Domestic policy of Alexander 1 2. Alexander I: domestic policy

Domestic policy of Alexander I. (1801 - 1825)
At the beginning of his reign, Alexander I tried to carry out a series of reforms that were supposed to stabilize the economic and political situation in the country. In his reform activities, he relied on the so-called. A secret committee, which included statesmen of moderate liberal sentiments (Stroganov, Kochubey, Czartorysky, Novosiltsev).
The most serious reforms were in the sphere of the political system. In 1802, new central government bodies appeared - ministries, which, together with local institutions introduced by the provincial reform of 1775, formed a single, strictly centralized bureaucratic system of government in Russia. In the same year, the place of the Senate in this system was determined as a supervisory body - again purely bureaucratic - over the observance of the rule of law. Such transformations made it easier for the autocratic authorities to manage the country, but did not introduce anything fundamentally new into the state system. In the socio-economic sphere, Alexander I made several timid attempts to mitigate serfdom. By the decree of 1803 on free cultivators, the landowner was given the opportunity to free his peasants with land for a ransom. It was assumed that thanks to this decree, a new class of personally free peasants would arise; the landowners, on the other hand, will receive funds for reorganizing their economy in a new, bourgeois fashion. However, the landlords were not interested in such an opportunity - the decree, which was optional, had practically no consequences.
After the Peace of Tilsit (1807), the tsar again raised the issue of reforms. In 1808 - 1809. M. M. Speransky, the closest collaborator of Alexander I, developed the "Plan of State Transformation", according to which, in parallel with the administrative-bureaucratic management system pursuing the policy of the center, it was supposed to create a system of elected bodies of local self-government - a kind of pyramid of volost, district (county) and provincial councils. The State Duma, the highest legislative body of the country, was to crown this pyramid. Speransky's plan, which provided for the introduction of a constitutional system in Russia, provoked sharp criticism from the highest dignitaries and the nobility of the capital. Due to the opposition of conservative dignitaries, only the State Council, the prototype of the upper house of the Duma (1810), was established. Despite the fact that the project was created in accordance with the instructions of the king himself, it was never implemented. Speransky was sent into exile in 1812.
The Patriotic War and foreign campaigns distracted Alexander I from domestic political problems for a long time. During these years, the king is experiencing a serious spiritual crisis, becomes a mystic and, in fact, refuses to solve pressing problems. The last decade of his reign went down in history as Arakcheevshchina - after the name of the main confidant of the king A. A. Arakcheev, a strong-willed, energetic and merciless person. This time is characterized by the desire to restore bureaucratic order in all spheres of Russian life. Its most striking signs were the pogroms of young Russian universities - Kazan, Kharkov, St. Petersburg, from which professors objectionable to the government were expelled, and military settlements - an attempt to make part of the army self-sustaining, planting it on the ground, combining a soldier and a farmer in one person. This experiment turned out to be extremely unsuccessful and caused powerful uprisings of military settlers, which were ruthlessly suppressed by the government.

1. reforms at the turn of the century. Alexander I came to power as a result palace coup in March 1801 G., when his father, the emperor, was dethroned and killed Pavel 1. Soon, in order to prepare reforms, an Unofficial Committee was created from friends and closest associates of Alexander I - V.P. Kochubey, N.N. Novosiltsev, A. Czartorysky.

In 1803, the "Decree on free cultivators" was issued. The landowners received the right to release their peasants into the wild, providing them with land for ransom. However, the decree on free cultivators did not have great practical consequences: during the entire reign of Alexander I, only a little more than 47 thousand souls of serfs went free, i.e. less than 0.5% of their total.

Reforms of the public administration system were carried out. In order to strengthen the state apparatus in 1802, instead of colleges, 8 ministries were established: military, naval, foreign affairs, internal affairs, commerce, finance, public education and justice. The Senate was also reformed.

In 1809 Alexander I ordered MM. Speransky draft reforms. It was based on the principle of separation of powers - legislative, executive and judicial. It was planned to create a representative body - the State Duma, which was supposed to give opinions on submitted bills and hear reports from ministers. Representatives of all branches of power united in the State Council, whose members were appointed by the king. The decision of the State Council, approved by the king, became law.

The entire population of Russia was supposed to be divided into three classes: the nobility, the middle class (merchants, petty bourgeois, state peasants) and the working people (serfs and people working for hire: workers, servants, etc.). Only the first two estates were to receive voting rights, moreover, on the basis of a property qualification. However, civil rights, according to the project, were granted to all subjects of the empire, including serfs. However, in the aristocratic environment, Speransky was considered an outsider and an upstart.

His projects seemed dangerous, too radical. In March 1812 he was exiled to Nizhny Novgorod.

2. Domestic policy in 1814-1825. In 1814-1825. reactionary tendencies intensified in the domestic policy of Alexander 1. However, attempts were also made to return to the course liberal reforms: the peasant reform in the Baltics was completed (started in 1804-1805), as a result of which the peasants received personal freedom, but without land; in 1815 Poland was granted a constitution bearing liberal character and assuming the internal self-government of Poland as part of Russia. In 1818, work began on the preparation of a draft Constitution, headed by N. N. Novosiltsev. It was supposed to be introduced in Russia constitutional monarchy and the establishment of a parliament. However, this work was not completed. In domestic politics, conservatism began to prevail more and more: cane discipline was restored in the army, one of the results of which was the unrest of 1820 in the Semyonovsky regiment; in 1821 the Kazan and St. Petersburg universities were purged. Increased censorship, persecuting free thought. For the self-supply of the army in peacetime, military settlements were created, where soldiers, in conditions of the most severe discipline, were obliged, in addition to service, to engage in agriculture. The turn to reaction after the war of 1812 is associated with the name of the tsar's favorite A.A. Arakcheeva and received the name "Arakcheevshchina".

3. The results of the domestic policy of the era of Alexander I. In the first decade of his reign, Alexander I promised profound changes and, to a certain extent, improved the system of state administration, and contributed to the spread of education in the country. For the first time in Russian history, although a very timid, but still process of limiting and even partial abolition of serfdom began. The last decade of Alexander's reign was a time of growing conservative tendencies in the domestic political course. The main issues were not resolved: the abolition of serfdom and the adoption of a constitution. The rejection of the promised liberal reforms led to the radicalization of part of the noble intelligentsia and gave rise to noble revolutionism. (The uprising of the Decembrists on December 14, 1825 on Senate Square In Petersburg).

The article tells briefly about the domestic and foreign policy of Alexander I. During the reign of Alexander I, one of the central events of Russian history took place - the Patriotic War of 1812, which largely influenced the further development of Russia.

1. Patriotic War of 1812
2. Video

Internal and foreign policy Alexander I until 1812

Patriotic War of 1812

• Russia's failure to comply with the conditions of the continental blockade eventually led to the invasion of Napoleon's army. Without going into a detailed course of hostilities, we note that the main factors of victory were the patriotic impulse of the Russian army, Kutuzov's successful tactics, which consisted in exhausting the enemy, and Napoleon's serious miscalculations regarding the company's plan.
• The surrender of Moscow in order to save the army was incomprehensible to Napoleon, crossed out his experience of waging wars in Europe. The Battle of Borodino was a turning point. Russian historians claim that the victory was won by Russia, the French express the opposite opinion. However, the losses on both sides were huge. Napoleon realizes that the continuation of the campaign is futile and begins a retreat, gradually turning into a flight.
• The foreign campaign of the Russian army ends in Paris and proclaims the glory of Russian weapons. Russia acts as a pan-European leader. To this end, Alexander I founded in 1815 the "Holy Alliance" (Russia, Austria, Prussia), which was supposed to become the guarantor of European peace.

Domestic and foreign policy of Alexander I after 1815

• The war with Napoleon and subsequent political processes had an impact on the reformist mood of Alexander I. The romantic, faced with reality, is disappointed in his former ideals. A reactionary element begins to show itself in the emperor's actions.
• For some time, Alexander I was still trying to continue the reforms. In 1815 he adopts the constitution of Poland. In subsequent years, he was freed from serfdom without allotment of land to the peasants of the Baltic provinces.
• However, from 1820 the emperor completely curtailed his reform activities. His domestic politics is to preserve and conserve the existing system. Censorship is intensifying, a ban on "free-thinking" is announced. A kind of second enslavement of the peasants is the creation of military settlements. By the end of the reign, Alexander I retires altogether, leaving control to the state elite.
• There are no major shifts in foreign policy. Alexander I was concerned only with the preservation of European and his own monarchy against the revolutionary movement.

The results and significance of the domestic and foreign policy of Alexander I

• Conditionally dividing the reign of Alexander I into two periods, which are separated by the war with Napoleon, we can draw the following conclusions. In the first period, the emperor was set on reforms, carried out some of them, but his main merit was the reform of the state apparatus.
• The war of 1812 was a triumph for the Russian army, but at the same time it led to a tightening of domestic policy and curtailment of reforms.
• The Holy Alliance formed by Alexander I, which was supposed to become the guarantor of peace, acquired the status of a European gendarme, punishing any manifestations of freedom.

Hello, in our time, more and more people are interested in the history of the fatherland and its popularity is growing literally before our eyes. Many pass the Unified State Exam in history, which becomes more difficult every year and today, albeit briefly, we will talk about, perhaps, one of the most interesting and controversial moments in the history of Russia - the domestic policy of Alexander 1, which took place against the backdrop of the era of revolutions in Europe and the era of Enlightenment .

Emperor Alexander the First

Childhood and adolescence

The future manager spent his childhood under the strict supervision of his grandmother and personal tutor, the Swiss Laharpe. It was they who introduced him to the works of the great French enlighteners such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau. During this period, the young man had already established liberal values ​​in his head, which later influenced his reign.

Where did it all begin? “The days of Alexander’s are a great start…”

The reign of Alexander 1 began in 1801. Then, on the night of March 23-24, the father of the future emperor, Paul 1, was killed by a group of conspirators in the Mikhailovsky Castle, and with the tacit consent of his son, for which he would then feel remorse for the rest of his life. Not having time to ascend the throne, the young ruler began a storm of activity to change the situation within the country.

Reforms began to be carried out to change all aspects of the Russian state, together with the wisest manager M.M. Speransky, who had the greatest influence, and even Napoleon himself noted his literacy and abilities.

The same M.M. Speransky

It was the time from 1801-1806 that was considered the peak of reforms, and the period before the Patriotic War, A.S. Pushkin aptly called "Alexander's Days, a wonderful beginning ..."

• In 1801, an indispensable council was created to help the monarch. The young ruler fell into a kind of "Bermuda triangle" from the courtiers of Catherine 2, Paul 1 and newly minted people. The activity of this council was aimed at the abolition of the father's unpopular reforms and the discussion of bills, but then lost its role and was abolished in 1810. During its operation, the granted letters of nobility were restored, the import of foreign literature was allowed, and the nobles were allowed to travel abroad.
• In 1801-1803, the Unspoken Council was convened, which included Prince Kochubey, Count Stroganov, Novosiltsev and Prince Czartorysky. It was here that the most important reforms were prepared.
• 1802 Ministerial reform, the idea of ​​which was to replace collegiums with ministries. If in the colleges a group of people did the work, then in the ministries he was alone. Ministries such as military, naval, foreign affairs, internal affairs, justice, finance, commerce and public education were created.
• The country had serfdom, which hindered progress in Russia. It was necessary to solve the peasant question. Alexander 1 did not begin to remove it, although in 1804-1805 it was completely abolished in the Baltic states, and therefore he issued a decree on free cultivators in 1803. Peasants could become free "free farmers" for ransom and the consent of the landowner.
• It is also worth mentioning the education system, because it was during this period that it was formed as a compulsory one, but it was estate-based and was divided into 4 levels. 1) Parish church annual schools for peasants, where they taught to count, read and write. 2) County two-class schools for townspeople and merchants. 3) Provincial four-class gymnasiums for the nobility. 4) Universities for the nobility and especially gifted people of other classes. The emperor in every possible way contributed to the development of education in the country and believed that everything should be built on it. From 1802 to 1819, universities were opened in Dorpat, Vilna, Kharkov, Kazan and St. Petersburg. In 1804, the “university charter” was issued, which established the autonomy of higher educational institutions, thanks to which the state did not interfere in their affairs.
• 1810 -Establishment of the Council of State. It was the highest advisory body in the Russian Empire and existed until its very end. The most important bills were considered here. The emperor could listen to advice, but only he himself made the decision.
• 1810 - Creation of military settlements. Soldiers could live in a certain territory, take care of their household and live with their families.
• This allowed the peasants to combine military service with ordinary life.

Middle and end of reign. "Arakcheevshchina"

After the victory in Alexander dramatically changed his worldview. He was afraid of the spread of revolutionary people and changed the reform activity to "reaction".

Favorite of Tsar A.A. Arakcheev

The removal of Speransky from power and the rise of Arakcheev became the cause of reactionary activity. This period lasted from 1812 until the death of the ruler in 1825. It is characterized by police despotism and cane discipline, the harsh suppression of any unrest. It is inextricably linked with military settlements in which the iron order was established. However, despite this, the government took steps to gradually introduce a constitution

• In 1815 a constitution was granted to the Kingdom of Poland. Poland was allowed to have its own army and leave their ancient state body - the Sejm, as well as freedom of the press.
• The Charter of the Russian Empire was developed. Its introduction would mean colossal changes in the lives of citizens and, in fact, the introduction of a constitutional monarchy. With the rise of Arakcheev, this plan was abandoned and forgotten. The strengthening of autocracy began.

Output

The domestic policy of Alexander 1 can be described as a controversial period, which is divided into two stages. First, these are fundamental transformations and reforms, then the reaction and strengthening of autocratic power. But the contribution of this cannot be denied. historical figure to our country.

This war began at the initiative of Iran. His army numbered 140,000 cavalry and 60,000 infantry, but it was poorly armed and equipped. The Russian Caucasian army was initially led by General I.V. Gudovich. In a short time, his troops managed to conquer the Ganja, Sheki, Karabakh, Shirvan, Quba and Baku khanates. However, after the unsuccessful assault on the city of Erivan (Yerevan) in 1808, General A.P. Tormasov was appointed commander. He won several more victories.

In 1810. Persians and Turks made an alliance against Russia, which, however, did not help them much. In 1812. Russian troops of General P. S. Kotlyarevsky, consisting of 2 thousand people, attacked the 10 thousandth Persian army led by Crown Prince Abbas Mirza and put it to flight, after which they occupied Arkevan and Lankaran. October 24, 1813. was signed Gulistan peace treaty. The Shah of Iran recognized the territories of Georgia, Dagestan, Shirvan, Mingrelia, Imeretia, Abkhazia and Guria for Russia. He was forced to conclude a military alliance with Russia and grant her the right to free navigation in the Caspian. The result of the war was a serious expansion and strengthening of the southern borders of Russia.

Rupture of the Russian-French alliance.

Alexander unsuccessfully demanded that Napoleon refuse to support the intentions of the Poles to annex the lands of Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine to the Duchy of Warsaw. Finally in February 1811 Napoleon dealt another blow to his " dear ally"- annexed the Duchy of Oldenburg in Germany to France, the crown prince of which was married to Alexander's sister Catherine. In April 1811, the Franco-Russian alliance was broken. Both countries began intensive preparations for an inevitable war.

Patriotic War of 1812 (briefly)

The cause of the war was the violation by Russia and France of the terms of the Tilsit Treaty. Russia actually abandoned the blockade of England, accepting ships with English goods under neutral flags in its ports. France annexed the Duchy of Oldenburg, and Napoleon considered Alexander's demand for the withdrawal of French troops from Prussia and the Duchy of Warsaw insulting. A military clash between the two great powers was becoming inevitable.

June 12, 1812. Napoleon at the head of a 600,000-strong army, crossing the river. Neman, invaded Russia. With an army of about 240 thousand people, the Russian troops were forced to retreat before the French armada. On August 3, the 1st and 2nd Russian armies joined forces near Smolensk, and a battle was fought. Napoleon failed to win a complete victory. In August, M.I. was appointed commander-in-chief. Kutuzov. Kutuzov decided to give battle near the village of Borodino. A good position was chosen for the troops. The right flank was defended by the Koloch River, the left was defended by earthen fortifications - flushes, they were defended by the troops of P.I.Bagration. In the center stood the troops of General N.N. Raevsky and artillery. Their positions were closed by Shevardinsky redoubt.

Napoleon intended to break through the Russian formation from the left flank, and then direct all efforts to the center and press Kutuzov's army to the river. He directed the fire of 400 guns at Bagration's flashes. The French launched 8 attacks, which began at 5 o'clock in the morning, incurring in them huge losses. Only by 4 o'clock in the afternoon did the French manage to advance in the center, temporarily capturing Raevsky's batteries. In the midst of the battle, a desperate raid behind French lines was made by the lancers of the 1st Cavalry Corps F.P. Uvarova and the Cossacks of Ataman M.I. Platov. This held back the attacking impulse of the French.

The battle ended late in the evening. The troops suffered huge losses: the French - 58 thousand people, the Russians - 44 thousand.

September 1, 1812. At a meeting in Fili, Kutuzov decides to leave Moscow. The retreat was necessary for the preservation of the army and the further struggle for the independence of the Fatherland.

Napoleon entered Moscow on September 2 and stayed there until October 7, 1812, awaiting peace proposals. During this time, most of the city was destroyed by fires. Bonaparte's attempts to make peace with Alexander I were unsuccessful.

Leaving Moscow in October, Napoleon tried to go to Kaluga and spend the winter in a province not devastated by the war. On October 12, near Maloyaroslavets, Napoleon's army was defeated and began to retreat along the devastated Smolensk road, driven by frost and hunger. Pursuing the retreating French, the Russian troops destroyed their formations in parts. The final defeat of Napoleon's army took place in the battle near the river. Berezina November 14-16. Only 30 thousand French soldiers were able to leave Russia. On December 25, Alexander I issued a manifesto on the victorious end of the Patriotic War.

Nicholas I

Emperor Nicholas 1 was born on June 25 (July 6), 1796. He was the third son of Paul 1 and Maria Feodorovna. He received a good education, but did not recognize the humanities. He was versed in the art of war and fortification. He was good at engineering. However, despite this, the king was not loved in the army. Cruel corporal punishment and coldness led to the fact that the nickname of Nicholas 1, Nikolai Palkin, was fixed among the soldiers.

Alexandra Fedorovna- wife of Nicholas 1, possessing amazing beauty, - became the mother of the future Emperor Alexander 2.

Nicholas 1 ascended the throne after the death of his elder brother Alexander 1. Constantine, the second pretender to the throne, renounced his rights during the life of his elder brother. Nicholas 1 did not know about this and at first swore allegiance to Constantine. This short period would later be called the Interregnum. Although the manifesto on the accession to the throne of Nicholas 1 was issued on December 13 (25), 1825, legally the reign of Nicholas 1 began on November 19 (December 1). And the very first day was overshadowed by the Decembrist uprising on Senate Square, which was suppressed, and the leaders were executed in 1826. But Tsar Nicholas 1 saw the need to reform the social system. He decided to give the country clear laws, while relying on bureaucracy, since trust in the nobility was undermined.

The domestic policy of Nicholas 1 was characterized by extreme conservatism. The slightest manifestations of free thought were suppressed. He defended autocracy with all his might. The secret office under the leadership of Benckendorff was engaged in political investigation.

The reforms of Nicholas 1 were limited. Legislation has been streamlined. Under the leadership of Speransky, the publication of the Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire began. Kiselev carried out a reform of the management of state peasants. Peasants were allotted land when they moved to uninhabited areas, first-aid posts were built in the villages, and innovations in agricultural technology were introduced. In 1839 - 1843. a financial reform was also carried out, which established the ratio between the silver ruble and banknotes. But the question of serfdom remained unresolved.

The foreign policy of Nicholas 1 pursued the same goals as the domestic policy. During the reign of Nicholas 1, Russia fought the revolution not only within the country, but also outside it.

Nicholas 1 died on March 2 (February 18), 1855 in St. Petersburg, and his son, Alexander 2, ascended the throne.

Brief biography of Alexander 2

The domestic policy of Alexander 2 was strikingly different from the policy of Nicholas 1 and was marked by many reforms. The most important of them was the peasant reform of Alexander 2, according to which in 1861, on February 19, serfdom was abolished. This reform created an urgent need to further change many Russian institutions and entailed the implementation of Alexander 2 bourgeois reforms.

In 1864. Zemstvo reform was carried out by decree of Alexander II. Its goal was to create a system of local self-government, for which the institute of the county zemstvo was established.

In 1870. the city reform was carried out, which had a positive effect on the development of industry and cities. City dumas and councils were established, which were representative bodies of power.

The judicial reform of Alexander 2, carried out in 1864, was marked by the introduction of European legal regulations, but, some features of the previously existing judicial system were retained, for example, a special court for officials.

The military reform of Alexander 2. Its result is universal military service, as well as army organization close to European standards.

In the course of the financial reform of Alexander II, the State Bank was created, and official accounting was born.

The foreign policy of Alexander 2 was very successful. During his reign, Russia regained its military power, which had been shaken under Nicholas 1.

The great reforms of Alexander II were interrupted by his death. March 1, 1881 On that day, Tsar Alexander II intended to sign Loris-Melikov's large-scale economic and administrative reform project. The assassination attempt on Alexander 2, committed by the People's Will Grinevitsky, led to his severe injury and the death of the emperor.

Alexander 3 - the policy of counter-reforms (briefly)

April 29, 1881 - Manifesto, in which the emperor declared his will to preserve the foundations of autocracy and thereby eliminated the hopes of the democrats to transform the regime into a constitutional monarchy.

Alexander III replaced liberal figures in the government with hardliners. The concept of counter-reforms was developed by its main ideologist KN Pobedonostsev.

To strengthen the autocratic system, the system of zemstvo self-government was subjected to changes. In the hands of the zemstvo chiefs, the judicial and administrative powers were combined. They had unlimited power over the peasants.

Published in 1890 The "Regulations on Zemstvo Institutions" strengthened the role of the nobility in Zemstvo institutions and the administration's control over them. The representation of landowners in zemstvos increased significantly by introducing a high property qualification.

In 1881. published "Regulations on measures for conservation state security and public peace”, which granted numerous repressive rights to the local administration (declare a state of emergency, expel without trial, bring to court martial, close educational establishments). This law was used until the reforms of 1917 and became a tool for fighting the revolutionary and liberal movement.

In 1892. A new “City regulation” was issued, which infringed on the independence of city governments. The government included them in the general system of state institutions, thereby putting them under control.

Alexander 3 by law of 1893 forbade the sale and pledge of peasant lands, nullifying all the successes of previous years.

In 1884. Alexander undertook a university counter-reform, the purpose of which was to educate an intelligentsia obedient to the authorities. The new university charter severely limited the autonomy of universities, placing them under the control of trustees.

Under Alexander 3, the development of factory legislation began, which restrained the initiative of the owners of the enterprise and excluded the possibility of workers fighting for their rights.

The results of the counter-reforms of Alexander 3 are contradictory: the country managed to achieve an industrial boom, refrain from participating in wars, but at the same time social unrest and tension intensified.

Emperor Nicholas 2 (Nikolai Alexandrovich Romanov)

Nicholas 2 (May 18, 1868 - July 17, 1918) - the last Russian emperor, son of Alexander III.

May 26, 1896. The coronation of Nicholas II and his wife took place. IN holidays a terrible event takes place, called "Khodynki", as a result of which 1282 people died in a stampede.

During the reign of Nicholas 2, Russia experienced a rapid economic recovery. The agricultural sector is strengthening - the country becomes the main exporter of agricultural products in Europe, a stable gold currency is introduced. The industry was actively developing: cities grew, enterprises were built, railways. Nicholas 2 was a reformer, he introduced a standardized day for workers, provided them with insurance, and carried out reforms in the army and navy. The emperor supported the development of culture and science in Russia.

But, despite significant improvements in the country, there were popular unrest. In January 1905, the first Russian revolution took place, the impetus for which was Bloody Sunday. As a result, on October 17, 1905, the manifesto “On the Improvement of public order". It talked about civil liberties. A parliament was created, which included the State Duma and the State Council. On June 3 (16), 1907, the “Third of June coup” took place, which changed the rules for elections to the Duma.

In 1914, the First World War began, as a result of which the situation inside the country worsened. Failures in battles undermined the authority of Tsar Nicholas 2. In February 1917, an uprising broke out in Petrograd, which reached grandiose proportions. On March 2, 1917, fearing mass bloodshed, Nicholas 2 signed the act of abdication.

On March 9, 1917, the provisional government arrested the entire Romanov family and sent them to Tsarskoye Selo. In August they were transported to Tobolsk, and in April 1918 to last place destination - Yekaterinburg. On the night of July 16-17, the Romanovs were taken to basement, read out the death sentence and executed the execution. After a thorough investigation, it was determined that none of the royal family failed to escape.

Russia in World War I

The First World War was the result of contradictions that arose between the states of the Triple Alliance (Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary) and the Entente (Russia, England, France). At the heart of these contradictions was the conflict between England and Germany, including economic, naval and colonial claims. There were disputes between France and Germany over the regions of Alsace and Lorraine taken from France, as well as Germany's claims to French colonies in Africa.

The reason for the start of the war was the murder in Sarajevo on June 25, 1914 of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife. August 19, 1914 Germany declared war on Russia.

Military operations in Europe were divided into two fronts: Western (in France and Belgium) and Eastern - Russian. Russian troops operated on the North-Western Front (East Prussia, the Baltic states, Poland) and the South-Western (Western Ukraine, Transcarpathia). Russia entered the war without having had time to complete the rearmament of its troops.

Successful operations were carried out against German troops near Warsaw and Lodz.

Autumn 1914. Turkey took the side of the Triple Alliance. The opening of the Caucasian front greatly complicated the position of Russia. The troops began to experience an acute need for ammunition, the situation was complicated by the helplessness of the allies.

In 1915. Germany, having concentrated the main forces on the Eastern Front, carried out a spring-summer offensive, as a result of which Russia lost all the gains of 1914 and partly the territories of Poland, the Baltic States, Ukraine and Western Belarus.

Germany transferred the main forces to Western Front, where active battles began under the fortress of Verdun.

Two offensive attempts - in Galicia and Belarus ended in defeat. The Germans managed to capture the city of Riga and the Moonsund archipelago.

October 26, 1917. The 2nd All-Russian Congress of Soviets adopted the Decree on Peace, in which all the belligerents were asked to start peace negotiations. On November 14, Germany agreed to conduct negotiations, which began on November 20, 1917 in Brest-Litovsk.

A truce was concluded, Germany put forward demands, which the delegation headed by L. Trotsky rejected and left Brest-Litovsk. To this, the German troops responded with an offensive along the entire front. On February 18, the new Soviet delegation signed a peace treaty with Germany on even more difficult terms.

Russia lost Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, part of Belarus. The military presence of Soviet troops in the Baltic states, Finland, and Ukraine was excluded.

Russia pledged to demobilize the army, transfer ships to Germany Black Sea Fleet to pay a cash contribution.

February Revolution of 1917 (briefly)

The difficult economic situation pushed the government to involve the bourgeoisie in managing the economy. Numerous committees and bourgeois unions appeared, the purpose of which was to provide assistance to the victims of the war. Military-industrial committees dealt with issues of defense, fuel, transport, food, etc.

At the beginning of 1917. the level of the strike movement has reached a critical point. In January-February 1917, 676,000 workers went on strike, presenting mainly (95% of the strikes) political demands. The growth of the workers' and peasants' movement showed the "unwillingness of the lower classes to live in the old way."

February 14, 1917 a demonstration took place near the Tauride Palace demanding from the deputies State Duma creation of a "government of people's salvation". At the same time, the Bolsheviks, calling on the workers to a one-day general strike, led 90,000 people out onto the streets of Petrograd. The revolutionary explosion was facilitated by the introduction of bread cards, which caused its rise in price and panic among the population. On February 22, Nicholas II left for Mogilev, where his Headquarters was located. On February 23, the Vyborg and Petrograd sides went on strike, pogroms of bakeries and bakeries began in the city.

The success of the revolution began to depend on which side the Petrograd garrison would take. On the morning of February 26, the soldiers of the Volynsky, Preobrazhensky and Lithuanian regiments joined the rebels, they captured the armory and arsenal.

Political prisoners held in the Kresty prison were released. By the end of the day, most of the units of the Petrograd garrison went over to the side of the rebels.

The corps under the command of N.I. Ivanov, sent to suppress the demonstrators, was disarmed on the outskirts of the city. Without waiting for support and realizing the futility of resistance, on February 28, all other troops, led by the commander of the military district, General S.S. Khabalov, surrendered.

The rebels have established control over the most important objects in the city.

On the morning of February 27, members of the "working group" at the Central Military Industrial Committee announced the creation of a "Provisional Executive Committee of Soviets of Workers' Deputies" and called for the election of representatives to the Soviet.

Nicholas II from Headquarters tried to break through to Tsarskoye Selo. In a situation of a developing revolutionary crisis, the emperor was forced to sign a manifesto on abdication for himself and his young son Alexei in favor of his brother, Mikhail Alekseevich Romanov. However, Michael refused the throne, stating that the issue of power should be decided by the Constituent Assembly.

October Revolution of 1917 in Russia

The Great October Socialist Revolution took place on October 25-26, 1917. This is one of greatest events in the history of Russia, as a result of which there were cardinal changes in the position of all classes of society.

The October Revolution began as a result of a number of good reasons:

• In 1914-1918. Russia was involved in the first world war, the situation at the front was not the best, there was no sensible leader, the army suffered heavy losses. In industry, the growth of military products prevailed over consumer products, which led to an increase in prices and caused discontent among the masses. The soldiers and peasants wanted peace, and the bourgeoisie, who profited from the supply of military equipment, longed for the continuation of hostilities.
• national conflicts.
• The intensity of the class struggle. The peasants, who for centuries dreamed of getting rid of the oppression of the landowners and kulaks and taking possession of the land, were ready for decisive action.
• The fall of the authority of the Provisional Government, which was unable to solve the problems of society.
• The Bolsheviks had a strong authoritative leader V.I. Lenin, who promised the people to solve all social problems.
• The prevalence of socialist ideas in society.

The Bolshevik Party achieved tremendous influence over the masses. In October, there were already 400,000 people on their side. On October 16, 1917, the Military Revolutionary Committee was created, which began preparations for an armed uprising. During the revolution, by October 25, 1917, all the key points in the city were occupied by the Bolsheviks, led by V.I. Lenin. They're taking over the Winter palace and arrest the provisional government.

On October 26, the Decree on Peace and Land was adopted. At the congress, a Soviet government was formed, called the "Soviet people's commissars", which included: Lenin himself (chairman), L.D. Trotsky (People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs), I.V. Stalin (People's Commissar for National Affairs). The “Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia” was introduced, which stated that all people have equal rights to freedom and development, there is no longer a nation of masters and a nation of oppressed.

As a result of the October Revolution, the Bolsheviks won, and the dictatorship of the proletariat was established. Class society was abolished, the landlords' land was transferred into the hands of the peasants, and industrial buildings: factories, factories, mines - into the hands of the workers.

Civil War and intervention (briefly)

The civil war began in October 1917 and ended with the defeat of the White Army in the Far East in the autumn of 1922. During this time, various social classes and groups on the territory of Russia resolved the contradictions that arose between them by armed methods.

To the main reasons for starting civil war can be attributed:

The discrepancy between the goals of the transformation of society and the methods for achieving them,

Refusal to create a coalition government,

dispersal of the Constituent Assembly,

Nationalization of land and industry,

Elimination of commodity-money relations,

The establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat,

Creation of a one-party system,

The danger of the revolution spreading to other countries,

Economic losses of the Western powers during regime change in Russia.

Spring 1918. English, American and French troops landed in Murmansk and Arkhangelsk. within the limits Far East the Japanese invaded, the British and Americans landed in Vladivostok - the intervention began.

May 25 there was an uprising of the 45,000th Czechoslovak corps, which was transferred to Vladivostok for further shipment to France. A well-armed and well-equipped corps stretched from the Volga to the Urals. Under the conditions of decayed Russian army, he became the only real force at that time.

November-December 1918 English troops landed in Batumi and Novorossiysk, the French occupied Odessa. In these critical conditions, the Bolsheviks managed to create a combat-ready army by mobilizing people and resources and attracting military specialists from the tsarist army.

By the autumn of 1918. The Red Army liberated the cities of Samara, Simbirsk, Kazan and Tsaritsyn.

The revolution in Germany had a significant impact on the course of the civil war. Recognizing its defeat in the First World War, Germany agreed to annul the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and withdrew its troops from the territory of Ukraine, Belarus and the Baltic states.

The Entente began to withdraw its troops, providing only material assistance to the Whites.

By April 1919. The Red Army managed to stop the troops of General A.V. Kolchak. Driven into the depths of Siberia, they were defeated by the beginning of 1920.

Summer 1919. General Denikin, having captured Ukraine, moved to Moscow and approached Tula. The troops of the first cavalry army under the command of M.V. Frunze and the Latvian riflemen concentrated on the Southern Front. In the spring of 1920, near Novorossiysk, the "Reds" defeated the Whites.

In the north of the country, the troops of General N.N. Yudenich fought against the Soviets. In the spring and autumn of 1919 they made two unsuccessful attempts to capture Petrograd.

In April 1920. the conflict between Soviet Russia and Poland began. In May 1920, the Poles captured Kyiv. The troops of the Western and Southwestern fronts launched an offensive, but failed to achieve a final victory.

Realizing the impossibility of continuing the war, in March 1921 the parties signed a peace treaty.

The war ended with the defeat of General P.N. Wrangel, who led the remnants of Denikin's troops in the Crimea. In 1920, the Far Eastern Republic was formed, by 1922 it was finally liberated from the Japanese.

Formation of the USSR (briefly)

In 1918, the "Declaration of the Rights of the Working and Exploited People" was adopted, proclaiming the principle of the future structure of the country. Its federal basis, as a free union of republics, assumed the right of nations to self-determination. Following this, the Soviet government recognized the independence of Finland and the statehood of Poland.

The collapse of the Russian Empire and the imperialist war led to the establishment Soviet power throughout Russia.

Proclaimed in 1918. The RSFSR occupied 92% of the entire territory and was the largest of all Soviet republics, where more than 100 peoples and nationalities lived. It partly included the territories of Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan. In fact, until 1922, the Far Eastern Republic functioned in its likeness.

From 1920 to 1921. units of the Red Army occupied these states without visible resistance and established the laws of the RSFSR there. The Sovietization of Belarus passed easily.

In Ukraine, it was not without a struggle with the pro-Kiev course. The process of establishing Soviet power in the Central Asian Soviet People's Republics - Bukhara and Khorezm - was going on heavily. Detachments of the local armed opposition continued to resist there.

Most of the communist leaders of the republics were worried about the existence of "Great Russian chauvinism", so that the unification of the republics into a single whole would not become the creation of a new empire. This problem was perceived especially painfully in Georgia and Ukraine.

The unity and rigidity of the repressive bodies served as powerful factors in the unification of the republics.

Developing the principles of national state structure engaged in the commission of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee. Autonomous, federal and confederal options for building a single state were considered.

The plan for the declared autonomous entry of the Soviet republics into the RSFSR was proposed by the People's Commissar for Nationalities, Stalin. However, the commission accepted Lenin's proposal for a union federal state. He gave future republics formal sovereignty.

Lenin clearly understood that a single party and a single repressive system were a sure guarantee of the integrity of the state. Lenin's project could attract other peoples to the union, and not scare them away, as Stalin's version.

December 30, 1922. At the First Congress of Soviets, the formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was proclaimed. The Congress adopted the Declaration and the Treaty.

The Central Executive Committee (CEC) was elected as the supreme legislative body, which consisted of two chambers: the Union Council and the Council of Nationalities.

January 31, 1924. The II All-Union Congress of Soviets adopted the first Constitution of the USSR, which stipulated the principles of the Declaration and the Treaty.

The foreign policy of the USSR was quite active. Progress has been made in relations with the countries of the capitalist camp. An agreement on economic cooperation was signed with France (1966). The Treaty on the Limitation of Strategic Nuclear Arms (SALT-1) is concluded. an important role in the removal international tension played the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) in 1975. The USSR maintained and strengthened ties with developing countries.

The 1980s were a time of radical change and restructuring in the USSR. led to problems in the social sphere and social production, the impending crisis in the economy of the USSR, caused by a devastating arms race for the country. Course towards democratization public life and publicity was announced by M.S. Gorbachev.

But perestroika could not prevent the collapse of the USSR.

Among the main reasons for the collapse of the USSR are the following:

• The actual destruction of the philosophy of communism, the spirit of which was lost first by the ruling elite of the country, and then by all its citizens.
• The imbalance in the development of industry in the USSR - as in the pre-war years, the main attention was paid to heavy industry, as well as defense and energy. The development of light industry and the level of production of consumer goods were clearly insufficient.
• The ideological failure also played its role. Life behind the Iron Curtain Soviet people seemed beautiful and free. And benefits like free education and medicine, housing and social security were taken for granted, people did not know how to appreciate them.
• Prices in the USSR, relatively low, were artificially "frozen", but there was a problem of shortage of many goods, often also artificial.
• The Soviet man was completely controlled by the system.
• Many experts say that one of the reasons for the fall of the USSR was a sharp drop in oil prices and the prohibition of religions.

The Baltic republics (Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia) were the first to secede from the USSR.

Russia after the collapse of the USSR declared itself the heir great empire. The 1990s turned into a severe crisis for the country in all spheres. The production crisis led to the actual destruction of many industries, the contradictions between the legislative and executive authorities - to a crisis situation in the political sphere.

THE GREAT PATRIOTIC WAR

At dawn on June 22, 1941, Nazi Germany attacked the Soviet Union. On the German side were Romania, Hungary, Italy and Finland. In accordance with the Barbarossa plan developed in 1940, Germany planned to enter the Arkhangelsk-Volga-Astrakhan line as soon as possible. It was a setting for a blitzkrieg - a lightning war. Thus began the Great Patriotic War.

The main periods of the Great Patriotic War. The first period (June 22, 1941 - November 18, 1942) from the beginning of the war to the start of the offensive Soviet troops near Stalingrad. It was the most difficult period for the USSR, called the Battle of Stalingrad.

Having created a multiple superiority in people and military equipment in the main directions of the offensive, the German army has achieved significant success. By the end of November 1941, the Soviet troops, having retreated under the blows of superior enemy forces to Leningrad, Moscow, Rostov-on-Don, left the enemy a vast territory, lost about 5 million people killed, missing and captured, most of the tanks and aircraft .

The second period (November 19, 1942 - the end of 1943) - a radical turning point in the war. Having exhausted and bled the enemy in defensive battles, on November 19, 1942, Soviet troops launched a counteroffensive, surrounding 22 fascist divisions near Stalingrad, numbering more than 300 thousand people. On February 2, 1943, this grouping was liquidated. At the same time, enemy troops were expelled from the North Caucasus. By the summer of 1943 Soviet-German front stabilized.

The third period (the end of 1943 - May 8, 1945) is the final period of the Great Patriotic War. In 1944, the Soviet economy reached its highest expansion ever. war time. Industry, transport, and agriculture developed successfully. War production grew especially rapidly.

1944 was marked by the victories of the Soviet Armed Forces. The entire territory of the USSR was completely liberated from the fascist invaders. The Soviet Union came to the aid of the peoples of Europe - Soviet army liberated Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, fought its way to Norway. Romania and Bulgaria declared war on Germany. Finland left the war.

During the winter offensive of 1945, the Soviet Army pushed the enemy back more than 500 km. Poland, Hungary and Austria, the eastern part of Czechoslovakia were almost completely liberated. The Soviet Army reached the Oder. On April 25, 1945, a historic meeting of Soviet troops with American and British troops took place on the Elbe, in the Torgau region.

The fighting in Berlin was exceptionally fierce and stubborn. On April 30, the banner of Victory was hoisted over the Reichstag. On May 8, the act of unconditional surrender of Nazi Germany was signed. May 9 - became Victory Day.

Development of the USSR in 1945-1953

The main task of the post-war period was the restoration of the destroyed economy. In March 1946, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted a plan for the reconstruction and restoration of the national economy.

The demilitarization of the economy and the modernization of the military-industrial complex began. Heavy industry was declared a priority area, mainly engineering, metallurgy, and the fuel and energy complex.

By 1948, production reached pre-war levels thanks to heroic labor Soviet people, the free labor of Gulag prisoners, the redistribution of funds in favor of heavy industry, the transfer of funds from the agricultural sector and light industry, the attraction of funds from Germany's reparations, and strict economic planning.

In 1945, the gross agricultural output of the USSR was 60% of the pre-war level. The government tried to bring the industry out of the crisis by punitive measures.

In 1947, a mandatory minimum of workdays was established, the law “For encroachment on collective farm and state property” was tightened, the tax on livestock maintenance was increased, which led to its mass slaughter.

The areas of individual allotments of collective farmers have been reduced. Reduced wages in kind. Collective farmers were denied passports, which limited their freedom. At the same time, farms were enlarged and control over them was tightened.

These reforms were not successful, and only by the 1950s did they manage to reach the pre-war level of agricultural production.

In 1945 the State Defense Committee was abolished. The work of public and political organizations has been resumed

In 1946, the Council of People's Commissars was transformed into the Council of Ministers, and the people's commissariats into ministries.

Since 1946, the drafting of a new Constitution of the USSR began. In 1947, the Politburo of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks submitted the question “On the project new program VKP(b)".

There have been changes in science and culture. Compulsory seven-year education was introduced in 1952, evening schools were opened. The Academy of Arts and the Academy of Sciences with its branches in the republics were formed. Postgraduate courses are open in many universities. Television began to broadcast regularly.

In 1948, the persecution of "cosmopolitans" began. Bans were imposed on contacts and marriages with foreigners. A wave of anti-Semitism swept across the country.

Khrushchev's foreign and domestic policy

Khrushchev's activities played a significant role in organizing mass repressions, both in Moscow and in Ukraine. During the Great Patriotic War, Khrushchev was a member of the military councils of the fronts, and by 1943 he had received the rank of lieutenant general. Also, Khrushchev led the partisan movement behind the front line.

One of the most famous post-war initiatives was the strengthening of the collective farms, which contributed to the reduction of bureaucracy. In the autumn of 1953, Khrushchev took the highest party position. The reign of Khrushchev began with the announcement of a large-scale project for the development of virgin lands. The purpose of the development of virgin lands was to increase the volume of grain harvested in the country.

Khrushchev's domestic policy was marked by the rehabilitation of the victims of political repression and by the improvement in the standard of living of the population of the USSR. Also, he made an attempt to modernize the party system.

Foreign policy changed under Khrushchev. Thus, among the theses put forward by him at the 20th Congress of the CPSU, there was also the thesis that the war between socialism and capitalism is by no means inevitable. Khrushchev's speech at the 20th Congress contained rather harsh criticism of Stalin's activities, the personality cult, and political repressions. It was perceived ambiguously by the leaders of other countries. Soon published in the USA English translation this speech. But the citizens of the USSR were able to get acquainted with it only in the 2nd half of the 80s.

In 1957 a conspiracy was created against Khrushchev, which was not crowned with success. As a result, the conspirators, which included Molotov, Kaganovich and Malenkov, were dismissed by the decision of the Plenum of the Central Committee.

Brief biography of Brezhnev

During the Great Patriotic War, Brezhnev L.I. served as head of the Southern Front, and received the rank of major general in 1943. At the end of hostilities, Brezhnev successfully builds political career. He consistently works as secretary of the regional committee of Ukraine and Moldova. Since 1952, he has become a member of the Presidium of the Central Committee, and after Khrushchev came to power, he is appointed secretary communist party Kazakhstan.

By 1957, Brezhnev returned to the Presidium and after 3 years held the position of Chairman of the Presidium. During the Brezhnev years, the country refuses to implement the ideas of the previous leader, Khrushchev. Since 1965, Brezhnev's unhurried and outwardly more modest reforms began, the goal of which was to build "developed socialism." Enterprises are gaining greater independence than in previous years, and the standard of living of the population is gradually improving, which is especially noticeable in the villages. However, already by the beginning of the 1970s, stagnation appeared in the economy.

In international relations, Khrushchev's course is maintained, and dialogue with the West continues. The agreements on disarmament in Europe, enshrined in the Helsinki Accords, are also important. Tension in international relations reappears only after the entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan.

Brief biography of Gorbachev Mikhail Sergeevich

Party career Gorbachev M.S. turned out to be successful. And high yields in the Stavropol region have created a good reputation for him. In an effort to introduce more rational methods of agricultural labor, Gorbachev publishes articles in the regional and central press. As secretary of the Central Committee, he deals with the problems of the country's agriculture.

Gorbachev came to power in 1985. Later, he held other high posts in the USSR. Gorbachev's rule was marked by serious political reforms designed to put an end to stagnation. The most famous were such actions of the country's leadership as the introduction of cost accounting, acceleration, money exchange. The famous dry law of Gorbachev caused a sharp rejection of almost all citizens of the Union. Unfortunately, the decree "On strengthening the fight against drunkenness" had an absolutely opposite effect. Most of the liquor stores were closed. However, the practice of home brewing has spread almost everywhere. There was also fake vodka. Prohibition was repealed in 1987 by virtue of economic reasons. However, fake vodka remained.

Gorbachev's perestroika was marked by a weakening of censorship and, at the same time, a deterioration in living standards Soviet citizens. This happened due to ill-conceived domestic policy. Contributed to the growth of tension in society and ethnic conflicts in Georgia, Baku, Nagorno-Karabakh, etc. The Baltic republics already during this period headed for secession from the Union.

Gorbachev's foreign policy, the so-called "policy of new thinking", contributed to the detente of the difficult international situation and the end of the Cold War.

In 1989, Mikhail Sergeevich Gorbachev took the post of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, and in 1990 he became the first and only president of the USSR.

In 1990, M. Gorbachev received the Nobel Peace Prize as a person who did a lot to ease international tension. But the country at that time was already in a deep crisis.

As a result of the August putsch of 1991, organized by the former supporters of Gorbachev, the USSR ceased to exist. Gorbachev resigned after the signing of the Belovezhskaya Accords. Subsequently, he continued his social activities, headed the Green Cross and Gorbachev Foundation organizations.

RUSSIA DURING B.N. YELTSIN

June 12, 1991 B.N. Yeltsin was elected President of the Russian Federation. After his election, the main slogans of B. Yeltsin were the fight against the privileges of the nomenklatura and the independence of Russia from the USSR.

July 10, 1991 Boris Yeltsin took an oath of allegiance to the people of Russia and Russian Constitution, and assumed the office of President of the RSFSR.

In August 1991, the confrontation between Yeltsin and the putschists began, which led to a proposal to ban the activities of the Communist Party, and on August 19, Boris Yeltsin delivered a famous speech from a tank, in which he read out a decree on the illegitimate activities of the GKChP. The coup is defeated, the activities of the CPSU are completely banned.

In December 1991, the USSR officially ceased to exist.

December 25, 1991 B.N. Yeltsin received full presidential power in Russia in connection with the resignation of the President of the USSR Mikhail Gorbachev and the actual collapse of the USSR.

1992 - 1993 - new stage in the construction of the Russian state - privatization has begun, economic reform is being carried out.

In September-October 1993, a confrontation between Boris Yeltsin and the Supreme Soviet began, which led to the dissolution of parliament. Unrest in Moscow, which peaked on October 3-4, supporters of the Supreme Soviet seized the television center, the situation was brought under control only with the help of tanks.

In 1994, the First Chechen War began, which led to a huge number of casualties among both the civilian population and the military, as well as law enforcement officers.

May 1996 Boris Yeltsin forced to sign an order in Khasavyurt on the withdrawal of troops from Chechnya, which theoretically means the end of the first Chechen war.

In 1998 and 1999 in Russia, as a result of unsuccessful economic policy, a default occurs, then a government crisis.

On December 31, 1999, in a New Year's address to the people of Russia, B. Yeltsin announced his early resignation. Prime Minister V.V. Putin, who provides Yeltsin and his family with guarantees of complete security.