Modern Incas. The Incas: The Great Empire of the "Four Ends of the World"

The Incas(Inca) - a tribe from the Cusco Valley, whose mighty civilization existed in the "pre-Columbian" era on the South American continent. The Incas managed to create a powerful empire that changed its appearance and conquered many peoples.

The Incas themselves called their empire Tahuantinsuyu(Four cardinal directions), because 4 roads left Cusco in different directions.

The Indians called their ruler Inca, which means "lord", "king". Then “Incas” began to be called all representatives of the ruling class, and with the invasion of the conquerors, the entire Indian population of the Tahuantinsuyu empire.

Creation of the Great Empire

Thanks to the findings of archaeologists, it is obvious that the Inca civilization arose in 1200-1300. At the end of the 11th century, due to the drought that raged in the Andes for more than 100 years, neighboring, stronger tribes lost their power in battles for water and food.

Inspired by success, the Inca rulers turned their eyes to an abundant land - a spacious plateau with. And Pachacutec-Inca-Yupanqui, one of the great rulers of the Incas, in the 15th century undertook a military campaign to the south.

The population of the lakeside states was about 400 thousand people. The slopes of the mountains are pierced with gold and silver veins, fat herds of llamas and alpacas grazed on flowering meadows. Llamas and alpacas are meat, wool and leather, that is, military rations and uniforms.

Pachacutec conquered the southern rulers one by one, pushing the boundaries of his possessions, which became one of the largest empires on the planet. The number of subjects of the empire reached about 10 million people.

Victories in the military field were only the first stage on the path to power, after the soldiers, officials, builders and artisans set to work.

wise rule

If an uprising broke out in some province of the Incas, the rulers undertook the resettlement of people: they resettled the inhabitants of remote villages in new cities located near the built roads. They were ordered to build warehouses along the roads for regular troops, which were filled by subjects with the necessary provisions. The Inca rulers were brilliant organizers.

The Inca civilization reached an unprecedented peak. Stonemasons erected architectural masterpieces, engineers turned disparate roads into a single system connecting all parts of the empire. Irrigation canals were created, agricultural terraces were laid out on the slopes of the mountains, about 70 types of crops were grown there and significant provisions were stored in storage facilities. The viceroys were masters of inventory: they kept abreast of the contents of every vault of the vast empire, keeping records using a kippah - analogous to the Inca computer code - a bunch of multi-colored threads with special combinations of knots.

The rulers of the Incas were quite harsh, but fair: they allowed the conquered peoples to maintain their traditions. The main social unit was the family. Each group of 20 families had a leader who was subordinate to the leader, who already headed 50 families, and so on - up to the Ruler of the Inca.

The social structure of civilization

The Inca Empire had such a social structure: everyone worked here, with the exception of the youngest and deepest old people. Each family had its own cultivated land plot. People weaved, sewed their own clothes, shoes or sandals, made dishes and jewelry from gold and silver.

The inhabitants of the empire did not have personal freedom, the rulers decided everything for them: what to eat, what clothes to wear and where to work. The Incas were wonderful farmers, they built grandiose aqueducts to irrigate fields with water from mountain rivers, growing many valuable crops.

Many buildings erected by the Incas still stand today. The Incas created many original wicker bridges and vines twisted into thick ropes. The Incas were born potters and weavers:
they wove the finest fabrics from cotton, such that the Spaniards considered them to be silk. The Incas also knew how to spin wool, making beautiful and warm woolen clothes.

Mummy - the ruler of the Incas

In the middle of the 15th century, Huayna Capac, the new ruler of the Incas, ascended the throne. Then it seemed that the Inca dynasty was omnipotent. People could even change nature in incredible ways: during the construction of Huayna Capac's residence, workers razed hills to the ground, drained swamps, and moved the riverbed (Spanish: Rio Urubamba) to the southern part of the valley to plant cotton, corn, chili peppers and peanuts, and in in the center of the "new" territory of brick and stone to build a palace - Quispiguanca.

Around 1527, Huayna Capac died of an unknown illness. Approximate, having mummified the body, transported it to Cusco, and members royal family visited the deceased, asking for advice and listening to the answers uttered by the oracle sitting next to him. Even after his death, Huayna Capac remained the owner of the Quispiguanca estate: the entire crop from the fields went to keep the ruler's mummy, his wives, descendants and servants in luxury.

The traditions of inheritance among the Incas were such that even after the death of the rulers, all the palaces remained in their property. Therefore, each Inca, only having ascended the throne, began the construction of a new city palace and country residence. Archaeologists have discovered the ruins of up to a dozen royal residences built for at least six rulers.

Incas - Conquest by the Spaniards

In 1532, a detachment of 200 foreign conquerors landed on the coast of present-day Peru under the leadership of. They were in steel armor and armed with firearms. Along the way, those dissatisfied with the rule of the Incas joined the army. The Incas stubbornly resisted the conquerors, but the empire was weakened by civil war and the fact that a large number of Inca warriors died from smallpox and measles brought by the Spaniards.

History of the Inca Empire

The Inca Empire is the largest of all the states that existed in ancient South America, which existed from the 11th to the 16th century AD. Its territory was very extensive - it occupied land from the modern Colombian city of Pasto to the Maule River in Chile. In general, it included the entire territory of the modern states of Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador, except for its eastern regions, overgrown with insurmountable selva. It also included part of modern Chile, Argentina and Colombia. For the first time, Europeans came here after the ruin of the Aztec Tenochtitlan in Central America - the Portuguese Alejo Garcia arrived here in 1525. The Inca Empire managed to hold out under the blows of the conquistadors, who became interested in new lands, until 1572, but already in 1533 the Inca power lost most of its territory. Today there is a hypothesis according to which the ancient Incas managed to hide in the undiscovered city of Paititi until the middle of the 18th century.

According to archaeologists, the Incas did not independently become one of the most developed (relatively) peoples in the Americas. The ancient Incas adopted most of their achievements from the former peoples, as well as from those peoples that they subjugated. Before the Incas had established their control over much of South America, other civilizations took place on this continent. In particular, the Moche culture, which developed irrigation systems, Huari, which most resembled the emerging Inca power, the Chimu culture with unique architecture, and many others.

Near the Andean mountain range and on the coast adjacent to it in the period from the first millennium BC. before the first millennium AD relatively advanced civilizations appeared, the economic basis of which was agriculture. The history of the Inca state began in the 12th century AD. on the coast of Lake Titicaca, a people declared itself, the ruler of which was the Inca, who gave the name to his people. The Incas lived in the old place for a short time, not for long. Supreme ruler decided to move his people to the city of Cusco, which began the history of the Incas and their expansion to the surrounding lands. By the 15-16th century, the Inca civilization had spread to a significant part of the territory of the present-day states of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina, and even reached modern Colombia.

The Inca leader Manco Capacu, thanks to whom the history of the Inca state began, built the city of Cuzco at an altitude of more than 3.4 thousand meters above sea level. The city is spread out in a deep valley between two chains of mountain ranges. Under his rule, the territory of the state gradually increased. Subsequent chieftains began to bear the title of Inca as meaning king. Inca Yahuar Huakak organized in the empire something like a regular army, which, however, became the largest force in all of South America. However, the greatest conquests occurred during the reign of Inca Pachacuti, thanks to which the history of the Incas passed into the period of the empire.

However, in the 15th century, the Incas, in short, were not friendly with each other. After the reign of the eleventh Inca - Huayna Capac, two sons remained, who started a war among themselves, dividing the empire into two opposing camps. The war ended with Atahualpa's victory over Huascar, shortly before the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors.

Carrying out their conquests, the Incas equally effectively used both their army and politics - they persuaded the elite to cooperate in those places that were subject to conquest. At the same time, before the attack, the Incas sent several times to the rulers of certain lands a proposal to join the empire. The civilization of the Incas, spreading further and further across the continent, forced all conquered peoples to learn their language. Laws and customs were also imposed on the occupied territories. However, they did not prohibit local beliefs, provided that the conquered peoples would worship the supreme Inca deity - Inti. In addition, folk crafts were actively supported, each conquered people wore their own outfits. This was done so that the status and origin of any inhabitant of the Inca empire could be determined by clothing.

The Inca country was distinguished by a clear division of society into warriors and those who were not them. Only representatives of the ruling elite of the empire, or their proteges, who must necessarily belong to the Inca ethnic group, could lead the armies of the Incas. Interestingly, the Inca country was not completely monarchical - power in it belonged not only to the ruler of the Inca, but also to the governor of the capital city of Cusco. According to the historian Juan de Betanzos, he was engaged in economic affairs in the empire, and provided the army with everything necessary.

Section 2 - Temple of the Incas

This short article will tell about the ancient temple of the Inca civilization

Section 3 - City of the Incas

Although the center of the Inca empire was in the city of Cusco, in popular culture Another Inca city became widespread - Machu Picchu

It is believed that The Incas came to the Cusco Valley, where they founded the capital of the empire, around 1200. The American archaeologist J. X. Rowe, who excavated in the Cusco region, suggested that before the first half of the 15th century. the Inca state owned only a few mountain valleys, and the imperial period began in 1438, the date when the ruler of the Inca state, Pachacuti Yupanqui, defeated the warlike Chunk Indians and annexed the “western part of the world” to his state. However, the Inca civilization certainly carried out expansion before the defeat of the Chunk, but it was directed mainly to the south of Cuzco.

In 1470, the Inca armies approached the capital. After a long siege, the Chimu empire fell. Many skilled artisans were resettled by the winners in their capital, Cuzco. Soon the Incas conquered other states, including them in their new empire: Chincha in the south of Peru, Cuismanca, which united the coastal valleys of the central part of the country, including the temple city of Pachacamac, the small states of Cajamarca and Sikan in the north.

But the legacy of the Chimu Empire was not lost. The Inca Empire did not destroy the capital of Chan Chan and kept roads, canals, terraced fields intact, making these lands one of the most prosperous provinces. The centuries-old culture of the Indians of Peru became the basis of an ancient civilization.

From amazing wonders and treasures Inca empire Almost nothing has survived to this day. Having captured the ruler of the Incas, Ataualitu, the Spaniards demanded - and received - as a ransom for his life 7 tons of gold and about 14 tons of silver items, which were immediately melted down into ingots. After the conquistadors executed Ataualita, the Incas collected and hid the gold that remained in the temples and palaces.

The search for the missing gold continues to this day. If someday archaeologists are lucky enough to find this legendary treasury, we will undoubtedly learn about the civilization " children of the sun" a lot of new. Now the number of products of the Inca masters can be counted on the fingers - these are gold and silver figurines of people and lamas, magnificent gold vessels and breast discs, as well as traditional crescent-shaped tumi knives. Combining their own technology with the traditions of the Chimu jewelers, the Inca metallurgists achieved perfection in the processing of precious metals. Spanish chroniclers recorded the story of the golden gardens that adorned the temples dedicated to the Sun. Two of them are authentically known - in the coastal city of Tumbes in the north of the empire and in the main sanctuary of Cusco, the Koricancha temple. The trees, shrubs and herbs in the gardens were made of pure gold. Golden shepherds grazed golden llamas on golden lawns, and golden corn ripened in the fields.

Architecture

The second highest achievement of the Incas can rightfully be considered architecture. The level of stone processing under the Incas exceeds the best samples the skills of the masons Chavin and Tiahuanaco. Simple, "typical" buildings were built from small stones, fastened with a clay-lime mortar - pirka. For palaces and temples, giant monoliths were used, not fastened together by any solution. The stones in such structures are held by numerous protrusions clinging to each other. An example is the famous dodecagonal stone in the wall in Cuzco, so tightly fitted to neighboring blocks that even a razor blade cannot be inserted between them.

Inca architectural style severe and ascetic; buildings overwhelm with their power. However, once many buildings were decorated with gold and silver plates, giving them a completely different look.

In the cities, the Incas used planned development. The main element of the city was kancha - a quarter consisting of residential buildings and warehouses located around the yard. In every major center there was a palace, barracks for soldiers, a temple of the Sun and a "monastery" for the Aklya virgins dedicated to the Sun.

Great Inca Roads

All the cities of the empire were interconnected by a network excellent roads. Two main highways, to which smaller roads adjoined, connected extreme points in the north and south of the country. One of the roads ran along the coast from Guayaquil Bay in Ecuador to the Maule River, south of modern Santiago. The mountain road, called Capac-can (Royal Way), began in the gorges north of Quito, passing through Cuzco, turned to Lake Titicaca and ended in the territory of modern Argentina. Both of these arteries, together with the secondary roads adjoining them, stretched for more than 20 thousand km. In wet places, roads were paved or filled with a waterproof mixture of maize leaves, pebbles and clay. On the arid coast, they tried to lay roads along the outcrops of hard rocks. Stone dams were erected in the swamps, equipped with drainage pipes. Poles were erected along the roads, indicating the distance to settlements. At regular intervals there were inns - tambo. The width of the canvas on the plains reached 7 m, and in the mountain gorges it was reduced to 1 m. The roads were laid in a straight line, even if this meant chiselling a tunnel or cutting down part of the mountain. The Incas built wonderful bridges, the most famous of which are suspension bridges, designed to cross mountain streams. Stone pylons were erected on each side of the gorge, thick ropes were attached to them - two served as a railing, and three supported a canvas of branches. The bridges were so strong that they withstood the Spanish conquistadors in full armor and on horseback. Local residents were charged with the duty to change the ropes once a year, as well as to repair the bridge if necessary. The largest bridge of this design across the Apurimac River was 75 m long and hung 40 m above the water.

Roads became the basis of the empire, stretching over a vast area from Ecuador in the north to Chile in the south and from the Pacific coast in the west to the eastern slopes of the Andes. The very name of the state claims to world domination. This word in the Quechua language means "four interconnected parts of the world." According to the cardinal points, there was also an administrative division: in the north was the province of Chinchasuyu, in the south - Kolyasuyu, in the west - Kontisuyu and in the east - Antisuyu.

During the reign of the most famous emperors - Tupac Yupanqui, who took the throne in 1463, and Vaino Capac (1493-1525), the state finally acquired the features of a centralized empire.

Society

At the head of the state was the emperor - Sapa-Inca, the only Inca. A census of the population of the empire was carried out and a decimal administrative system, with the help of which taxes were collected and an accurate count of subjects was kept. In the course of the reform, all hereditary leaders were replaced by appointed governors - kuraks.

The entire population of the country bore labor duties: processing state fields of maize and sweet potatoes (potatoes), maintaining state herds of llamas, military service and work in the construction of cities, roads and mines. In addition, subjects were required to pay tax in kind - in textiles and livestock.

The practice of mass migrations in the conquered territories spread widely. The Quechua language spoken by the Incas was declared the official language of the empire. The inhabitants of the provinces were not forbidden to use their native language. Compulsory knowledge of Quechua was required only from officials.

Writing

It is believed that the Incas did not create their own script. To transmit information, they had a knot letter "kipu", perfectly adapted to the needs of management and the economy. According to one of the legends, the Incas once had writing, even books, but they were all destroyed by the reformer ruler Pachacuti, who “rewrote history”. An exception was made for only one, kept in the main sanctuary of the Koricancha empire. Robbers of the capital ancient civilization Inca the Spaniards discovered in Coricancha canvases covered with incomprehensible signs, inserted into golden frames. The frames, of course, were melted down and the canvases burned. Thus perished the only written history of the Inca empire.

Origin and history of the Inca tribe

During the Late Intermediate Period (1000-1483), small tribes - the forerunners of the Incas - lived in the Cuzco region. The Incas were just one of many local population groups. Although information about the chronology and development of the Cusco region is incomplete, some of the main stages of Peruvian archeology can be recognized in the styles of local ceramics. Evidence of Huari influence is found in the very south of the valley, at Piquilacta, about 30 kilometers south of Cuzco. However, there are no traces of Huari architecture or ceramics in the area of Cusco itself. It is assumed that in the middle horizon it was not permanently inhabited. The basic style of pottery prevalent in the pre-Inca period is generally referred to as sprat, and variations of this style are found everywhere between San Pedro de Cacha and Machu Picchu. The local origin of the Incas is proved by the fact that the sprat style is akin to characteristic style Inca period of their empire.

Partially preserved structures have been found on the hills - settlements of the Late Intermediate Period, in which some attempt to adhere to the general plan is visible. This period is characterized by round and square buildings, which bear little resemblance to the houses of Pikilakta. The Spanish conquerors heard from the Incas that before they began to dominate, the peoples of the Sierra (mountains) were very diverse and unorganized and settled in hard-to-reach places because they were constantly at war with each other.

Written reports about the early period of Inca rule - approximately between 1200 and 1438. - are very unreliable historical evidence. This period covers the time from the founding of the Inca dynasty until 1438, when the Inca Empire was already the most significant state in the Andes.

Origin myths say that the Incas originally consisted of three original tribal groups united under the leadership of Manco Capac, the legendary founder of the dynasty. These myths tell how the Incas were looking for fertile land and found it in the Cusco Valley and how they settled on this land.

On their arrival in Cusco, the Incas encountered resistance and were forced to settle nearby until they reclaimed the site where they later built the famed Sun Temple, Coricancha. The power of Manco Capac extended only to the natives of the Cusco area. The second and third Inca leaders after him, Sinchi Roca and Lloque Yupanqui, had a reputation for peace, while the fourth, Maita Capac, aroused enmity, and as a result a revolt arose among the inhabitants of Cuzco itself.

The fifth, sixth, and seventh Inca chiefs captured small territories in the surrounding areas. During this early period, neither the Incas nor their neighbors made organized conquests, but periodically raided the villages of their neighbors when there was a danger that their inhabitants would start to assert their rights, or when they apparently had something to plunder.

Inca Viracocha, eighth ruler of the Inca dynasty, was the first to take the title Sapa Inca(The only, or Supreme Inca). He put an end to local conquests by forming a relatively small but powerful state. At the end of his reign, a situation was created that was critical for the Incas, since the Cuzco region was threatened from three sides. In the south, strong opponents were tribes stakes and lupaka, but they were at enmity with each other, and the Incas could focus their attention on the west and northwest, where the tribes lived Quechua and chunk. The Incas were on friendly terms with the Quechua, a powerful people, a kind of buffer between the Incas and the formidable tribe of the Chanca. It was growing stronger and had already captured the province of Andahuaillas, which was formerly occupied by the Quechua, settling in its territory. Anticipating the inevitable clash in the future with the powerful Chunks, Inca Viracocha strengthened the position of his people by taking the daughter of a tribal leader as his wife. anta, nearest neighbors to the northwest, and by making an alliance with the Quechua.

When the Chunk reached the Incas, Viracocha was already an old man, and among the people there was a strong belief in the invincibility of the Chunk. Viracocha and his heir, Inca Urcon, apparently simply fled Cuzco with their retinue. However, the situation was saved by another group of Inca nobles and military leaders, led by Yupanqui, another son of Inca Viracocha, who called as many warriors under his banner as he could and successfully defended Cuzco. Then the Chanca were defeated in a series of battles, and it turned out that the Incas won the struggle for power and began to reign supreme in the mountains. After these events, Viracocha was out of work, and Yupanqui was proclaimed Pachacuti. He retained power and was crowned as the ruler of the Incas.

The late Inca period, or period of empire, began with the reign of Inca Pachacuti Yupanqui in 1438 and ended with the Spanish conquest in 1532. The history of the Incas of this period is much more reliable than the previous one. There is quite reliable information about the reign of the Inca rulers and about the military expansion of the empire, which spread over the entire territory of the Andes (see Fig. 3).

Rice. 3. The territory of the Inca Empire, indicating the areas annexed as a result of the wars of the late Inca period (according to J. Rove)

Inca Pachacuti consolidated the previous conquests and new alliances by allocating lands near Cuzco to new subjects and giving them the opportunity to participate in the newly created administrative structure of Cuzco with the right to call themselves Incas. He then proceeded to develop reforms that would integrate the new provinces into the growing state.

The ruler of the Incas began a military campaign to annex the lands of the tribe urubamba, located to the west of the territories of Quechua and Chanca, and the southern lands up to Lake Titicaca. Having achieved military success, but realizing the urgent need to create a new effective system of government, Inca Pachacuti considered it good to stay permanently in the capital, transferring command of the troops to his brother Capac Yupanqui, who was ordered to move north and conquer territories within clearly defined and limited limits - apparently up to Huanuco himself. Complications arose after a successful campaign, when the Chunk Indians, whom Inca Pachacuti had taken into his army, deserted near Huanuco. Chasing the Chanca, Capac Yupanqui went beyond the strictly defined borders, lost the fugitives, and then - probably hoping to return the favor of the Inca Pachacuti - attacked and captured Cajamarca, the most powerful possession in the northern mountains. Leaving a small garrison there, Capac Yupanqui returned to Cuzco and was executed here - for exceeding his authority and for allowing the chanca to leave.

The cruel punishment that befell Capac Yupanqui will become clearer if you look at the situation from the point of view of Inca Pachacuti. Cajamarca was an important province and allied with the coastal state of Chimu, growing, powerful and extremely well organized - it represented the only obstacle to the expansion of the Incas to the north. At that time, Pachacuti was not ready to fight the entire Chimu army and therefore was afraid of them. possible attack to an insignificant garrison left in the prematurely captured Cajamarca. In addition, Capac Yupanqui, due to his apparent success, could arouse the jealousy of Inca Pachacuti.

Inca Pachacuti had to first march personally to put down the rebellion in the south, in the basin of Lake Titicaca, before he could again turn his attention to the north. By his will, Inca Topa, his son and heir, led an army and led it on a campaign through the highlands as far as Quito. Then, having reached the coast of what is now Ecuador, the Inca Topa turned his army southward, approaching the country of the Chimu from where they least expected him. He successfully conquered the entire northern and central coast to the very valley of Lurin. Shortly after this great campaign, the Inca Topa undertook another to subdue the valleys of the south coast from Nazca to Mala. While the Inca Topa expanded the empire, the Inca Pachacuti remained in Cuzco, establishing an administrative structure and rebuilding Cuzco into a capital appropriate to the imperial scale.

Inca Topa became ruler around 1471. He had just started his campaign in the eastern forests when stakes and lupaka raised an uprising in the south - a serious threat that had to be dealt with as quickly as possible. After the successful suppression of the rebellion, the Inca occupied the territory of Bolivia and Chile, penetrating as far south as the Maule River, which since then has remained the southern border of the empire.

After the completion of the eastern expedition, Inca Topa, like his father, settled in Cuzco in earnest, busily engaged in the formation of an empire, reshaping and making more flexible administrative policies to suit the many new tribes and provinces now united under one rule. Perhaps it was this Inca who expanded the Inca conceptual system with some Chimu representations, since it was he who convinced many noble people and Chimu artisans to move to live in Cuzco.

Inca Topa died in 1493 and was succeeded by his son Huayna Capac. This Inca crushed several uprisings and annexed new lands to the empire chachapoyas and moyobamba, and the area north of Quito, where he set up boundary markers along the Ancamayo River (today's border between Ecuador and Colombia). His merit was also the full integration of the territory of Ecuador into the empire and the construction of new cities like Tomebamba, where he himself lived for a long time. Before his death in this city - he died suddenly of the plague - Huayna Capac learned that some strange bearded people were seen on the coast (this was Pizarro's first expedition).

During the five years left of the Inca Empire, Huayna Capac's two sons, Atahualpa and Huáscar, led civil war for power. The war was won by Atahualpa, and he was just preparing for his official coronation when the Spaniards reappeared in 1532 (see chapter 10).

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"State of the Incas"

1. Formation of the state of the Incas

The Incas dominated what is now Peru for a long time. During the period when the territory of the empire reached its greatest extent, it included part of South America and extended over almost a million square kilometers. In addition to present-day Peru, the empire included most of present-day Colombia and Ecuador, almost all of Bolivia, the northern regions of the Republic of Chile and the northwestern part of Argentina.

Term the Incas, or rather inca, has a variety of meanings. Firstly, this is the name of the entire ruling stratum in the state of Peru. Secondly, it is the position of the ruler. Thirdly, the name of the people as a whole. Original name inca worn by one of the tribes that lived in the Cusco Valley before the formation of the state. Many facts indicate that this tribe belonged to the Quechua language group, since the Incas of the heyday of the state spoke this language. The close relationship of the Incas with the Quechua tribes is evidenced by the fact that the representatives of these tribes received a privileged position compared to other tribes and were called "Incas by privilege." The "Incas by privilege" did not pay tribute, and they were not enslaved.

There are 12 known rulers who were at the head of the state. The first royal couple, who were at the same time brother and sister, were the first Inca, Mango Capac and his wife Mama Oklio. Historical legends tell of Inca wars with neighboring tribes. The first decade of the XIII century is the beginning of the strengthening of the Inca tribe and, possibly, the time of the formation of an alliance of tribes led by the Inca. The reliable history of the Incas begins with the activities of the ninth ruler - Pachacuti (1438-1463). From this time begins the rise of the Incas. The state is growing fast. In subsequent years, the Incas conquer and subjugate the tribes of the entire Andean region from South Colombia to Central Chile. The population of the state is 6 million people.

2. Economy of the Incas

The Incas achieved great success in many branches of management, and above all in metallurgy. The mining of copper and tin was of the greatest practical importance. Silver deposits were developed. The Quechua language has a word for iron, but most likely it was not an alloy, but meteoric iron, or hematite, gave the meaning to the word. There is no evidence of iron mining or iron ore smelting.

From the mined metals, tools were created, as well as jewelry. Axes, sickles, knives, crowbars, tips for military clubs and many other household items were cast from bronze. Jewelry and religious objects were made of gold and silver.

Weaving was highly developed. The Indians of Peru already knew looms, and these were three types of looms. The fabrics woven on them were sometimes dyed by the Indians, using for this purpose the seeds of the avocado tree (blue) or various metals, in particular copper and tin. Fabrics made in the distant centuries of the Inca civilization have survived to this day and are distinguished by the richness and subtlety of the finish. The raw materials were cotton and wool. Fleece fabrics for clothes and carpets were also made. For the Incas, as well as members of the royal clan, they made special fabrics - from colored bird feathers.

Significant development in the state of the Incas received agriculture, although the area on which the Inca tribes were located was not particularly conducive to development. Agriculture. This is due to the fact that streams of water flow down the steep slopes of the Andes in the rainy season, washing away the soil layer, and in dry time there is no moisture left on them. In such conditions, the Incas had to irrigate the land in order to keep moisture in the fields. For this, special structures were created, which were regularly updated. The fields were arranged in stepped terraces, the lower edge of which was reinforced with masonry, which retained the soil. A dam was built at the edge of the terrace to divert water from mountain rivers to the fields. The channels were laid out with stone slabs. The state provided special officials responsible for overseeing the maintenance of the facilities.

On the fertile, or rather become fertile, land in all areas of the empire, a variety of plants were grown, the queen among which was corn, in the Quechua language - sara. The Indians knew up to 20 different varieties of corn. Apparently, corn in ancient Peru was brought from Mesoamerica. The most valuable gift of Peruvian agriculture is the native of the Andes, the potato. The Incas knew up to 250 of its varieties. They grew it in a variety of colors: almost white, yellow, pink, brown and even black. Peasants also grew sweet potatoes - sweet potatoes. Beans were grown primarily from legumes. Pre-Columbian Indians also knew pineapple, cocoa tree, various varieties of pumpkins, nuts, cucumbers, peanuts. They used four varieties of spices, including red pepper. Special place engaged in the cultivation of coca bushes.

The main tools of labor in agriculture were the spade and the hoe. The lands were cultivated by hand, the Incas did not use draft animals.

The Inca Empire was a country that created many miracles. One of the most remarkable are the ancient Peruvian "highways of the Sun" - a whole network of highways. The longest of the roads exceeded 5 thousand kilometers. Two main roads ran through the whole country. Along the roads were channels, on the banks of which grew fruit trees. Where the road went through the sandy desert, it was paved. Where the road intersected with rivers and gorges, bridges were built. Bridges were built as follows: they were supported by stone pillars, around which five thick ropes woven from flexible branches or lianas were fixed; the three lower ropes that formed the bridge itself were intertwined with branches and lined with wooden beams. Those ropes that served as railings were intertwined with the lower ones and protected the bridge from the sides. These suspension bridges represent one of the greatest achievements of Inca technology.

As you know, the peoples of ancient America did not invent the wheel. Cargo was transported in packs on llamas, and ferries were also used for transportation. Ferries were improved rafts made of beams or beams of very light wood. The rafts were rowed and could lift up to 50 people and a large load.

Most of the production tools, fabrics, pottery were made in the community, but there was also a separation of the craft from agriculture and cattle breeding. The Incas chose the best craftsmen and moved them to Cusco, where they lived in a special quarter and worked for the supreme Inca, receiving food from the court. These masters, cut off from the community, actually found themselves enslaved. Girls were selected in a similar way, who had to learn spinning, weaving and other needlework for 4 years. The work of craftsmen and spinners was a rudimentary form of craft.

Gold was not a means of payment. The Incas had no money. Peruvian Indians simply exchanged their goods. There was no system of measures, with the exception of the most primitive - a handful. There were scales with a yoke, to the ends of which bags with a weighed load were hung. Exchange and trade were underdeveloped. There were no bazaars inside the villages. The exchange was random. After the harvest, in certain places, the inhabitants of the highlands and coastal regions met. Wool, meat, furs, leather, silver, gold were brought from the highlands. Grain, vegetables and fruits, cotton were brought from the coast. The role of the universal equivalent was played by salt, pepper, furs, wool, ore and metal products.

3. social order Inca

The Inca tribe consisted of 10 divisions - khatun-ailyu, which in turn were divided into 10 ailu. Initially, Ailyu was a patriarchal clan, a tribal community: it had its own village and owned adjacent fields. Names in the tribal community were passed down through the paternal line. Islew were exogamous. It was forbidden to marry within the clan. Its members believed that they were under the protection of ancestral shrines - huaca. Ailyu were also designated as pachaca, i.e. a hundred. Khatun-ailyu (large clan) was a phratry and was identified with a thousand. Aileu turns into a rural community in the state of the Incas. This is reflected in the consideration of land use norms.

All the land in the state belonged to the supreme Inca, but in fact it was at the disposal of the ailyu. The territory owned by the community was called brand; the land owned by the community was called pacha brand, those. community land.

cultivated land ( chakra) was divided into three parts: the "land of the Sun" - the priests, the fields of the Incas and the fields of the community. Each family had its own share of the land, although all of it was cultivated jointly by the whole village, and the members of the community worked together under the direction of the elders. Having processed one section of the field, they moved to the fields of the Incas, then to the fields of the villagers and then to the fields, the harvest from which went to general village fund.

Each village had fallow lands as well as "wild lands" - pastures. Field plots were periodically redistributed among fellow villagers. Field allotment, bearing the name stupid, given to a man. For each male child, the father received one more tutu, for the daughter - half. It was a temporary possession and was subject to redistribution.

In addition to tupu, on the territory of each community there were lands that were called "garden, own land" (muya). This site consisted of a yard, a house, a barn, a shed, a garden. This land was passed down from father to son. From these plots, community members could receive surplus vegetables or fruits. They could dry meat, spin and weave, make pottery vessels - everything they had as private property.

In the communities that developed among the tribes conquered by the Incas, tribal nobility also stood out - kuraka. Representatives of the kurak were obliged to monitor the work of the community members and control the payment of taxes. The community members of the conquered tribes cultivated the lands of the Incas. In addition, they cultivated areas of kurak. In the kurak household, the concubines spun and wove wool or cotton. In the communal herd, kuraka had up to several hundred heads of cattle. But still, the kuraka were in a subordinate position, and the Incas stood above them as the highest caste.

The Incas themselves did not work. They made up the military service nobility, were endowed land plots and workers from conquered tribes. The lands received from the supreme Inca were considered the private property of the service nobility. Noble Incas were called orechens (from the Spanish word for "nut" - ear) for huge gold earrings that stretched their earlobes.

Priests occupied a privileged position in society. In favor of the priests, a part of the harvest was levied. They were not subordinate to local rulers, but constituted a separate corporation. These corporations were run by a high priesthood based in Cuzco.

The Incas had a certain number of workers - the Yanakuns - whom the Spanish chroniclers called slaves. This category was wholly owned by the Incas and did all the menial work. The position of these Yanakuns was hereditary.

Community members performed most of the productive labor. But the appearance of a large group of hereditarily enslaved workers indicates that society in Peru was an early slave-owning society with the preservation of significant remnants of the tribal system.

The state of the Incas had a peculiar structure. It was called Tawantinsuyu - "four regions connected together." Each area was ruled by a governor, who was usually a direct relative of the ruling Inca. They were called "apos". Together with several other dignitaries, they constituted the state council of the country, which could express its proposals and ideas to the Inca. In the districts, power was in the hands of local officials.

At the head of the state was the ruler - "Sapa Inca" - the sole ruling Inca. Sapa Inca commanded the army and headed the civil administration. He and senior officials watched the governors. To control the regions and districts, there was a permanent postal service. Messages were relayed by messengers-runners. On the roads, not far from each other, there were post stations, where messengers were always on duty.

The Incas introduced a compulsory language for all - Quechua. They split the tribes and settled in parts in different areas. This policy was carried out in order to consolidate the subjugation of the conquered tribes and prevent discontent and uprisings. Laws were created to protect the rule of the Incas.

4. Religion and culture of the Incas

In accordance with the religious beliefs of the Incas, the Sun occupied a dominant position among the gods and ruled over the entire unearthly world.

The official religious system of the Incas was the "heliocentric" system. It is based on the subordination of the Sun - Inti. Inti was usually depicted as a golden disk, from which rays departed in all directions. The face of a man is depicted on the disk itself. The disk was made of pure gold, that is, the metal that belonged to the Sun.

The wife of Inti and at the same time the mother of the Incas - in accordance with the beliefs of the Indians - was the moon goddess Kilja.

The third "inhabitant of the firmament", also revered in the Inca Empire, was the god Ilyapa - both thunder and lightning.

Temples owned enormous wealth, a large number of ministers and craftsmen, architects, jewelers and sculptors. The main content of the Inca cult was the sacrificial ritual. Sacrifices were carried out mainly by animals and only in extreme cases by people. An extraordinary event could be festivities at the time of the accession to the throne of a new supreme Inca, during an earthquake, drought, war. Prisoners of war or children were sacrificed, who were taken as tribute from conquered tribes.

Along with the official religion of sun worship, there were also more ancient religious beliefs. Their essence was reduced to the deification not of great, powerful gods, but of sacred places and objects, the so-called wak.

Totemic beliefs occupied a large place in the religion of the Incas. The communities were named after animals: Pumamarca (cougar communities), Condormarca (condor community), Huamanmarca (hawk community), etc. Close to totemism was the worship of plants, primarily potatoes, since this plant had a paramount role in the life of the Peruvians. Images of this plant in sculpture have been preserved - vessels in the form of tubers. There was also a cult of the forces of nature. The cult of mother earth, called Pacha-mama, was especially developed.

Great importance had a cult of ancestors. Ancestors were revered as patron spirits and guardians of the land of a given community and the area in general. There was a custom of mummification of the dead. Mummies in smart clothes with decorations and household utensils were preserved in the tombs. The cult of the mummies of the rulers reached a special development. They were credited with supernatural power. The mummies of the rulers were taken on campaigns and taken to the battlefield.

To measure space, the Incas had measures based on the size of the parts. human body. The smallest of these measures was the length of the finger, then a measure equal to the distance from the bent thumb to the index. To measure the land, a measure of 162 cm was most often used. For counting, a counting board was used, which was divided into stripes, compartments in which counting units moved, round pebbles. Time was measured by the time it took for the potatoes to boil, which means approximately one hour. The time of day was determined by the sun.

The Incas had an idea of the sun and lunar year. To observe the sun, as well as to accurately determine the time of the equinox and solstice, the astronomers of the Inca Empire built special "observatories" in many places in Peru. The largest observation point for the sun was in Cuzco. The position of the sun was observed from four specially built towers to the east and west of Cuzco. This was necessary to determine the timing of the agricultural cycle.

Astronomy was one of the two most important scientific ideas in the Inca empire. Science was supposed to serve the interests of the state. The activities of astronomers, who, thanks to their observations, could establish the most appropriate dates for the start or simply the implementation of certain agricultural work, brought considerable benefits to both the state and all its citizens.

The Inca calendar was primarily oriented towards the sun. The year was considered to consist of 365 days, divided into twelve 30-day months, after which the calendar still followed five (and in a leap year - six) final days, which were called "days without work."

There were schools for boys. Boys from among the noble Incas, as well as the nobility of the conquered tribes, were accepted there. Thus, the task educational institutions was to prepare the next generation of the empire's elite. The school taught for four years. Each year gave certain knowledge: in the first year they studied the Quechua language, in the second - the religious complex and the calendar, and the third or fourth years were spent on studying the so-called quipu, signs that served as a "knot letter".

Quipu consisted of a rope, to which cords were tied in rows at a right angle, hanging in the form of a fringe. Sometimes there were up to a hundred such cords. Knots were tied on them at different distances from the main rope. The shape of the nodes and their number denoted numbers. This record was based on the decimal system of the Incas. The position of the knot on the lace corresponded to the value of the digital indicators. It could be one, ten, one hundred, one thousand, or even ten thousand. At the same time, a simple knot denoted the number "1", double - "2", triple - "3". The color of the cords denoted certain objects, for example, potatoes were symbolized by brown, silver - white, gold - yellow.

This form of writing was used mainly to convey messages about taxes. But sometimes the quipu was used to fix calendar and historical dates and facts. Thus, the quipu was a conventional communication system, but still it was not a written language.

The question of whether the Incas had a written language remains unresolved until recently. The fact is that the Incas did not leave written monuments, but still many vessels depict beans with special signs. Some scholars consider these signs to be ideograms, i.e. the signs on the beans have a symbolic, conditional meaning.

There is also an opinion that the writing of the Incas existed in the form of picture writing, pictography, but due to the fact that the boards on which these signs were applied were framed in gold frames, looted and dismantled by Europeans, the writing monuments have not survived to this day. .

Literary creativity in the Quechua language was very rich. However, since these works were not recorded in writing and were preserved in the memory of reciters, only fragments have come down to us, preserved for posterity by the first Spanish chroniclers.

Of the poetic works of the Incas, hymns (hymn to Viracocha), mythical tales, and poems of historical content have been preserved in fragments. The most famous poem is "Olyantai", which sings of the exploits of the leader of one of the tribes who rebelled against the supreme Inca.

One of the most developed areas of science in the Inca Empire was medicine. The state of health of the inhabitants was not a private matter of citizens, on the contrary, the empire was interested in ensuring that the inhabitants of the country served the state as best as possible.

The Incas used some scientific methods to treat diseases. Many medicinal plants; surgical intervention was also known, such as, for example, trepanation of the skull. Along with scientific methods, the practice of magical medicine was widespread.

5. End of the Inca state. Portuguese conquests

Pizarro's troops captured Cuzco in 1532. The supreme Inca Atahualpa died. But the state of the Incas did not immediately cease to exist. The inhabitants of the ancient state continued to fight for their independence. In 1535 an uprising broke out. It was suppressed in 1537, but its participants continued the struggle for independence for more than 35 years.

The Inca prince Manco led the uprising against the Spaniards, who used ingenious methods in the fight against the conquerors. He first went over to the side of the Spaniards and approached Pizarro, but only in order to study the enemy. Starting to gather forces from the end of 1535, Manco in April 1536 approached Cuzco with a large army and laid siege to it. He forced captive Spaniards to serve him as gunsmiths, gunners and gunners. Spanish firearms and captured horses were used. Manco himself was dressed and armed in Spanish, rode and fought with Spanish weapons. The rebels often achieved great success by combining the techniques of the original Indian warfare with the European one. But bribery and betrayal forced Manco to leave this city after 10 months of siege of Cusco. The rebels continued to fight in the mountainous region of Vile-capampe, where they fortified. After the death of Manco, Tupac Amaru becomes the leader of the rebels.

Resistance to the ever-increasing forces of the conquerors turned out to be futile, and the rebels were eventually defeated. In memory of this last war against the conquerors, the title of the Incas and the name Tupac Amaru were later adopted by the leaders of the Indians as a symbol of the restoration of their independent state.

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