Second Ilyich. Leonid Brezhnev and his great era

The history of any country, as a rule, is divided by scientists into certain periods of development. For example, speaking of Russia in the 17th-18th centuries, they often single out the Petrine era, Palace coups, Catherine's reforms. In turn, the 20th century is divided into the period of Stalinism, thaw, stagnation, perestroika. Each of us has a different attitude towards them. For example, some characterize the period of stagnation in the USSR extremely negatively, while others consider it perhaps the best Soviet era. Let's try to understand this in more detail.

Concept definition

What do historians mean when they speak of a period of stagnation? Mainly an era in the development of the country, which differed relatively high level life Soviet citizens, stability in all spheres of public life, as well as the absence of serious political and social upheavals.

The term "stagnation" came into use after Mikhail Gorbachev's speech at the 27th Congress of the Communist Party. The General Secretary used it to explain the slowdown in the country's economic progress. On the contrary, according to him, stagnation began to clearly appear in Soviet society.

The era of well-being

Like any historical period, the time frame of stagnation is rather conditional. Most often, it refers to the time when the country was led by Leonid Brezhnev. However, it is also wrong to think that immediately after his death perestroika began in the USSR. Approximately, historians define the years of the period of stagnation as follows: from 1964 to 1986. Thus, it covers the reign of Brezhnev L., Andropov Y. and Chernenko K.

The word “stagnation” causes negative associations for most of us. Nevertheless, many researchers do not identify this era with the complete absence of the country's forward movement. Moreover, they point out that in twenty years of stagnation the Soviet Union has actually reached its highest peak in different areas public life, about which it will not be superfluous to learn.

"Golden Age" of the USSR

This is how they sometimes characterize the years when the country was led by Leonid Brezhnev. The period of stagnation, and few people remember this, began with the introduction of self-financing - a system economic relations which is inherent in the capitalist economy. Even under the conditions of a planned socialist economy, the results of the 8th Five-Year Plan were impressive.

However, economic achievements were not the only ones. The Soviet Union has achieved great success in space exploration, in sports, and in the sphere of culture. The standard of living of the Soviet people has risen, their social security has increased, and confidence in the future has also strengthened.

Industry

However, as many scientists note, the stability in the economy of those years was associated, on the one hand, with a sharp increase in world oil prices, and on the other hand, with the discovery of black gold deposits in Siberia. Thus, the country's leadership could postpone further reforms without losing profits. Although economic growth slowed down during the period of stagnation, oil revenues smoothed out the consequences of this negative process for the time being.

During these years, many large enterprises, including an automobile plant in Tolyatti. In 1974, thousands of Komsomol members went to the taiga to build a railway line - BAM, which, according to the plan Soviet leadership, was to play a key role in the development Far East. The construction turned out to be another long-term construction, and it has not yet paid off.

Agricultural sector

In the 1970s, the situation in agriculture worsened. After the agrarian reform, many collective farmers began to move to the cities, and students who did not have the necessary skills came en masse to harvest the crops. The agrarian sector of the Soviet economy gradually fell into decline, and by the mid-80s the threat of a food crisis was imminent in the country. Shortage of goods and long queues at stores have become commonplace Everyday life during the period of stagnation.

social paradox

And yet, in comparison with previous periods in the history of the Soviet Union, the years of stagnation were more favorable. Goods and food were relatively cheap, most citizens had the opportunity to go to the sea in the summer or have free rest in trade union boarding houses and sanatoriums. In 1967, the country switched to a five-day work week; household appliances and cars.

At the same time, of course, we are not talking about comparing the well-being of Soviet citizens with the standard of living in Western countries. In this respect, the USSR was definitely losing.

Foreign policy

During the period of stagnation, the country's leadership pursued a twofold policy. On the one hand, important treaties were signed aimed at removing international tension. On the other hand, the USSR sent troops to Czechoslovakia (1968) and Afghanistan (1979). These demonstrations of military power have caused great damage to the country's image on the world stage.

In the early 1970s, the Soviet Union caught up with the United States in terms of nuclear potential. The build-up of military power had disastrous consequences for the country's economy. colossal funds from state budget were directed not to the development of the industry and Agriculture, but for the needs of army designers. Such militarization undermined the already degrading economy of the country.

Fight against dissent

Although the atmosphere of total fear disappeared under Leonid Brezhnev, this in no way means that during the years when he was at the helm of power, one could freely express discontent in the Soviet Union. On the contrary, the KGB, especially after the events in Czechoslovakia, stepped up the fight against dissidents. True, the main method of intimidation was no longer camps, but psychiatric hospitals. There was no question of freedom of speech, the party completely controlled art, making it the mouthpiece of official propaganda.

Results

Despite some positive moments, by and large, the period of stagnation became a prelude to perestroika. The need for change in the mid-1980s was realized not only by dissidents, but also by the party leadership. The main reasons that prompted Gorbachev M. to make a report on economic stagnation were:

inefficiency of command methods of managing the national economy;
collapse of the financial system;
the backlog of the USSR in the field of technology;
commodity and food shortages;
falling living standards;
decline in world oil prices;
lack of economic reforms.

However, for many Soviet citizens, the years of Leonid Brezhnev's rule have become synonymous with stability and prosperity.

This time we will take a look at historical portrait General Secretary, who was remembered by everyone for his thick eyebrows and kisses. :*

Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev (1964-1982)

Leonid Ilyich was one of the initiators of Khrushchev's dismissal. He came to power not young (57 years old), and the time of his tenure as the First, and then the Chief Secretary of the Party was 18 years, one can say that his reign fell on advancing years. Moreover, during this period average age members of the ruling party was about 60 years old, so often the Brezhnev era is used
the term "gerontocracy" (from other Greek geron - old man, kratos - power, state). It must be said that this is not single word, which is commonly called the reign of Leonid Ilyich, and now, in conjunction with the characteristics of the areas of activity, we will consider other names.

Domestic politics

Transition to the concept of developed socialism

Since Brezhnev was an aged man, he had conservative political preferences, in some cases even reactionary ones. AT best traditions of historical ping-pong, Brezhnev curtailed many of the reforms begun by Khrushchev (the first seven-year plan, criticism of Stalin's personality cult, and so on) and domestic politics took the course of building communism.

In 1977, the "Brezhnev" Constitution of the USSR was adopted, which was based on the concept of "developed socialism" (a stage of society on the path to communism, in which a harmonious combination of all spheres of society is achieved). Before its adoption, this constitution was actively discussed among all segments of the population: at enterprises, in institutes, and on collective farms. Everyone had the right to propose their ideas for the draft Basic Law. This was one step towards establishing the sovereignty of the people.

But we can say that the desire of the authorities to listen to the opinion of the people was ostentatious, in fact, the new constitution legislated the leading role of the CPSU in society and actually replaced the Soviet state authorities with the party apparatus.

Kosygin's reform

Kosygin's economic reform was carried out in 1965-1970. Its essence was to increase the interest of enterprises in increasing production volumes and the subsequent improvement of the economic situation. The CHX (councils National economy), created under Khrushchev in 1957, introduced elements of cost accounting in enterprises, but at the same time the administrative-command system was preserved. Enterprises could now independently determine the range of production, the number of personnel and its wages, raw material suppliers and so on. At the same time, enterprises were obliged to fulfill the plan set by the state, but they also had the opportunity to sell above-plan products and increase their profits.

Attempts to bring the industry out of the crisis

In an effort to improve the situation of industry, the state gave preference to an extensive development path, that is, many new plants, industries and factories were built, but at the same time, working conditions and technologies at existing enterprises did not improve.
Attempts were also made to modernize established forms of management and planning. The Tenth Five-Year Plan (1976-1980) was called the "Five-Year Plan of Efficiency and Quality", it was planned to direct the industry on the path of extensive development, but the plan was not fulfilled, on the contrary, a lag in the industry was noted.

Fighting the agricultural crisis

In the fight against the difficulties of the agricultural sector of the economy, the amount of capital investments and the supply of equipment was increased.

In order to increase the production of rural products, associations were created - agro-industrial complexes (AIC). They were associations of collective farms, enterprises for the processing of agricultural raw materials, transport and trading companies. But these associations did not bring the expected effect - the crisis continued to progress.

After numerous interruptions in providing the population with food, in 1982 the Food Program of the USSR was adopted, which was aimed at the development of all agriculture in the complex, that is, all instances on the way of production from the field to the counter.

To improve fertility, extensive chemicalization and reclamation of soils was carried out.

But all these actions did not help to overcome the crisis of the agro-industry.

Social sphere

Main characteristics public life under Brezhnev can be divided into several points

BUT) Spreading the egalitarian principle of distribution wealth among the general population.

This is due to the simultaneous increase in wages for low-paid workers and lower wages for engineers. When evaluating work, the quality of work and any personal merit were not taken into account.

B) Residual principle of allocating funds for social needs

Most likely, many Soviet party leaders followed this principle. In the first place in terms of material support is always military production and heavy industry, then the needs of the party elite, and already at the very end of the list "social needs". The village lacked hospitals, kindergartens and canteens, which caused many villagers to move to the city.

AT) The introduction of a particularly privileged position of the party-state nomenclature

But the party elite lived well, sanatoriums and hospitals were specially built for them, and the best food was delivered. But such a difference in social position soon contributed to the fall of the party's authority.

G) The dominance of Marxist-Leninist ideology and the suppression of any dissent (persecution of dissidents)

Since the course was taken to build communism, censorship was again tightened, in addition, a struggle began with those who did not want to come to terms with established rules and openly expressed his opinion (dissidents)

D) Diktat of atheism and oblivion of religion

We know that under Khrushchev there was a persecution of Orthodoxy, churches were closed. Under Brezhnev, relations between the state and the Church reached a new level, the Council for Religious Affairs was created under the Council of Ministers of the USSR, which in fact completely subjugated the Church. In addition, compared with the times of Khrushchev, the number of lectures promoting atheism was increased.

E) Holding in MoscowXXIIOlympic Games (summer 1980)

Perhaps the most significant event in the cultural life of the period of stagnation. Summer Olympic Games passed at a height, this event is still fresh in the memory of the people, many still have tears when they remember the words from the song “Goodbye, our affectionate Bear”.

Foreign policy

The policy of "détente"

AT international relations continued to be topical issue reducing international tension . Under Brezhnev, military parity was achieved between the USSR (OVD) and the United States (NATO) through the following treaties:

Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons between the USSR, USA and Great Britain (1968)
Treaty between the USSR and the USA on the limitation of anti-missile defense systems and SALT-1 (1972) and SALT-2 (1979)

The development of economic and cultural relations with the capitalist countries (Soviet-French declaration) received a new round, and trade relations with Europe expanded.

USSR and socialist countries

Paramount in foreign policy The Soviet Union considered strengthening the world socialist camp.

In 1968, the ATS army was introduced into Czechoslovakia to suppress the "Prague Spring" - an attempt by the new party secretary to decentralize government and democratize the country.

In 1964-1973, the USSR provided assistance to Vietnam, where socialism was also established, during the US aggression.

Military-political (OVD) and economic (CMEA) cooperation was deepened.

Results of activity:

Brezhnev's rule marked a regularity and stability in the life of the country; under him, the so-called era of "stagnation" began. During Brezhnev's 18 years in power, the Soviet government pursued a policy in the direction of "developed socialism" (in 1977, a new "Brezhnev" constitution of the USSR was adopted). Attention was paid to solving the problems of public consumption: resources were directed to agriculture, light and food industry. The result of such reforms was a slight increase in the standard of living of the population, especially in rural areas, but after the first period of real growth in the country's economy, by the mid-1970s, signs of stagnation appeared. Chemicalization of soils has led to the deterioration of the ecological state of the land, the deterioration of the state of the economy of the agricultural sector. Implemented full control over the intelligentsia, there was a struggle with dissidents. In the international arena, Brezhnev continues to follow the course initiated by Khrushchev to develop a dialogue with the West. The first bilateral disarmament agreements were tangible achievements of the policy of détente, culminating in the signing of the Helsinki Accords. These successes, however, were seriously undermined by the "Prague Spring", and then by the direct invasion of Afghanistan, after which tensions again arise in international affairs.

And finally cool video from Enjoykin:

And also, anecdotes on the topic. To see them, please like on one of your social networks:

Brezhnev went to the mirror and thought aloud:
“Yes… old became, very old, SUPERSTAR!”.

Lenin proved that even cooks can run the country.
Stalin proved that one person can rule the country.
Khrushchev proved that even a fool can govern a country.
Brezhnev proved that the country can not govern at all.

Brezhnev arrived at the Kremlin on the first day of Easter. Ustinov meets him:
Brezhnev nodded and moved on. Towards Chernenko, smiling sycophantly:
- Christ is risen, Leonid Ilyich!
Thanks, I've already been told.

Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev came to power in 1965, and it was the future general secretary took an active part in the removal of Khrushchev from his post. Someone calls the period of Brezhnev's government a stage of stagnation in all spheres of the country's development, while someone sincerely believes that at that time the long-awaited thaw began in the USSR.

To understand the true direction of Brezhnev's policy, it is necessary to talk about the main reforms of this period, and their significance for the future fate of the USSR.

Reforms of Leonid Brezhnev and their essential features

Brezhnev's reforms	Positive moments of reforms	Negative moments of reforms
1965 - the beginning of Brezhnev's industrial reform	To improve the level of quality in industry, the government began to leave a small part of the income to enterprises to encourage workers. This affected the improvement of the quality of products and the increase in wages.	The country continued to actively develop the heavy industry sector, neglecting the needs of light industry. In addition, enterprises increasingly lost their independence, the level of control of the Ministries over the industrial sphere increased.
1970s-1980s - economic reforms. Reform in 1965.	Almost no reforms were carried out in the economic sphere, with rare exceptions. But during this period, contacts with other countries improved, which had a positive impact on the development of the foreign economy. The reform of 1965 did not bring any changes to the economy, showing the complete impotence of the state apparatus.	Due to the fact that oil prices were constantly growing, Brezhnev and his associates had no incentive to develop the economy. The oil boom of the 1970s meant that the country continued to receive large incomes, but lagged behind in technical equipment from the West for many years. That is why, when the crisis in the oil sector broke out in the 1980s, and oil prices began to fall, the economy found itself in a deep crisis. Due to the indistinctness of Brezhnev's reforms, the trade deficit increased.
1969-1972 - external reforms in the field of improving relations with the United States.	In 1972, the first ever visit of an American president to the USSR took place. Relations between the two countries experienced a thaw, and the iron curtain weakened. A similar improvement in relations between the two countries reduced the level of tension in the world, and politicians finally stopped worrying about the possibility of starting a Third World War.
1972 anti-alcohol campaign	The production of strong alcohol was reduced, but instead the production of beer and grape wine was increased. Medical dispensaries appeared, where people suffering from alcohol addiction were sent.	Brezhnev's campaign did not bring any benefit; moreover, the number of drinking people in the country was steadily growing. Here the influence was that the country was in deep stagnation, repression increased, and no progress was observed. However, the reform brought only an increase in the price of alcohol.

The results of L.I. Brezhnev

It cannot be said that during the period Brezhnev was in power, the country was in an exceptional crisis. In 1980, the Olympics were held in Moscow, where the USSR took first place in the team standings. The space program developed at an incredible pace, and the share of heavy industry continued to grow. In addition, finally, the level of tension between the USSR and the USA decreased, which concluded an arms reduction treaty and reduced the pressure of the Iron Curtain. At a time of such serious economic crisis, no one believed that the USSR could resist the United States. However, advances in development outer space and sports have become an important support for the country. In addition, in the USSR, the pressure on the intellectual and creative elite, which had previously endured endless repressions, finally decreased. And yet, the repressions during the Brezhnev period continued to exist, but took place quietly and without publicity.

At the same time, Brezhnev could not propose any practical changes in the field of the economy or light industry. All his reforms were unsuccessful and led to an even greater economic crisis.

Brezhnev at the end of his reign was burdened by power, and the reforms almost completely came to naught. Perhaps if more significant changes had taken place in the country, and the cult of Stalin had not come to the fore again, this period would not have been called the time of stagnation.

Critics of the cult of personality and the Caribbean crisis, which almost plunged the world into the third world war, came Brezhnev Leonid Ilyich, whose years of rule were remembered for a naturally reverse process.

Stagnation, increased importance of Stalin in the eyes of the public, softening in relations with the West, but at the same time attempts to influence world politics - this era was remembered for such characteristics. The years of Brezhnev's rule in the USSR were among the key years that contributed to the subsequent economic and political crisis of the nineties. What was this politician like?

First steps to power

Leonid Ilyich was born in ordinary family workers in 1906. He studied first at the land management technical school, and then studied to be a metallurgist. As the director of the Technical School of Metallurgy, which is located in Dneprodzerzhinsk, he became a member of the CPSU party in 1931. When the Great Patriotic War broke out, Brezhnev worked as deputy head of the political department on the Southern Front. By the end of the war, Leonid Ilyich became a major general. Already in 1950, he worked as the first secretary in Moldova, and in subsequent years he replaced the head in the Political Directorate of the Army of the Soviet Union. Then he becomes chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Council. It is known that an absolutely trusting relationship developed between Khrushchev and Brezhnev, which allowed the second to advance to the levers of governing the country after the illness of Nikita Sergeevich.

Brezhnev's reforms

The years of Leonid Brezhnev's rule (1964-1982) can be characterized as a time of conservative measures. Agricultural recovery was not the main task for the ruler. Although Kosygin's reform was carried out during this period, its results were a failure. Spending on housing and health care has only declined, while spending on the military complex has grown by leaps and bounds. Brezhnev Leonid Ilyich, whose years of rule were remembered for the growth of the bureaucratic apparatus and bureaucratic arbitrariness, was more focused on foreign policy, apparently not finding ways to resolve internal stagnation in society.

Foreign policy

It's over political influence The Soviet Union in the world worked most of all Brezhnev, whose years of rule are full of foreign policy events. On the one hand, Leonid Ilyich is taking important steps towards de-escalating the conflict between the USSR and the USA. Countries finally find a dialogue and agree on cooperation. In 1972, the President of America visits Moscow for the first time, where an agreement on the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons is signed, and in 1980 the capital hosts guests from all countries for the Olympic Games.

However, Brezhnev, whose years of rule are known for his active participation in various military conflicts, was not an absolute peacemaker. For Leonid Ilyich, it was important to designate the place of the USSR among the world powers capable of influencing the resolution externally. political issues. Thus, the Soviet Union sends troops to Afghanistan, participates in conflicts in Vietnam and the Middle East. In addition, the attitude of the socialist countries that were friendly to the USSR until that time was changing, in the internal affairs of which Brezhnev also interfered. The years of the reign of Leonid Ilyich were remembered for the suppression of Czechoslovak uprisings, the deterioration of relations with Poland and the conflict with China on Damansky Island.

Awards

Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev was especially distinguished by his love for awards and titles. Sometimes it reached such an absurdity that as a result of this a lot of anecdotes and fictions appeared. However, it is difficult to argue with the facts.

Leonid Ilyich received his first award back in Stalin's time. After the war, he was awarded the Order of Lenin. One can only imagine how proud Brezhnev was of this title. The years of Khrushchev's rule brought him several more awards: the second Order of Lenin and the Order of the Great Patriotic War first degree. All this was not enough for the conceited Leonid Ilyich.

Already during his reign, Brezhnev was awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union four times out of a possible three. He also received the title of Marshal of the USSR and the Order of Victory, which was awarded only to great commanders who participated in active hostilities, where Brezhnev never got.

Board results

The main defining word of the era of Brezhnev's rule was "stagnation". During the leadership of Leonid Ilyich, the economy finally showed its weakness and lack of growth. Attempts to carry out reforms have not led to the expected results.

As a conservative, Brezhnev was not satisfied with the policy of softening ideological pressure, therefore, in his time, control over culture only increased. One of the clearest examples of this is the expulsion of A. I. Solzhenitsyn from the USSR in 1974.

Although relative improvements were planned in foreign policy, the aggressive position of the USSR and the attempt to influence the internal conflicts of other countries worsened the attitude of the world community towards the Soviet Union.

In general, Brezhnev left behind a number of difficult economic and political issues that his successors had to solve.

The period from Leonid Brezhnev's coming to power (mid-1960s) to the beginning of perestroika (second half of the 1980s) is usually characterized in journalism as the "era of stagnation".

The term "stagnation" originates from the political report of the Central Committee to the XXVII Congress of the CPSU (1986), made by Mikhail Gorbachev, in which it was stated that "stagnation began to appear in the life of society" both in the economic and social spheres.

With the change of leadership in 1964, significant changes took place in the economy of the USSR. The government has attempted to carry out large-scale economic reforms. On September 30, 1965, a decree “On improving the management of industry” was issued, and on October 4, 1965, a decree “On improving planning and strengthening economic incentives industrial production". The main initiator of the ongoing reforms was Alexei Kosygin, chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR.

The essence of the reforms was reduced to a set of measures aimed at strengthening economic leverage, increasing the independence of enterprises and organizations, and updating the methods of central planning.

The Kosygin reform of 1965 also relied on agriculture. Exemplary Charter collective farms of November 1969 gave collective farms considerable independence, introduced elements of self-support. Collective farmers retained the right to maintain a personal subsidiary farm, personal plot and livestock and birds. During this period, large-scale programs for land reclamation and the construction of irrigation canals, stabilization of the exploitation of virgin lands and a special plan for the revival of non-chernozem lands in the center of Russia were proclaimed.

Fundamental economic reforms did not affect the social and political system society and did not question the mechanism of party leadership.

In the first post-reform years (1966-1970), the average annual growth rate of national income increased by an average of 1.1% compared with the previous five-year period, and the growth of gross agricultural output in the same years increased by 1.7%. During this period, the gross social product grew by more than 350%. The country produced 4 times more products than in the previous four five-year plans. Industrial output increased by 485%, and agricultural - by 171%.

By 1968, Kosygin's economic reform stalled, and soon came to naught due to the lack of political reforms. In 1970-1971, discussions began on a new economic reform. The proposed concept could begin to be implemented in 1972-1973, but in 1973 there was a jump in oil prices on the world market, and all economic reforms were postponed.

Another attempt to revive the Soviet economy was made in 1979. Then the decision of the Central Committee of the CPSU "On improving planning and strengthening the impact of the economic mechanism on increasing the efficiency of production and the quality of work" was adopted. However, it did not have a significant impact on what was happening in the economy. During the 1970s, the structure of the economy changed significantly, it became absolutely dependent on oil revenues, on the one hand, and food supplies, consumer goods and engineering from developed countries, on the other.

In industry in the 1970s, the emphasis shifted to the development and development of territorial production complexes (TPCs). The energy industry of the USSR developed at an accelerated pace. New capacities of existing nuclear power plants were put into operation, several new nuclear power plants were built. During the tenth five-year plan, electricity generation by nuclear power plants increased 3.6 times.

The unified energy system united cascades of hydroelectric power plants on the Dnieper, Volga, Kama, Angara and Yenisei. In the energy sector, as well as in the fuel and raw material complex, a bet was made on an extensive development path. The share of fuel and raw material exports from the USSR rose in 1960-1985 from 16.2% to 54.4%.

A difficult situation has developed in agriculture, which has become increasingly subsidized. The efficiency of agriculture was steadily declining, and the government went to increase imports. In 1979-1984, about 40 million tons of food were imported into the country annually.

In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the development of the national economy of the USSR began to show a tendency towards a noticeable decrease in the growth rate of national income. If in the 8th five-year plan its average annual growth was 7.8% and in the 9th - 5.7%, then in the 10th it decreased to 4.3%, and in the 11th it was about 3.6%.

Nevertheless, the reforms of 1960-1970 had a positive impact on the development of the national economy of the USSR. In 1980, the Soviet Union ranked first in Europe and second in the world in terms of industrial and agricultural output. If in 1960 the volume of industrial output of the USSR in comparison with the USA was 55%, then in 1980 it was already more than 80%.

In social terms, for 18 Brezhnev years real income population increased by more than 1.5 times. The population of Russia has increased by 12 million people. Under Brezhnev, 1.6 billion square meters were put into operation. meters of living space, thanks to which 162 million people were provided with free housing. At the same time, the rent on average did not exceed 3% of family income. housing affordability, medical care and higher education were unprecedented.

According to a survey by the Foundation Public opinion”, held in 2006, 61% of respondents consider the years of Leonid Brezhnev's rule a prosperous time for the country, and only 17% - unfavorable. Among those aged 36 to 54, 75% of respondents gave a positive assessment of that era, among those who are older - 74% (negative - respectively 14% and 18%). Young respondents (under 35), of course, found it much more difficult to assess the times of Brezhnev, but they also recognized them as prosperous rather than unsuccessful (35% and 20%, respectively).

The material was prepared on the basis of information from open sources.