The social structure of medieval society: Europe and Russia. The social structure of society in Western Europe The structure of society in the Middle Ages

The social structure of medieval society was quite simple. In the "dark" ages, more than 90% of the population were peasants (colons, villans, litas, serfs), more or less personally dependent on the owner of the land - a spiritual or secular feudal lord. The share of the middle strata (artisans, soldiers, monks, servants, officials, merchants) was about 7-9%. The upper stratum (feudal lords, nobles, higher clergy) did not exceed 1.5-2%. For simplicity, we can assume that one hundred peasants could feed ten artisans and two idlers.

During the period of communal revolutions, the proportion of the middle strata rapidly increases and reaches 15-20% of the population, while the proportion of peasants decreases to 80%. By the end of the Middle Ages, the share of peasants in the most developed countries was reduced to 75%, while the share of the middle strata increased to 25%. True, in the middle urban strata there is a significant stratification. A significant part of them gradually passes into the state of paupers - hired workers, whose situation is in some ways even worse than that of the peasants.

The social structure in the Middle Ages was very rigid. A person's position was determined by birth. It was extremely difficult to move from the peasant class to the handicraft class, and to the upper stratum it was almost impossible. Mixed marriages were practically excluded, especially since marriages were concluded, as a rule, within a workshop, guild or community. The only career ladder that a commoner could climb was the church hierarchy, and such cases were isolated.

medieval life

The German emperors, from the Carolingians to the Franconians, remained faithful to Frankish customs and dress. On the other hand, as the heirs of the Roman Empire, they adopted the Roman-Byzantine dress of late Antiquity for solemn occasions. Late antique elements in men's clothing are, first of all, a long, to the heel, tunic or dalmatic with rich decorations, for women - a semi-long or freely falling tunic, and under it - a long and wide undershirt. Traditionally, Germanic men's clothing was a wide, mostly belted jacket in the form of a blouse with long sleeves and long trousers tied at the calves - windings went further to the feet. In itself, quite modest clothing among the nobility was made from expensive, brightly colored fabrics with decorative trim along the edges. Leather "peasant shoes" without heels, tightened with straps, served as shoes.

Hats were strictly different: married women covered their hair with a scarf or veil; girls walked around with their heads uncovered.

Knightly poetry and the norms of behavior of the era of the Crusades, brought sophistication to personal and social relations. Religion, the honor of weapons and the cult of the lady - these are the three shrines that the knight served. It was considered especially important to master the seven knightly arts: horseback riding, swimming, archery, fisticuffs, birding, playing chess and writing poetry.

The combat equipment of a warrior and a knight complemented the picture of medieval male attire. Before the Crusades, the Normans had scaly shells and ring shells. In the XII century. chain mail appeared: thin iron rings were not sewn to each other, but were woven into one another and fastened so as to form a dense, elastic mesh, more convenient and reliable. The costume was complemented by helmets of various shapes and camisoles with coats of arms.

In the middle of the XIV century. fundamental changes in clothing take place, a genuine “domination of scissors” sets in. The new trend was to shorten, narrow and lace up clothes. Since the clothes that used to be worn over the head became very narrow, they had to be cut in front and provided with a clasp. Appeared jacket - tight-fitting outerwear with sleeves and fasteners, barely reaching the hips. Shoes became long beyond measure, therefore, to facilitate walking, they wore wooden shoes - clogs.

No sooner had the new fashion become ubiquitous than the first dress laws were introduced to curb the passion for fashion and luxury, and especially to preserve class distinctions.

The architecture was distinguished by a harsh, "serf" character. The use of stone as a building material has become almost universal. The weight of the stone vaults was supported by thick walls with narrow windows sparingly cut through. According to their plan, the church buildings reproduced the cruciform type of the Roman basilica with its longitudinal and transverse naves and a portal at the western end. The new architectural style was named Romanesque.

In France, the most consistent process was the formation of Romanesque art, primarily architecture, especially monastic. The monasteries took care of the construction of bridges, the laying of new roads and the restoration of old roads, along which there were monastery shelters and church bell towers. It was the monasteries that were the centers of education. In monastic schools, ancient disciplines were taught, called the "seven liberal arts": grammar, rhetoric and dialectics (the first stage of education); arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music (second level). They learned to read by memorizing prayers, the psalter and the gospel. The medieval school did not know the age limit, children were taught to read and write along with adult boys. The merchants brought up their children separately, as church moralists condemned trade and credit practices. The widespread spread of literacy led to the appearance in the XII century. the first major private libraries. One of these libraries belonged to Robert de Sorbon, who donated it in 1253 to the college named after him.

The medieval city was characterized by overcrowding, overcrowding, unsanitary conditions and the constant danger of fires. Sewage and garbage, which were mostly dumped into rivers or city moats, were a source of infectious diseases. Plague, cholera, gastrointestinal diseases throughout the Middle Ages remained primarily urban diseases.

Urban houses differed little from rural ones. They were erected from willow covered with clay, wood plastered on top or poorly hewn stone. Wooden buildings of the type were widespread. "schgender-bau" from portable elements: pillars, from which the foundation of the building was made, and beams. Such a house was considered movable property, because in the event of termination of the land lease agreement, the structure could be dismantled and taken away by the tenant. However, in large cities such as Paris, London or Cologne, stone houses of 4-5 floors were also built. On the first floor there was a workshop, a craftsman's or merchant's shop, on the second - a living room, a refectory, above the master bedroom, even higher - rooms for servants, apprentices, guests, closets and pantries.

From the 12th century cities become poles of attraction for pilgrimage - this "medieval prototype of tourism" (in the words of Le Goff). Pilgrims rushed to the city to venerate the holy relics kept in the city's cathedrals and churches, as well as to gawk at city sights, various buildings and monuments.

The people of the Middle Ages had a lot of free time, loved and appreciated the holidays and amusements timed to coincide with numerous church holidays, on which it was impossible to work, like on Sunday.

The nobility regularly arranged knightly tournaments, feasts and balls, with the participation of musicians and minstrels, which lasted 3-5 days. The common people were content with fisticuffs, archery, performances by comedians and circus performers, gratuitous food and drink offered by the workshop or guild. Church processions and services attracted the entire population of the city, without distinction of class, sex and age.

Ladies and gentlemen, sometimes for 36 hours did not get up from the festive table. Behind him (and under him) they slept, relieved themselves, had sex. The smells in the castle were very strong - a mixture of aromas of kitchen, sweat, urine, leather, dogs roaming freely through the halls and chambers, as well as perfumes specially invented to somehow drown out this bouquet. However, the people of the Middle Ages were not squeamish. They rarely bathed - from twice a month to twice a year. Cleanliness was generally under suspicion - after all, Muslims and Jews - non-Christians often and thoroughly washed. In the late Middle Ages, however, public baths came into fashion, in which men, women and children washed both separately and together. In the latter case, we are dealing with the prototype of a visiting house.

Morality in the Middle Ages was low, in today's sense of it. Men, of course, sought to limit the sexual freedom of their wives in order to ensure “legitimate” offspring, but they themselves enjoyed a fair amount of freedom. Ladies from the upper stratum could have official lovers, especially after the “invention” of courtly love.

Crisis of the 14th century

The fourteenth century was again very unfortunate. For almost a century, bloody wars were going on in the center of Europe, as usual accompanied by the destruction of herds and crops, as well as the migration of viruses. The most famous of them is the Hundred Years War between England and France.

At the end of the second quarter of the century, gray rats that migrated from Central Asia brought an epidemic of bubonic plague, which killed about a third of the population of Europe - about 25 million people. The urban population has decreased by 4 times, and the population of individual cities has even decreased by 10 times!

In addition, another local cooling occurred, the conditions for grain ripening worsened, which again led to famine.

As a result, the population of Europe decreased from 73 million people in 1300 to 42 million in 1400. There are no exact data, but there is reason to believe that in 1350 the population of Europe did not exceed 33 million people.

In the second half of the century, a period of "feudal reaction" begins. The landowners are trying to return to natural forms of rent collection, to raise dues, to revise the terms of land lease. Due to the sharp decline in the working population, wages have unexpectedly increased. Attempts to reduce it, along with an increased tax burden, lead to a series of powerful performances: the revolt of Wat Tyler in England, the Jacquerie in France.

1. Early Middle Ages, World History. T. 7. - Minsk, 1996.

2. Medieval culture and the city in the new historical science. - M., 1995.

3. Brun V., Tilke M. Costume history. - M, 1996.

4. Mozheiko II. V. 1185.

5. Le Goff J. Civilization of the Medieval West. - M., 1992,

6. Theis Laurent. Carolingian heritage. - M.. 1993,

7. Lebec Stefan. Origin of the Franks. - M., 1993.

8. Eco Umberto. The name of the rose.

9. Follet Ken. Pillars of the earth.

10. Druon Maurice. Damned kings.

Chapter 4

Feudal society consisted of just a few estates. An estate is a social group that, according to the corral, had rights and duties that were inherited. Medieval Western European society consisted of three estates:

Clergy. . Knights, secular feudal lords, nobles entered. . Citizens and peasants.

The first two estates were privileged. Belonging to the estate was hereditary and determined the property status. The hierarchical structure of society made it difficult to move from one social stratum to another. It was basically impossible. One of the distinguishing features of the medieval civilization of the West is corporatism. Medieval man always felt himself a part of a collective, a community. He belonged to various communities and was united according to a great variety of signs. He could belong to different corporations at the same time. Rural communities, handicrafts, monasteries, spiritual knightly orders, military squads - all this is an example of some corporations. The corporation had its own treasury. Corporations were based on consolidation, mutual assistance and support. The corporation did not destroy the feudal hierarchy but gave strength and cohesion to the various strata.

Estate-representative monarchy. Institutions of Western European Medieval Democracy.

The most widespread form of government in the era of the early and medieval Middle Ages was the monarchy. Moreover, in the Western European Middle Ages, there were several types of monarchy. For example empires, kingdoms, principalities, duchies. In the early Middle Ages, the role of royalty was very significant. But the church was a powerful counterbalance to the re. At the same time, in the early Middle Ages, the feudal lords were gaining strength. Which in turn led to feudal fragmentation, to the weakening of the power of the king. But in the 10-11th century, the resuscitation of Roman cities took place in Europe. On the site of Roman cities, medieval towns began to be created, which were centers of trade and crafts. But even in the early Middle Ages, those cities that were post-trane were political and administrative centers. They were the residences of sovereigns, feudal lords, bishops. But later they became primarily centers of crafts and trade. Craftsmen united in workshops, merchants in guilds. By the end of the Middle Ages, a new class, the bourgeoisie, was born in the cities. With the advent of cities, a wave of urban movements is growing. Cities are fighting for their rights and interests. Rights and interests were reduced to obtaining privileges that cities bought for money. The deal was formalized in the form of a special document called a charter. England provided the first example of this kind. In the 13th century, ravens forced King John the Landless to sign the Magna Carta, limiting royal power.

The political consolidation of the feudal lords, namely the nobility and clergy, on the one hand, and the townspeople in the form of special estates, led to the formation of an estate of representative institutions. This is how the feudal monarchy of estate representatives or estate monarchy arose. In 1265 the first parliament was created. In which, in addition to the barons and the higher clergy, representatives of the free population of the counties and large cities sat. Soon there was a division of this parliament into the House of Lords, it was attended by representatives of the secular and spiritual aristocracy, and into the House of Commons, it was attended by representatives of the middle class. Thus, already in the 13th century, a monarchy limited by parliament was established in England, the form of government of which exists there to this day. In the 14th century in France, for the first time, a class-representative body was convened, which was called the States General. In the 15th century, the same class-representative body appeared in Spain, which was called the Cortes. In the 16th century, such an organ called the Reichstag also arose in Germany.

The second, although less common, form of government in medieval Europe was the city-republic. For example, the head of the Venetian city was the ruler, the doge. His reign was for life. The legislature was the Grand Council. However, the actual power in the city belonged to several merchant families.

The imperial cities of Germany were formally subordinate to the emperor, but in reality were independent city republics. They had the right to independently declare war, make peace, mint their own coin.

In northern France and Flanders, commune towns appeared. They were exempted from duties in favor of the feudal lords and had their own government.

Medieval European society was hierarchical. At the top of feudal power was the king. His rule was of an impersonal private-legal nature. First of all, he was the lord of the largest feudal lords. Other feudal lords were his vassals. The power of the king was based on an agreement, on a conditional grant of land to them. Large feudal lords received land under the condition of performing service, more often military. Large feudal lords could have a vassal and transfer part of this land to him. At the bottom of the hierarchy were the peasants. The basis of the feudal system is the monopoly property of the feudal lords and feudal states on land and the personal dependence of the peasants on the feudal lords. The key formula says there is no lord, there is no land without a lord. Payment for the use of land was taken in the form of rent. There were 3 forms of rent: . Natural. Corvee. . Grocery. Grocery giveaway. . Monetary. . In the early Middle Ages, the first form of rent - corvée - prevailed. It was supplemented by rigid forms of personal dependence of the peasants before the feudal lord.

The feudal lord lynched the peasants, limited their freedom of inheritance. From the 12th century, corvee gradually began to move away. In feudal society, two classes were formed: the class of feudal lords and the class of peasants.

The Social Structure of Medieval Society: Europe and Russia Written version of the speech by I. Danilevsky and P. Uvarov in the program "Not so!" Pavel Uvarov: An equestrian warrior is a knight, of course. For the most part, its social functions are related to war, the use of weapons and the protection of the population. This is the first. He has a special status, not like everyone else, and is quite privileged and independent. It has its own idea of ​​honor, its own culture. Associated with special official - as a rule, contract type - relations with his overlord, a superior boss. From a social point of view, chivalry is an elite that, as a rule, uses peasant labor for its maintenance. ID: In Ancient Russia, for those whom we could conditionally call "knights", this set is clearly not suitable. "Equestrian warrior", for whom war is the main craft, this is still understandable. A privileged position to some extent, too. But here a problem immediately arises in Russia: estates appear very late. Estate, if in a nutshell, is a legal concept. On the one hand, there must be a legal basis in order to formalize and consolidate quite certain relations. On the other hand, there must be a certain social group whose rights are enshrined in law. In Russia, this practice appears only in the XVIII century. I mean the law "On the Liberty of the Nobility". Until that time, the law does not define any social group by rights. It has always been difficult for us with legislation, and even worse with the legal basis. But nevertheless, there were still some grounds for the allocation of knighthood. And until some rather late time, this fell under the definition, which always amazed me, it was believed that in Russia there was feudalism without an overlord. It's like vodka without a degree, tobacco without nicotine, a book without letters. A strange notion of chivalry and feudalism! But its roots are clear. Relations between those whom we can conditionally call overlords in Russia, and those whom we also conditionally call knights, were not at all the same as they were in Western Europe. There are fundamental differences, and they are very clear geographically. And somehow it was necessary to designate them, hence the "feudalism without overlord." In Russia there were an older squad and a younger one. The eldest is, of course, a privileged part of the warriors. But their privileges are rather strange. I don’t know how the first knights, relatively speaking, how they were defined in Western Europe by their kinship, that is, whether their status was inherited. In Russia, this is very difficult to determine. And above all, because we often attract a very complex and even dangerous source for early periods - epics. Why dangerous? Because this is an oral transmission, but not an epic, which, as a rule, is very clearly maintained in structure and content, but epics. In the epic, the narrator is its creator himself. The main characters are heroes. A hero and a knight are about the same thing. The word "hero" comes to us along with the Mongols. The first hero who is mentioned in written sources is Subedei-Baatur. This is a Turkic name, which folk etymology made more Russian - a hero. Who are they by name? Ilya, Alyosha - that is, Alexei or Alexander - and Dobrynya. As for Ilya and Alyosha, this is already a late time, because the names are clearly baptismal, and baptismal names begin to be used as the main ones only from the 15th century. I'm talking about early epics, epics of the so-called Kiev cycle, in which Prince Vladimir the Red Sun is mentioned. Where is all this audience? They either sit at the feast of Prince Vladimir, or at the heroic outposts. Bogatyr outposts is a concept that was formed in the 15th century. That is, no matter how we take any sign, it throws us back to the 15th century, to the 16th century, to the 17th century. And besides the name Vladimir the Red Sun and the fact that he is sitting in Kyiv, there are no other dating signs, although we attribute him to the Kiev period. In general, Vladimir the Red Sun is an almost mythical figure, some kind of “mixture” of Arthur and Charlemagne. Charlemagne with his paladins, and Arthur with his knights. Some distant, distant memories of Vladimir Svyatoslavovich, because after all the Baptist, and he is remembered regularly. Then Vladimir Monomakh, but the figure is also extremely obscure. And therefore it is impossible to draw a conclusion about what the social composition of the knights was, where these heroes came from. Let's say they could be peasant children. I would not dare to draw such a conclusion. There are more reliable sources. Let's say "The Tale of Bygone Years". But this is also a semi-mythical genealogy about several generations of close people surrounding the prince! The story of Yana Vyshatich, Vyshat Ostromirich. All these are relatives of the prince to some extent, and Ostromir is a Novgorod mayor, he is a relative of Izyaslav Yaroslavich, the eldest son of Yaroslav the Wise. In addition, it is quite clear that there are genealogical stretches in the Tale. And that's what's important. It must be remembered that until the 15th century we had no idea of ​​surnames. No one really cares about pedigree. At best, grandfathering is mentioned, that is, it says who the grandfather was. Anything further is unimportant. Therefore, it is absolutely impossible to say that chivalry in Russia - and these are certain rights and obligations that pass from generation to generation by inheritance. However, at first, until the XII century, everything was very similar to Western Europe. And in the XII century, the emergence of independent states on the territory of Kievan Rus leads to the formation of different types of statehood, and the role of mounted warriors is changing. But until that time, the southern and southwestern principalities are very reminiscent of Western Europe. These are Kyiv, Galich, Volyn, to some extent Polotsk. And a completely different picture in the northeast. With the appearance on the historical stage of Andrei Bogolyubsky, the whole system of social relations in general changes dramatically. In the south and southwest, senior squads, which are called the word "boyars", play a very prominent role, influence the prince, the prince is forced to coordinate with them all his actions, up to the one to whom the principality will be transferred. They have land holdings and consider them theirs, and in fact keep the city veche meetings under their control. And in the northwest, the boyars are local, these are not warriors, this is a local aristocracy with large land holdings, and it does not depend on the prince in any way. The prince depends on them! They expel the prince, they can invite another, and he can come to them on a contractual basis, say, for the duration of hostilities. And the northeast, where another system of boyars is taking shape, although the term is the same. After Andrey Bogolyubsky expels his father's squad, he remains with the same ministerials, with the same service organization, the "junior squad", which is not equal to him. He is not the first among equals, but an order of magnitude higher. They are serfs - in the 15th century they will write that Andrei Bogolyubsky was killed by his serfs. Although they were called boyars and were boyars. Thus, in the southwest, in the northwest, in the northeast of Russia there were completely different types of boyars. And with Western Europe, it seems, only the southwestern boyars can be compared. PW: But by this time, if we're talking about the 12th century, it's the same in the West. In England conquered by the Normans - one, in North-East France - another, and in Italy - the third. And the lack of unification was no less, if not greater, than in Russia. But what happened in Europe? And what didn't happen to us? Firstly, there was no Mongol invasion in Europe, which radically solved the problem of the boyars, at least in the northeast. And the second, perhaps no less important, is that in the West there was a codification of legal thought that had already been born after the “reception” of Roman law. People who learned to think legally wanted to codify certain rules so that interactions became possible. The result is a completely different reality. A genealogical canon is being formed. A treatise was written, which proves the piety of the practice of "shedding blood in certain cases." There is a tradition according to which knights are perceived as protectors of widows and orphans. This is especially strong where there is a lack of power. That is, the XII century for Europe is the time of creation, folding of the social system, some unification of the rules, as a result of which the exchange of information and codes of conduct becomes possible. Since the end of the 12th century, there has already been some unity of territories and different regions. And the crusades played a huge role in this, the role of a kind of catalyst and melting pot in which the system of values ​​begins to crystallize. Further, this process will only gain strength, grow stronger. Legal norms will be improved, national states will be formed. But all the same, until the 15th century, aristocratic knightly youth from all over Europe would gather and, say, go hunting for Lithuanians. We know how these wonderful guys, familiar to us from the chronicles of Shakespeare, children, grandchildren of the Black Prince and Richard II, are expelled from the Lithuanian border by special papal instructions for the riot and disgrace they cause. Two more words about the Crusades. There is an opinion that this is a huge worldwide project of social and political reorganization of the whole of Europe. If so, then there will be many such knightly projects. And under Charles V and VI, and the Dubois project under Philip IV. And in general, all the first utopias will be painted in knightly tones. But after a while it will all be over. And there is a very simple functional explanation - to maintain a knightly army, this colossus, is becoming more and more difficult. And insanely expensive, of course. And Eastern Europe is a sparsely populated, and, in general, poor society. There is no such concentration of wealth, human material and resources as in Western Europe to support chivalry, which, by the way, is another reason for its absence in Russia. Plus, a specific form of land use. Let's not forget that practically before the 15th - even the 16th century, a turning point occurs. The population was forced to leave the old land and develop new areas. This largely determines why in Russia there was feudalism without vassalage. Because it was impossible to give one piece of land for life - it was developed at an incredible speed. That is, it was necessary either to give fishing, saltworks - anything - or wait until a normal land use system appears. And this is the 16th century. Then the process of formation of local land use is completed. But this is no longer knighthood. Obviously, it could be, but time is lost. The princely power is already strong enough, and then the royal one. It was at this time that a sharp increase in the power of the Grand Duke took place, and soon the appearance of a king, absolutely sacred, who stands outside any social structures. Plus the heavy legacy of the Mongols. Because the relationship between the sovereign and the serf is transferred to the entire system of relations. There were no barons here! At one time, they tried to say in our country that the struggle against the reactionary boyars was waged by the progressive nobility. But ... they did not differ in their essence! It was only a rank, only a status determined by the position under the monarch, who alone had unlimited power. Let's see where else chivalry could be, and whether it was. Or is it a purely European phenomenon? Samurai come to mind, Indian Rajputs who kept the penetration of Islam into the central regions. There was something similar in Iran. And even in China. But the nomadic society solved this problem in a different way. ID: European chivalry has not always been successful. For example, the clash at Shaio, the battle of Legnica, where the Mongols won unconditional victories. PW: Maybe if they moved on, the lock system could hold them back. They did not know how to take castles in a mountainous area. But in open battle, chivalry had no chance, that's for sure. So where does the border between West and East lie, where is the border of Western European chivalry in the East? There were no such knights as in Europe, for example, in the Baltics. ID: And in Lithuania, Poland - constant contacts with Europe, which are due, in particular, to the struggle against the Mongol invasion. And this is the great merit of Danila Romanovich Galitsky, who established such contacts. It is he who begins to be actively involved in the process, as a result of which an entity will emerge, which we will call Lithuania. But the Grand Duchy of Lithuania is a colossal territory with a population of different ethnic composition. And the fact that, in spite of everything, this principality is closer to the West than to the East, leads to the fact that later, much later, Lithuania concludes a Union with Poland, the Rzeczpospolita arises. And what we find in these territories is much closer, say, to European chivalry in essence and in terms of forms of relations than to the northeast. And the Polish-Lithuanian gentry can be called chivalry. But where do we see the easternmost presence or even a mention of chivalric legends? ID: In the northeast, at best, we find novels about Alexander the Great. P. W: And yet, if you look for common roots, you can find them. After all, this is in Greek traditions - an equestrian saint. And we meet him both in the Eastern Christian tradition and in the West. This is a rider, or a spearman. And at first, of course, this is not St. George, but just a rider, a rider. It is interesting that even for North-Eastern Russia in the XIV-XV centuries there was a choice, as in the West, there was a plurality of services. The horseman could leave for some time or permanently move from one prince to another. And this is up to the 16th century. Now let's look at the knightly legends. Such a legend is called "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". It is usually compared to "The Song of Roland". However, as far as I understand, they have only one thing in common - a completely ordinary case, about which a brilliant, amazing work was created, which is generally outside of any genre. Dmitry Sergeevich Likhachev wrote clearly and clearly: this work stands outside the genre structure. Which, by the way, led to sad reflections about when it was created. The complete absence of information about the existence of this work led to the same question. This was out of the question, although Likhachev boldly spoke of the existence of the "Tale of Igor's Campaign", similar to that of the "Song of Roland". It is not clear what he based this assertion on. The development of such a specific thing as heraldry is associated with chivalry. ID: And this was categorically excluded in Russia! Because - I repeat! the idea of ​​tribal affiliation, the appearance of surnames is connected, apparently, with only one thing - the appearance of localism. This is the formation of a layer of service people in a certain rank, ranked by when a person came, what position his ancestors occupied. That is, it was a prince, or a Moscow boyar, or a boyar of a serving prince, in order to ensure their status and the status of their descendants. Only from now on! Moreover, I am not alone in coming to this conclusion, studying the material from the 11th century to the end of the 15th century, but, for example, Alexander Kamensky, looking through this material from the 15th century to the 18th century. Our heraldry appears in the 17th century, and this is urban heraldry. And in the 18th century, it will already be tribal heraldry, which has a completely different status and other functions. But it doesn't change anything in principle. Today, in our ideas, the coat of arms is a symbol of honor. For that time, apparently, it was just a system of behavior that would allow progress. Because in Russia there is no canon, that is, a designation of behavior that would be read as a concept of honor. I could not see such words anywhere: "he acted dishonestly." Because it is possible to determine the “availability” of honor when you are “caught in a dishonorable act, that is, when you go beyond this canon. What conclusions can be drawn? The existence of chivalry in Western Europe was of great importance for its development. This institution greatly influenced the emergence and establishment of individual rights, the attitude towards women, the creation and observance of the rules of civilized warfare, and the attitude towards prisoners. So many features of democracy largely come from there. It can even be said that to some extent the foundation of the modern legal system was laid precisely then and thanks to chivalry. YU: In Russia, there were some elements common with European ones, from which chivalry could develop, but, apparently, for some complex, internal reasons, this did not take place.

The social structure of medieval society was quite simple. In the "dark" ages, more than 90% of the population were peasants (colons, villans, litas, serfs), more or less personally dependent on the owner of the land - a spiritual or secular feudal lord. The share of the middle strata (artisans, soldiers, monks, servants, officials, merchants) was about 7-9%. The upper stratum (feudal lords, nobles, higher clergy) did not exceed 1.5-2%. For simplicity, we can assume that one hundred peasants could feed ten artisans and two idlers.

During the period of communal revolutions, the proportion of the middle strata rapidly increases and reaches 15-20% of the population, while the proportion of peasants decreases to 80%. By the end of the Middle Ages, the share of peasants in the most developed countries was reduced to 75%, while the share of the middle strata increased to 25%. True, in the middle urban strata there is a significant stratification. A significant part of them gradually passes into the state of paupers - hired workers, whose situation is in some ways even worse than that of the peasants.

The social structure in the Middle Ages was very rigid. A person's position was determined by birth. It was extremely difficult to move from the peasant class to the handicraft class, and to the upper stratum it was almost impossible. Mixed marriages were practically excluded, especially since marriages were concluded, as a rule, within a workshop, guild or community. The only career ladder that a commoner could climb was the church hierarchy, and such cases were isolated.

medieval life

The German emperors, from the Carolingians to the Franconians, remained faithful to Frankish customs and dress. On the other hand, as the heirs of the Roman Empire, they adopted the Roman-Byzantine dress of late Antiquity for solemn occasions. Late antique elements in men's clothing are, first of all, a long, to the heel, tunic or dalmatic with rich decorations, for women - a semi-long or freely falling tunic, and under it - a long and wide undershirt. Traditionally, Germanic men's clothing was a wide, mostly belted jacket in the form of a long-sleeved blouse and long trousers tied at the calves - windings went further to the feet. In itself, rather modest clothing among the nobility was made from expensive, brightly colored fabrics with decorative trim along the edges. The shoes were leather “peasant shoes” without heels, tightened with straps.

Hats were strictly different: married women covered their hair with a scarf or veil; girls walked around with their heads uncovered.

Knightly poetry and the norms of behavior of the era of the Crusades, brought sophistication to personal and social relations. Religion, the honor of weapons and the cult of the lady - these are the three shrines that the knight served. It was considered especially important to master the seven knightly arts: horseback riding, swimming, archery, fisticuffs, birding, playing chess and writing poetry.

The combat equipment of a warrior and a knight complemented the picture of medieval male attire. Before the Crusades, the Normans had scaly shells and ring shells. In the XII century. chain mail appeared: thin iron rings were not sewn to each other, but were woven into one another and fastened so as to form a dense, elastic mesh, more convenient and reliable. The costume was complemented by helmets of various shapes and camisoles with coats of arms.

In the middle of the XIV century. fundamental changes in clothing take place, a genuine “domination of scissors” sets in. The new trend was to shorten, narrow and lace up clothes. Since the clothes that used to be worn over the head became very narrow, they had to be cut in front and provided with a clasp. The jacket appeared - tight-fitting outerwear with sleeves and fasteners, barely reaching the hips. Shoes became long beyond measure, therefore, to facilitate walking, they wore wooden shoes - clogs.

No sooner had the new fashion become ubiquitous than the first dress laws were introduced to curb the passion for fashion and luxury, and especially to preserve class distinctions.

The architecture was distinguished by a harsh, "serf" character. The use of stone as a building material has become almost universal. The weight of the stone vaults was supported by thick walls with narrow windows sparingly cut through. According to their plan, the church buildings reproduced the cruciform type of the Roman basilica with its longitudinal and transverse naves and a portal at the western end. The new architectural style was called Romanesque.

In France, the most consistent process of the formation of Romanesque art, primarily architecture, especially monastic. The monasteries took care of the construction of bridges, the laying of new roads and the restoration of old roads, along which there were monastery shelters and church bell towers. It was the monasteries that were the centers of education. In monastic schools, ancient disciplines were taught, called the “seven liberal arts”: grammar, rhetoric and dialectics (the first stage of education); arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music (second level). They learned to read by memorizing prayers, the psalter and the gospel. The medieval school did not know the age limit, children were taught to read and write along with adult boys. The merchants brought up their children separately, as church moralists condemned trade and credit practices. The widespread spread of literacy led to the appearance in the XII century. the first major private libraries. One of these libraries belonged to Robert de Sorbon, who donated it in 1253 to the college named after him.

The medieval city was characterized by tightness, overcrowding of buildings, unsanitary conditions and the constant danger of fires. Sewage and garbage, which were mostly dumped into rivers or city ditches, were a source of infectious diseases. Plague, cholera, gastrointestinal diseases throughout the Middle Ages remained primarily urban diseases.

Urban houses differed little from rural ones. They were erected from willow covered with clay, wood plastered on top or poorly hewn stone. Wooden buildings of the "shtenderbau" type were widely distributed from portable elements: pillars, from which the building's foundation was made, and beams. Such a house was considered movable property, because in the event of termination of the land lease agreement, the structure could be dismantled and taken away by the tenant. However, in large cities such as Paris, London or Cologne, stone houses of 4-5 floors were also built. On the first floor there was a workshop, a craftsman's or merchant's shop, on the second - a living room, a refectory, above the master bedroom, even higher - rooms for servants, apprentices, guests, closets and pantries.

From the 12th century cities become poles of attraction for pilgrimage - this "medieval prototype of tourism" (in the words of Le Goff). Pilgrims rushed to the city to venerate the holy relics kept in the city's cathedrals and churches, as well as to gawk at city sights, various buildings and monuments.

The people of the Middle Ages had a lot of free time, loved and appreciated the holidays and amusements timed to coincide with numerous church holidays, on which it was impossible to work, like on Sunday.

The nobility regularly arranged knightly tournaments, feasts and balls, with the participation of musicians and minstrels, which lasted 3-5 days. The common people were content with fisticuffs, archery, performances by comedians and circus performers, gratuitous food and drink offered by the workshop or guild. Church processions and services attracted the entire population of the city, without distinction of class, sex and age.

Ladies and gentlemen, sometimes for 36 hours did not get up from the festive table. Behind him (and under him) they slept, relieved themselves, had sex. The smells in the castle were very strong - a mixture of aromas of kitchen, sweat, urine, leather, dogs roaming freely through the halls and chambers, as well as perfumes specially invented to somehow drown out this bouquet. However, the people of the Middle Ages were not squeamish. They rarely bathed - from twice a month to twice a year. Cleanliness was generally under suspicion - after all, Muslims and Jews - non-Christians often and thoroughly washed. In the late Middle Ages, however, public baths came into fashion, in which men, women and children washed both separately and together. In the latter case, we are dealing with the prototype of a visiting house.

Morality in the Middle Ages was low, in today's sense of it. Men, of course, sought to limit the sexual freedom of their wives, in order to ensure “legitimate” offspring, but they themselves enjoyed a fair amount of freedom. Ladies from the upper stratum could have official lovers, especially after the “invention” of courtly love.

summary of other presentations

"Middle Ages in Europe" - Romanesque style. Gothic style. Vocabulary. Periodization of medieval history. Christian civilization. Strasbourg Cathedral. Man. European inventions. Fantastic Middle Ages. French historian. Amiens. Division of the Roman Empire. Universities. Chartres Cathedral. Three barbarian states. Beauvais. Cultural achievements. Notre Dame. Dark Middle Ages. Barbarian invasions. Barbarism. Catholic Church.

"Craft in a medieval city" - Workshops. Products. Craftsmen. Give the correct answer. Craftsman's workshop. The role of workshops in the life of the city. Peculiarities. Craft in a medieval city. Craft. Home weaver at work.

"Clothes in the style of the Middle Ages" - A variety of hairstyles. Late medieval period. Cover. period of the early Middle Ages. Women's dresses. Adjacent silhouette. Dart. Men's Western European costume of the Middle Ages. The proportions of the female adjacent suit. Men's suit. Fitted short jackets. Journal of Medieval Fashion. The use of bright, contrasting color combinations in clothes. Dynamic triangular shapes. Sculpture of medieval cathedrals.

"Europe in the Middle Ages" - Europe and Russia in the Middle Ages. Relations between feudal lords. Vassals. medieval state. Seniors. Absolute monarchy. The role of the church in the Middle Ages. The term "Middle Ages". early feudal monarchy. Kings. Feud. Relations between feudal lords and peasants. Corporation. Natural economy. Corvee. Estate-representative monarchy. The structure of medieval society. Quit. The struggle of popes and kings.

"Education of medieval cities" - Money. Students' perception of a medieval city. Formation of medieval cities. Major changes in life. Causes of the emergence and growth of cities. Artisans of the same profession. Feudal lords and townspeople. The emergence of cities. Reasons for the growth of medieval cities. Merchants and artisans. European cities. Separation of handicrafts from agriculture. Economy development.

"Quiz "Middle Ages"" - The Crusades. Give me a definition. The church sought to prevent the plunder of its wealth. Event. Discoveries, inventions. development of the feudal system. How money changers turned into usurers. Members of the Crusades. Jan Hus. Jacques Prostoke has a broad back. Commune. Medieval city. The struggle of the Czech people. Three field farming system. Peasant uprising in France. Relationship of urban population with agriculture.