiar European history.