Message about Kievan Rus. Kievan Rus: the formation and development of the Old Russian state
Kievan Rus(Ancient Russian state, Kiev state, Russian state)- the name of the early feudal ancient Russian state with the center in Kyiv, which arose at the turn of the 7th-9th centuries. as a result of a long process of economic, political and cultural consolidation of East Slavic tribal unions and in various forms existed until the middle of the thirteenth century.
1. Kievan Rus. general characteristics . During the reign of Vladimir the Great (980-1015), the formation of the territory of Kievan Rus was completed. It occupied the territory from Lake Peipsi, Ladoga and Onega in the north to the rivers Don, Ros, Sula, Southern Bug in the south, from the Dniester, Carpathians, Neman, Western Dvina in the west to the interfluve of the Volga and Oka in the east; its area was about 800 thousand km2.In the history of Kievan Rus, one can distinguish three consecutive periods:
The period of emergence, and formation, and evolution of state structures, chronologically covers the end of the 9th - the end of the 10th century;
The period of the greatest rise and development of Kievan Rus (late X - mid-XI century)
The period of political fragmentation of Kievan Rus (the end of the 11th - the middle of the 13th century).
2 Origin of the names "Kievan Rus" and "Rus-Ukraine". State Eastern Slavs was called "Kievan Rus", or "Rus-Ukraine". Researchers do not have a common opinion about the origin and definition of the name "Rus". There are several versions:
The tribes of the Normans (Varangians) were called Rus - they founded the state of the Slavs and the name "Russian Land" came from them; This theory originated in the 18th century. in Germany and was called "Norman", its authors - historians G. Bayer and G. Miller, their followers and like-minded people are called Normanists;
Russ - Slavic tribes who lived in the middle reaches of the Dnieper;
Rus is ancient Slavic deity from which the name of the state originated;
Rusa - in the Proto-Slavic language "river" (hence the name "channel").
Ukrainian historians generally adhere to anti-Norman views, although they do not deny the significant contribution of the Varangian princes and troops to the formation political system Kievan Rus.
Russia, Russian land in their opinion:
The name of the territory of the Kiev region, Chernihiv region, Pereyaslav region (lands of glades, northerners, drevlyans);
The name of the tribes that lived on the banks of the rivers Ros, Rosava, Rostavitsa, Roska and others;
The name of the Kievan state since the IX century.
The name "Ukraine" (land, region) means the territory that was the basis of Kievan Rus in the 11th-12th centuries. For the first time this term is used in the Kiev Chronicle in 1187 in relation to the lands of the Southern Kiev region and Pereyaslav region.
3. The emergence of Kievan Rus. Before the formation of the state on the territory of the future Kievan Rus lived:
a) East Slavic tribes- ancestors of Ukrainians- Drevlyans, glades, northerners, Volhynians (dulibs), Tivertsy, white Croats;
b) East Slavic tribes - ancestors of Belarusians- Dregovichi, Polotsk;
c) East Slavic tribes - Russian ancestors - Krivichi, Radimichi, Slovenian, Vyatichi.
Basic prerequisites formation of East Slavic statehood:
At the beginning of the VIII century. in general, the process of the settlement of the Slavs and the creation of territorially defined large and small unions of tribes was completed;
The presence in the East Slavic unions of tribes of certain local differences in culture and life;
The gradual development of tribal unions into tribal principalities - pre-state associations are more high level that preceded the emergence of the East Slavic state;
Formation at the turn of the VIII-IX centuries. around Kyiv, the first East Slavic state, which experts conditionally call the Kiev Principality of Askold.
The following can be distinguished milestones the process of unification of the Eastern Slavs into one state:
a) the creation of a principality (state) with its capital in Kyiv; the structure of this state included glades, Russ, northerners, Dregovichi, Polochans;
b) the seizure of power in Kyiv by the Novgorod prince Oleg (882), under whose authority a part of the Slavic tribes had previously been under his rule;
c) the unification of almost all East Slavic tribes into a single state of Kievan Rus.
The first Slavic princes:
- prince Kiy (semi-legendary) - the leader of the union of tribes of the glades, the founder of the city of Kyiv (according to legend, together with the brothers Shchek, Khoriv and sister Lybid in the 5th-6th centuries);
Prince Rurik - an annalistic mention of him in the Tale of Bygone Years, it says that in 862 the Novgorodians called the "Varangians" Rurik with an army ; .
The princes Askold and Dir conquered Kyiv in the second half of the 9th century, according to the chronicles Askold and Dir were the boyars of Prince Rurik;
After the death of the Novgorod prince Rurik (879), until the age of his son Igor, Oleg became the de facto ruler of the Novgorod land;
In 882, Oleg captured Kyiv, on his orders the Kiev brothers Askold and Dir were killed; the beginning of the rule in Kyiv of the Rurik dynasty; Many researchers consider Prince Oleg the direct founder of Kievan Rus.
4. Economic development of Kievan Rus. The leading place in the economy of the Kievan state was occupied by agriculture, which developed in accordance with natural conditions. In the forest-steppe zone of Kievan Rus, a fire-slashing system of tillage was used, and in the steppe, a shifting system was used. Farmers used perfect tools: a plow, harrows, shovels, scythes, sickles, they sowed cereals and industrial crops. Cattle breeding has reached significant development. Hunting, fishing, beekeeping retained their importance.
Initially, landownership of free community members prevailed in the Old Russian state, and from the 11th century. gradually formed and intensified feudal tenure - patrimony, which was inherited. Handicraft occupied an important place in the economy of Kievan Rus. Since that time, more than 60 types of handicraft specialties have been known. Trade routes ran through the Old Russian state: for example, “from the Varangians to the Greeks”, connecting Russia with Scandinavia and the countries of the Black Sea basin. In Kievan Rus, the minting of coins - silversmiths and goldsmiths - began. In the Russian state, the number of cities grew - from 20 (IX-X centuries), 32 (XI century) to 300 (XIII century).
5. The political and administrative system of Kievan Rus. The political and administrative system of Kievan Rus was based on a princely-druzhina structure for the long-term preservation of self-government bodies of urban and rural communities. Communities united in volosts - administrative-territorial units, which included cities and rural districts. Groups of volosts united into lands. Kievan Rus was formed as a sole monarchy. At the head of the state was the Grand Duke of Kyiv, who concentrated in his hands all the fullness of legislative, executive, judicial and military power. The prince's advisers were "princely men" from the top of his retinue, who received the title governors, and from the 11th century they were called boyars. Over time, dynasties of boyars arose, occupying important government positions.
The internal administration of the state was carried out by numerous princely rulers (posadniki, thousand, butlers, tiuns, etc.). The princely power relied on a permanent military organization - the squad. Vigilantes-posadniks were entrusted with the management of individual volosts, cities and lands. The people's militia was formed according to the decimal principle. Separate subdivisions were headed by a foreman, a sotsky, a thousand. "Thousand" was a military-administrative unit. In the XII-XIII centuries. the form of the state has changed. Relations between individual principalities developed on the principles of federation or confederation.
6. The social structure of Kievan Rus. The social structure of Kievan Rus corresponded to its economic system. The dominant position was occupied by governors (boyars), thousand, sotsky, tiuns, firemen, village elders, and the city elite. The free category of rural producers was called smerds, the feudally dependent population in Kievan Rus were ryadovichi, purchases and outcasts. Serfs and servants were in the position of slaves.
7. Political fragmentation of Kievan Rus and its consequences. Kievan Rus was one of the most powerful states of its time, which significantly influenced the development of European civilization, but after the death of Vladimir Monomakh's son Mstislav Vladimirovich (1132), it began to lose its political unity and was divided into 15 principalities and lands. Among them, Kiev, Chernigov, Vladimir-Suzdal, Novgorod, Smolensk, Polotsk and Galician principalities were large and influential.
The political prerequisites for fragmentation were as follows:
The succession to the throne among the princes of Kievan Rus was different: in some lands, power was transferred from father to son, in others - from older brother to younger;
Political ties between individual feudal estates and individual lands were weakened, the development of individual lands led to the emergence of local separatism;
In some lands, the local boyars demanded the strong power of the prince to ensure the protection of their rights; on the other hand, the real power of the specific princes and boyars increased, the power of the Kiev prince was weakened, many boyars put local interests above national ones;
The Kiev principality did not create its own dynasty, since representatives of all princely families fought for the possession of Kiev;
The expansion of nomads to Russian lands intensified.
Socio-economic prerequisites for fragmentation:
The natural nature of the economy of the Kievan state led to a weakening of economic and trade ties between individual lands;
Cities developed rapidly, becoming the political, economic and cultural centers of the principalities;
The transformation of the conditional landownership of the specific boyars into hereditary significantly increased the economic role of the local nobility, who did not want to share their power;
A change in the trading environment, as a result of which Kyiv lost its role as a center of trade, and Western Europe began to trade directly with a close gathering.
Modern scientific research proves that feudal fragmentation is natural stage in development medieval society. This is also evidenced by the fact that all the peoples and states of Europe survived it. Fragmentation was caused by the further feudalization of ancient Russian society, the spread of socio-economic development in the field. If earlier Kyiv was the center of the entire socio-economic, political, cultural and ideological life of the country, then from the middle of the XII century. other centers already competed with it: the old ones - Novgorod, Smolensk, Polotsk - and the new ones - Vladimir-on-Klyazma and Galich.
Russia was torn apart by princely civil strife, large and small wars, constantly going on between the feudal lords. However, contrary to popular belief, the Old Russian State did not collapse. It only changed its form: in place of the one-man monarchy came federal Monarchy, in which Russia was jointly ruled by a group of the most influential and powerful princes. Historians call this form of government "collective sovereignty."
Fragmentation weakened the state politically, but contributed to the development of the local economy and culture. She, to a certain extent, laid the foundations of three East Slavic peoples: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. The last decades of the 15th century, when the Russian centralized state was formed, and the Ukrainian and Belarusian lands fell under the rule of Lithuania, Poland, Hungary and Moldova, are considered to be the period of ending fragmentation in the East Slavic lands.
8. The value of Kievan Rus. The meaning of Kievan Rus is as follows:
a) Kievan Rus became the first state of the Eastern Slavs, accelerated the development of the last stage of development of the primitive communal system into a more progressive feudal one; this process created favorable conditions for the development of the economy and culture; M. Grushevsky argued: "Kievan Rus is the first form of Ukrainian statehood";
b) the formation of Kievan Rus contributed to the strengthening of the defense capability of the East Slavic population, preventing its physical destruction by the nomads (Pechenegs, Polovtsians, etc.);
c) the ancient Russian nationality was formed on the basis of a common territory, language, culture, mental warehouse;
d) Kievan Rus raised the authority of the Eastern Slavs in Europe; The international significance of Kievan Rus lies in the fact that it influenced political events and international relationships in Europe and Asia, the Middle East; Russian princes maintained political, economic, dynastic ties with France, Sweden, England, Poland, Hungary, Norway, Byzantium;
e) Kievan Rus laid the foundation for the statehood of not only Slavic, but also non-Slavic peoples (the Finno-Ugric population of the North, etc...);
f) Kievan Rus acted as the eastern outpost of the European Christendom, it held back the advance of the hordes of the steppe nomads, weakened their onslaught on Byzantium and the countries Central Europe.
In the historical period of Kievan Rus, in the Dnieper region, in Galicia and Volhynia, in the Black Sea region and the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov, traditions of independent statehood were laid on the territory of Ukraine. The historical center of the formation of the Ukrainian nationality was the territory of Kiev region, Pereyaslav region, Chernihiv-Siver region, Podolia, Galicia and Volhynia. From the 12th century the name is distributed in this area "Ukraine". In the process of fragmentation of the Kiev state, the Ukrainian nationality became the ethnic basis of the lands-principalities of South-Western Russia in the XII-XIV centuries: Kiev, Pereyaslav, Chernigov, Seversky, Galician, Volyn. So, Kievan Rus was a form of socio-economic and state development of the Ukrainian ethnos. The immediate successor of Kievan Rus was Galicia-Volyn principality.
Chronicle " Tale of Bygone Years” is the only written source confirming the existence of the so-called Kievan Rus. Appeared to the world at the time of formation " official version» of our ancient history, it is constantly subjected to fair criticism by specialists and cannot be considered as a reliable historical document.
But even if we take seriously this purely literary work and the events described in it, then this is at least not enough to confirm the existence of such a medieval association as Kievan Rus. Well, such an "outstanding" state in Eastern Europe could not leave behind only one written historical source! But first things first…
Could Kyiv be the capital of Russia?
To begin with, I would like to consider the very possibility of the emergence of such a Dnieper association as Kievan Rus, and in particular its center - Kyiv. Even for a person far from historical science, it is clear that the probability that Kyiv, located somewhere on the outskirts, could become the center of the state is not only negligible, but also absurd. First of all, regardless of the initial size of the state, they always try to locate its capital as close to the center as possible - away from the external borders and their potential enemy. Thus, the center of the country will be reliably protected from external invasion, which we do not see at all in the case of Kiev, which was located on the outskirts of a medieval state.
Secondly, another, the most favorable place for the location of the capital is the point of intersection of transport routes. In this case, from the center you can always easily get to any, even the most remote corner of the state. Otherwise, manage such a gigantic association as Kievan Rus, without having modern means communication (telephone, radio, television, telegraph, Internet) is simply impossible. But in the case of Kiev, we see a completely opposite picture - it is not only located on the outskirts, but also does not have convenient transport links with most important cities - Moscow, Novgorod, Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Polotsk and others.
Thirdly, most medieval capitals are not only administrative, but also shopping centers their states. For the convenience of maintaining trade, they could be located on the coast of the sea or a large river. And in the case of Kiev, at first glance, everything is fine - it is located on the Dnieper. But this is only at first glance! Since the prospect of developing international trade along the Dnieper River is very doubtful. Its tributaries allow you to get into such "partisan" territories as Pripyat, Polesie or Pinsk, the development of which was not completed even by the beginning of the 20th century. What can we say about the earlier period and the prospects for the development of transit trade through these lands. And here supporters of the Varangian way come to the aid of the dubious position of Kyiv - "from the Varangians to the Greeks." According to some historians, it was this route that connected the northern Baltic lands, Novgorod, Kyiv and the Black Sea. Absolutely irrational, and sometimes absurd, it involves the passage of an intricate, winding route " Baltic - Volkhov - Lovat - Western Dvina - Dnieper”and overcoming two watersheds by dragging. But the Varangians are the real heroes of their time, they don’t care! They can drag their ships across the land and do not look for direct routes!
But seriously, the distance along the route "Baltic - Volkhov - Lovat - Western Dvina - Dnieper" is 5 times more than the distance along the route "Baltic - Western Dvina - Dnieper", which involves only one portage and goes directly to the Black Sea . Not to mention the fact that it was also possible to "go to the Greeks" along the route "Baltic - Vistula - Bug - Pripyat - Dnieper". But, no matter how the Vikings “walked”, the existence of an economically profitable trade route connecting the north, Kyiv and the south is highly doubtful. This is very unlikely due to the natural geographical features of the Dnieper itself - below Kyiv it is dotted with rather dangerous rapids, which exclude the possibility of the passage of merchant ships. Thus, the famous French engineer and cartographer Guillaume Beauplan in his work" Description of Ukraine"writes:
The fertility of the soil provides the inhabitants with grain in such abundance that they often do not know what to do with it, especially since they have no navigable rivers flowing into the sea, with the exception of the Dnieper, which, 50 miles below Kyiv, is blocked by thirteen rapids, the last of which is a good seven miles from the first, which is a whole day's journey, as you can see on the map. This barrier prevents them from bringing their grain to Constantinople.
Interesting fact! Like in the 17th century. suddenly ceased to be a navigable river, along which only a few centuries ago passed the largest trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks"? Well, let's say that the selfless merchants of that time were not afraid of any obstacles. Consumed by a thirst for profit, they were ready to wind around an absurd route, dragging their ships for tens of miles, crashing them on the dangerous Dnieper rapids, and all in order to get from the Baltic to the Black Sea through Kyiv. Then a completely logical question arises: where, in fact, is the existence of a seaport or at least a run-down fortress located at the mouth of the river. Dnieper? After all, it was only with their help that the princes of Kiev could control trade and order along this route. But they just don't exist!
And only in the future representatives Ottoman Empire build a geographically and strategically important fortress Achi-Kale, which blocked access to the Black Sea from the Dnieper. It is for Achi-Kale that the prince will fight for almost a year and a half Potemkin. In 1788, it will be conquered, and from 1792 it will begin to bear the Russian name - Ochakov. A little earlier (in 1778) at the mouth of the river. Dnipro, another large city will appear - Kherson. But it was also founded as a Russian fortress and has nothing to do with the existence of Kievan Rus. As well as the fortress founded in 1784 in the Dnieper-Bug estuary, from which the city of Nikolaev.
But this time too, the precarious position of Kievan Rus " saved by cunning historians". In particular, they literally think out the existence of an ancient Russian port at the mouth of the river. Dnieper. Say, earlier on the site of the small town of Aleshki, which was founded in 1784 and since 1854 has been called Tsyurupinsk, a fairly rich trading port city was erected Oleshye(XI century), which appeared during the existence of the Cossack Sich. At the same time, direct historical evidence of this " miraculous metamorphosis". And all real archaeological finds only prove that at the beginning of the XVIII century. there really was a Cossack fortification, which arose at the end of the 17th century. However, this settlement was called Dneprovsk, and only after a while it was renamed in honor of the fictitious old Russian city of Oleshye. After all, changing toponymy, especially if the need arises, is not difficult for historians!
But let's get back to our "great trade route", which, by all definitions, was supposed to be a tasty morsel of profit for dashing robbers. To protect against them, the princes and their subjects were simply obliged to build well-fortified settlements on the banks of the Dnieper. With inns for the rest of merchants and the necessary infrastructure, over time they had to expand and gradually turn into a fairly big cities. And now the question is: how many such ancient Russian cities are on the banks of the river. Do you know the Dnieper? Small Kanev with a population of only 28,000 people, the village Lyubech, district town Rogachev, Orsha and Smolensk? But this is an insignificant number in terms of its geographical and strategic scale! Especially considering the fact that the Scandinavians called the territory Ancient Russia not otherwise than Gardarika- country of cities. Where are these cities? And this is not to mention the particularly dangerous sections of the "Great Trade Route" - the Dnieper rapids, the overcoming of which meant reliable protection from an external attack by robbers. Such protection could only be guaranteed by fortifications erected along the route "from the Varangians to the Greeks." But where are these fortifications?
Kyiv archeology: few finds, many tales
And now let's try to look at the problem of the existence of Kievan Rus from an economic point of view. According to its postulates, any more or less large trading city is a place where transactions are made and there is a customs fee, i.e. washed And in this case, historians are trying to convince us that Kyiv was just such a place. He " gave the go-ahead” to actively trading merchants following the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks”, and here all the merchants are still with “ Dokiev»times were obliged to pay myt. At the same time, one of the most influential figures in Soviet history, professor and academician Boris Rybakov, in his study City of Kia' writes the following:
The assumption of "customs fees" in the vicinity of the future Kyiv is supported by a large number of finds of beautiful bronze objects decorated with multi-colored champlevé enamel. Brooches, decorative chains, details of drinking horns are found in a compact mass in the space from the mouth of the Desna to Rossi.
What is the academician telling us? It turns out that everywhere the customs demanded the payment of money in money, and the "Dociev" and Kiev customs officers were painfully greedy for works of applied art and, out of their kindness of soul, took duty from merchants not in money, but in various utensils? However, thanks to Academician Rybakov for this! Indeed, unlike the modern "luminaries" of Ukrainian historical science, at least he did not lie and honestly, albeit in a veiled form, he stated: Myt coin was not found near Kiev. On the other hand, household utensils made of bronze are found in abundance. By the way! A similar conclusion was reached by Scandinavian researchers, who also refute " the greatness of the trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks". According to them, the share of Byzantine coins accounts for less than 1% of all finds found on the territory of archaeological complexes. In the same time a large number of discovered silver dirhams indicates a fairly developed trade relations with the Russians who lived in the Volga region.
Summarizing all of the above, the conclusion suggests itself. In essence, Kyiv is more of a regional trade center. He is far from the title of the "world" center of trade relations, and even more so he could not play a significant role in political life ancient Russia. If it were really the capital, then fortifications would undoubtedly form around its center, eventually forming satellite cities that protect its approaches from all sides. For example, around the same Moscow formed Gold ring with well-fortified cities and monasteries. The approaches to St. Petersburg are protected by a large number of forts and an extensive network of suburbs, etc.
Unlike Moscow and St. Petersburg, Kyiv was very, very poorly protected, which is why, at the slightest threat from a potential enemy, it easily passed “from hand to hand” and could not withstand the onslaught. At the same time, on the territory of the city itself, we do not find even a faint resemblance to an impregnable citadel, which befits the status of the capital. There is no hint of the Moscow Kremlin here, or at least of the smaller Pskov or Novgorod structures. And all the known fortifications were erected on the territory of Kyiv much later, at the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th centuries. All this once again emphasizes a certain failure of Kyiv in political, commercial and economic terms. In response to these facts, historians do not cease to repeat one thing: they say that at one time Kyiv suffered greatly from Tatar-Mongol invasion, was looted, burned, destroyed, etc. Then a completely logical question: why was such a “major capital” of Kievan Rus not restored and shone in its greatness to spite the enemies? Why did Moscow, burnt down in 1812 and several times earlier, always rebuild quickly? While "poor, unfortunate" Kyiv was broken, suppressed and vegetated in the shadows almost until the onset of the Soviet era.
Just for reference, some statistics, so to speak, an opportunity to look at the problem from the other side. At the turn of the XVIII - XIX centuries. the population of Kyiv is 188 000 Human. The population of the then very young Odessa was more 193 000 Human. In Kharkov at the moment lives about 198 000 residents. To late XIX in. already lives in Moscow 800 000 people, and Petersburg, together with the suburbs, there are more than 1 350 000 residents. At the same time, the population of Kyiv practically did not increase, and he himself was an insignificant provincial, almost provincial city in Russia and just a railway junction. And the point here is far from “historical injustice”! And the geographical and strategic position of Kyiv. Located far from major trade and economically significant centers, it is unattractive for settlement and continues to be just a province. And along with its vegetation, the southern region and Novorossiya are being actively developed. Even with the advent of Soviet power, the capital of Ukraine is not Kyiv, but Kharkov, where practically no one speaks the Ukrainian language. And only in the post-war period, when in 1947-1954. the architectural ensemble of Khreshchatyk was built, Kyiv acquires a more attractive, solemn look, becomes a more “capital” and beautiful city.
In general, even in the past, Kyiv was never considered as a single settlement. So, at the end of the XVIII century. Three separate settlements were located on the future territory of the modern city: the Kiev-Pechersk fortress with its suburbs, Upper Kyiv was located two versts from it, and Podol lay three versts from them. According to the "Geographical description of the city of Kyiv, composed by the Kiev garrison by lieutenant Vasily Ivanovich Novgorodtsov"
... The Old or Upper City of Kyiv consists of four departments, which are surrounded by an earthen rampart with deliberately deep ditches and are called Andreevsky, Sofia, Mikhailovsky and Pechersk departments... There were 682 particular wooden courtyards.
At that time, in the Kiev-Pechersk fortress, which included the Lavra and the suburbs, Novgorodtsev recorded 2 monasteries, 8 stone and 3 wooden churches. And the auditor who arrived counted 9 state-owned stone and 27 wooden buildings, along with the suburbs, and 1095 particular (civil) courtyards.
Podil was the most populated part of Kyiv. Namely:
In the city of Kiev-Podil there are buildings: monasteries for men: stone - 7, wooden - 2, women's stone - 7; churches: stone - 9, wooden - 77; magistrate's building: stone - 4, wooden - 7; philistine yards: stone - 3, wooden - 1926.
Thus, in all three scattered settlements of Kyiv, there were less than 4,000 yards(houses), three of which were stone. And the total number of inhabitants, according to the census at the time of the reign of Catherine II, did not exceed 20,000 people! In other words, an average regional center. The trading opportunities of the then Kyiv can be judged by the phrase of the same lieutenant:
There are no merchants from the burghers of Kiev, who used to have large capitals, except for three or four, while others have mediocre, better to say, small capital.
In other words, the nature of the trade was very, very mediocre. Then he continues:
Along the Dnieper River in spring and low water, and also in autumn from Great Russian cities: from Bryansk, Trubchevsk, and from Little Russian cities: Novgorodka-Seversky and from other places to Kyiv and to the Little Russian cities of Pereyaslav, Gorodishche, Kremenchug and Perevolochna with bread, with bread wine Barges, or the so-called canoes, sail from Poland in rafts with hemp oil, dyogtem, with ropes, matting, with honey, with ham fat and wooden utensils, and from Poland in rafts, timber and firewood, and other forest supplies are rafted ... Near the city of Podil there is a marina for ships.
In a word, the lieutenant does not report anything interesting and particularly outstanding about the life of the provincial city of Kyiv in his report. The Big Picture" dull provincial chronicle”confirmed by archaeological excavations. Called to discover material values past, they have been actively conducted on the territory of Kyiv since the mid-50s. 20th century During this time, a decent amount of various insignificant trifles was discovered, thanks to which many scientific works were written. And what is the result? - In the end, nothing! Treasures, which are of particular value to archaeologists, are discovered with cherished regularity on the territory of Kyiv, especially in Podil. But the problem is that the Byzantine coins found at the same time have nothing to do with the period of the birth of the “statehood” of Kievan Rus and the formation of its “capital”. And based on the official dating of the discovered coins, only one conclusion can be drawn: silver and gold in the Dnieper expanses were buried by ordinary robbers.
But what about the old Russian coins? Yes, no way either! Period XII-XIII centuries. was officially declared by "historians" to be "coinless". Say, there was no money in that era and, accordingly, it is pointless to look for them. At the same time, some pundits offer their own version of commodity-money relations - the existence of the so-called hryvnia, which in essence were silver ingots.
Silver bars (hryvnias) are, of course, much better than the “coinless” period in general. But then a completely natural question arises: how did ordinary people pay for their purchases in the bazaar? Agree, it’s hard to imagine any layman who came to “sting on the little things” and each of the sellers “chops off” from his bullion little piece silver. Any coin is a simple and at the same time ingenious invention of mankind. After all, all coins are identical to each other - they are equal in weight and composition, which means they have exactly the same purchasing value. As for ingots, then to determine by eye how much silver needs to be "cut off", for example, for a chicken - neither the seller nor the buyer can do this with jewelry accuracy. Therefore, even ordinary common sense suggests that if coins have entered circulation at least once in the history of the people, then they will not go anywhere - this is convenient and greatly simplifies commodity-money relations.
But the problem is that silver and gold coins gradually wear out during their daily use. For example, there was a coin weighing 12 g, and a year later, you see, and it no longer weighs 12 g, but 11 g. What to do in this situation? A man came up with a way out - over time, paper bills were invented that did not lose their weight, and, consequently, their purchasing power either in a year or two. But this happened over time, but for now hryvnias were invented - a kind of 200-gram silver bills.
Thus, hryvnia silver bars are not consumable coins! These are banknotes of a large denomination, intended for payment for wholesale purchases. And most likely they were in circulation not instead of small coins, but along with them. Moreover, they paid only for large transactions, for example, merchants for their wholesale. And ordinary inhabitants still went to the shop or to the market with small coins. In this case, a new question arises: why do historians stubbornly date hryvnias to the XII-XIII centuries? Indeed, even according to the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron, they were in circulation until the 16th century, and there are no visible grounds to tie their existence to the period of Kievan Rus. The answer to this question is not as simple as it might seem at first glance.
A hryvnia is a certain measure of silver. At the same time, completely different coins could be in circulation - dinars, efimki, thalers. They could be silver or gold. The main thing is that they were all converted into a single silver hryvnia weighing 200 g. At the same time, their flow was supposed to flow into a single princely mint, which, according to the "stories" of historians, could only be located in Kyiv, as in the capital of Kievan Rus. And, therefore, it was here that archaeologists had to continually discover a large number of treasures with hryvnias. But where are they, these treasures!? For an answer, we turn to the official historical sources! Yes, the book Ivan Spassky « Russian monetary system' indicates the following:
Only one coin was found in Kyiv [in 1792], and even then not in the ground, but as a pendant to an icon, while all the rest gravitate towards the northwestern edge of the ancient Russian state: one was found in the ground near the ancient Yuryev (Tartu) , the other - on the island of Saarema; there are indications of a find in the St. Petersburg province. Several imitative coins are known originating from Scandinavia. "Yaroslavl silver" and therefore refer to the period of the reign of Yaroslav in Novgorod - at the hand of Vladimir, who occupied the Russian table. Just as the image of Christ was placed on the coins of the early Kiev type described above, here the other side is occupied by the image of the Christian patron of Yaroslav - St. George.
... At the end of the 20s. 19th century a few more coins appeared: two silver coins Vladimir was found in Boryspil in Ukraine, and one each - in the Tsimlyansk settlement (ancient Sarkel - Belaya Vezha) and in Poland - as part of the Lenchitsky treasure.<…>In 1852, the famous Nezhinsky treasure was found - about 200 silver coins.
Thus, these coins can hardly be called "truly Kievan" - they are found anywhere, but not in the coin warehouses-hoards of the capital of Kievan Rus. For example, one of the largest treasures was discovered in 1906 on the territory of Tver. Many coins of the Kiev type were unearthed during excavations of the Gotland treasure in Sweden. At the same time, historians do not provide any evidence that these “treasures” were minted in Kyiv. Conclusion: linking them specifically to Kiev is nothing more than another speculative move by “unfortunate historians”. And only one find on the territory of the Mikhailovsky Monastery could speak in favor of minting truly Kiev coins in Kyiv. But, unfortunately, it was made in 1997, i.e. already in the period Svidomo independence", and could well have been simply falsified. And the proof of this is all the latest "sensational" finds of modern Ukrainian archaeologists. Then they discovered the mass grave of the victims" Baturin massacre", then in a miraculous way the world was revealed" Ukrainian"A variant of the Orlik constitution, although the "moves" in the 18th century. didn't exist yet. In a word, if for propaganda or political purposes it is necessary to discover the sunken Atlantis in the middle of the Kiev reservoir, then Ukrainian archaeologists will easily dig it out there.
But it is known for certain that the so-called Kiev silver coins should be understood as about 340 types of coins with different silver contents. Most likely, their minting was started as soon as the prince's treasury was empty, and after that they were forcibly put into circulation according to the right course, which directly indicates the economic weakness of the principality. But still! What are Kiev treasures and what does their presence indicate? In most cases, these are modest stash of the townsfolk. In essence, these are silver or gold jewelry set aside for a "rainy day": rings, earrings, crosses. As a rule, they are hidden in pots and simply buried in the ground. As for larger treasures, for example, those belonging to the same merchants, in this case, not everything is so transparent and simple. Here is just one of the latest examples. " Treasure from the ruins of the Church of the Tithes» S.I. Klimovsky, an employee of the Institute of Archeology of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, published in the East European Archaeological Journal (No. 5 (6), 2000). This article starts off promisingly:
Among the ancient Russian cities, Kyiv ranks first in terms of the number of treasures found ...
However, this is followed by a description of some mythical finds made as early as the 11th century, and which are known only from the annals of subsequent centuries. Of the reliably made discoveries, the author is the first to mention the treasure discovered " in the choirs of the Assumption Cathedral Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, which was the secret monastic treasury of the XVII-XVIII centuries. and numbering 6184 gold coins ...". Undoubtedly! This treasure is a real treasure for archaeologists and historians, but, unfortunately, it has nothing to do with ancient Kievan Rus. Finally, S.I. Klimovsky provides true information:
In 1955, during excavations on the street. Vladimirskaya, 7-9 in a dwelling of the XIII century. was found near the stove clay pot, which contained gold kolts, earrings, silver twisted and lamellar bracelets, rings. This treasure, hidden during the siege of 1240, on long years became the last ancient Russian treasure discovered in this part of Kyiv. And now, 43 years later, on the opposite side of the street, a new treasure was found, which differs sharply from those known in the area, but is closely connected, like most of them, with the events of December 1240.
Based on this, it is easy to predict the rhetoric of interested historians: all the ancient treasures have long been plundered, and “reliable” rumors about their early existence reach us. At the same time, any sane person can make a completely logical conclusion: all the coin treasures dug on the territory of Kyiv indicate that this ancient city has never been and could not be the capital of the Russian state.
Kyiv was not an administrative, commercial or economic center of Kievan Rus. Otherwise, he would continually delight archaeologists with valuable finds proving his power and the economic prosperity of the ancient state. Why isn't this happening? Here the answer is already extremely simple! because Kievan Rus with the capital Kyiv is nothing more than an invention of historians interested in this.
———————————————-
According to the book Alexey Kungurov
« There was no Kievan Rus, or what historians hide»
1. Formation of the Old Russian state - Kievan Rus
The state of Kievan Rus was created at the end of the 9th century.
The emergence of the state among the Eastern Slavs is reported by the chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years" (XIIin.). It tells that the Slavs paid tribute to the Varangians. Then the Varangians were expelled across the sea and the question arose: who would rule in Novgorod? None of the tribes wanted to establish the power of a representative of a neighboring tribe. Then they decided to invite a stranger and turned to the Varangians. Three brothers responded to the invitation: Rurik, Truvor and Sineus. Rurik began to reign in Novgorod, Sineus on Beloozero, and Truvor - in the city of Izborsk. Two years later, Sineus and Truvor died, and all power passed to Rurik. Two of Rurik's squad, Askold and Dir, went south and began to reign in Kyiv. They killed Kiy, Shchek, Khoriv and their sister Lybid who ruled there. Rurik died in 879. His relative Oleg began to rule, since the son of Rurik, Igor, was still a minor. After 3 years (in 882), Oleg and his retinue seize power in Kyiv. Thus, under the rule of one prince, Kyiv and Novgorod were united. This is what the chronicle says. Were there really two brothers - Sineus and Truvor? Today, historians believe that they were not. "Rurik blue hus truvor" means, translated from the ancient Swedish language, "Rurik with a house and a squad." The chronicler took incomprehensibly sounding words for personal names, and wrote that Rurik arrived with two brothers.
Exist two theories of the origin of the ancient Russian state: Norman and anti-Norman. Both of these theories appeared in the XYIII century, 900 years after the formation of Kievan Rus. The fact is that Peter I - from the Romanov dynasty, was very interested in where the previous dynasty appeared - the Rurikovich, who created the state of Kievan Rus and where this name came from. Peter I signed a decree establishing the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg. German scientists were invited to work at the Academy of Sciences.
Norman theory . Its founders are the German scientists Bayer, Miller, Schlozer, invited under Peter I to work at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. They confirmed the calling of the Varangians and made the assumption that the name of the Russian Empire was of Scandinavian origin, and that the state of Kievan Rus itself was created by the Varangians. “Rus” is translated from Old Swedish as the verb “to row”, the Rus are rowers. Perhaps "Rus" is the name of the Varangian tribe from which Rurik came. At first, the Varangians-druzhinniks were called Rus, and then this word gradually passed to the Slavs.
The calling of the Varangians was confirmed at a later time by the data of archaeological excavations of burial mounds near Yaroslavl, near Smolensk. Scandinavian burials in the boat were found there. Many Scandinavian items were obviously made by local Slavic craftsmen. This means that the Varangians lived among the locals.
But German scientists exaggerated the role of the Varangians in the formation of the ancient Russian state. As a result, these scientists agreed to such an extent that, allegedly, the Varangians are immigrants from the West, which means that it is they - the Germans - who created the state of Kievan Rus.
Anti-Norman theory. She also appeared in the XYIII century, under the daughter of Peter I - Elizabeth Petrovna. She did not like the statement of German scientists that the Russian state was created by immigrants from the West. In addition, she had a 7-year war with Prussia. She asked Lomonosov to look into this matter. Lomonosov M.V. did not deny the existence of Rurik, but began to deny his Scandinavian origin.
Anti-Norman theory intensified in the 30s of the twentieth century. When the Nazis came to power in Germany in 1933, they tried to prove the inferiority of the Eastern Slavs (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Poles, Czechs, Slovaks), that they were not able to create states, that the Varangians were Germans. Stalin gave the task of refuting the Norman theory. This is how the theory appeared, according to which, to the south of Kyiv, on the Ros River, the Ros (Rossy) tribe lived. The Ros River flows into the Dnieper and it is from here that the name of Rus comes from, since the Russians allegedly occupied a leading place among the Slavic tribes. The possibility of the Scandinavian origin of the name of Russia was completely rejected. The anti-Norman theory tries to prove that the state of Kievan Rus was created by the Slavs themselves. This theory penetrated into textbooks on the history of the USSR, and was prevailing there until the end of "perestroika".
The state appears there and then, when opposing, mutually hostile interests, classes appear in society. The state regulates relations between people, relying on armed force. The Varangians were invited to reign, therefore, this form of power (reigning) was already known to the Slavs. It was not the Varangians who brought property inequality to Russia, the division of society into classes. The Old Russian state - Kievan Rus - arose as a result of a long, independent development of Slavic society, not thanks to the Varangians, but with their active participation. The Varangians themselves quickly became Slavic, they did not impose their own language. The son of Igor, the grandson of Rurik, already bore the Slavic name - Svyatoslav. Today, some historians believe that the name of the Russian Empire of Scandinavian origin and the princely dynasty begins with Rurik, and was called the Rurikovichi.
The ancient Russian state was called Kievan Rus.
2 . Socio-economic and political system of Kievan Rus
Kievan Rus was an early feudal state. It existed from the end of the 9th to the beginning of the 12th century (about 250 years).
The head of state was the Grand Duke. He was the supreme commander, judge, legislator, recipient of tribute. Conducted foreign policy, declared war, made peace. Appointed officials. The power of the Grand Duke was limited to:
Council under the prince, which included the military nobility, the elders of the cities, the clergy (since 988)
Veche - a popular assembly in which all free people could take part. Veche could discuss and resolve any issue that interested him.
Specific princes - local tribal nobility.
The first rulers of Kievan Rus were: Oleg (882-912), Igor (913-945), Olga - Igor's wife (945-964).
The unification of all East Slavic and part of the Finnish tribes under the rule of the great Kiev prince.
The acquisition of overseas markets for Russian trade and the protection of trade routes that led to these markets.
Protection of the borders of the Russian land from the attacks of the steppe nomads (Khazars, Pechenegs, Polovtsy).
The most important source of income for the prince and the squad was the tribute paid by the conquered tribes. Olga streamlined the collection of tribute and set its size.
The son of Igor and Olga - Prince Svyatoslav (964-972) made trips to the Danube Bulgaria and Byzantium, and also defeated the Khazar Khaganate.
Under the son of Svyatoslav - Vladimir the Holy (980-1015) in 988, Christianity was adopted in Russia.
Socio-economic structure:
The main branch of the economy is arable farming and cattle breeding. Additional industries: fishing, hunting. Russia was a country of cities (more than 300) - in the XII century.
Kievan Rus reached its peak under Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054). He intermarried and made friends with the most prominent states of Europe. In 1036, he defeated the Pechenegs near Kiev and ensured the security of the eastern and southern borders of the state for a long time. In the Baltic states, he founded the city of Yuryev (Tartu) and established the position of Russia there. Under him, writing and literacy spread in Russia, schools were opened for the children of the boyars. graduate School located in the Kiev-Pechersk monastery. The largest library was in St. Sophia Cathedral, also built under Yaroslav the Wise.
Under Yaroslav the Wise appeared the first set of laws in Russia - "Russian Truth", which operated during the XI-XIII centuries. 3 editions of Russkaya Pravda are known:
1. Brief truth of Yaroslav the Wise
2. Spacious (grandchildren of Yar. the Wise - Vl. Monomakh)
3. abbreviated
Russkaya Pravda consolidated the feudal property that was taking shape in Russia, established harsh penalties for attempts to encroach on it, and defended the lives and privileges of members of the ruling class. According to Russkaya Pravda, one can trace the contradictions in society and the class struggle. Russkaya Pravda by Yaroslav the Wise allowed blood feuds, but the article on blood feuds was limited to defining the exact circle of close relatives who have the right to take revenge: father, son, brother, cousin, nephew. Thus, the end of the endless chain of murders that exterminate entire families was set.
In Pravda Yaroslavichi (with the children of Yar. the Wise), blood feud is already prohibited, and instead a fine for murder has been introduced, depending on the social status of the murdered, from 5 to 80 hryvnias.
Conditional date of foundation of Kyiv - 482 AD., although there is no reliable scientific data on this. According to legend, the founders of Kyiv and, possibly, its first princes were Kiy, Shchek and Khoriv. According to some assumptions, in the 6th-7th centuries, Kyiv became the center of the glades - a tribe that arose in the foothills of the Carpathians.
In the 9th century Kyiv was ruled Varangian princes Askold and Dir, who in 860 and 866 made campaigns in Constantinople, documented in the Byzantine annals. The first campaign was successful and the Russians captured rich booty, but during the second one, a flotilla of 200 ships perished in a storm, the remnants of the squad returned to Kyiv.
In 882, he seized power in Kyiv Prince of Novgorod Oleg from the Rurik dynasty, nicknamed the Prophet, who treacherously killed Askold and Dir. This year is traditionally considered the date of foundation of the state of Russia - Kievan Rus. Under Oleg, Kyiv received the status of a capital and became the political, religious and cultural center of Russia throughout the existence of this state. Until the end of the 9th century, the Slavic tribes united under the rule of the Kiev prince and the formation of Kievan Rus as an ancient Slavic feudal state.
In 902, Prince Oleg made a campaign against Constantinople, in which he won and in 911 an agreement was signed, according to which the Byzantines paid tribute to Kiev and pledged to establish trade relations with it.
After the death of Prince Oleg in 912, Prince Igor occupied the princely throne, but in 945 he was killed by a tribe of the Drevlyans who did not agree to an increase in tribute, and his wife Olga, who ruled Kievan Rus until 969, took the throne. In 955, Princess Olga traveled to Constantinople, where she was received with honor by Emperor Constantine VII and Patriarch Theophylact.
According to Byzantine chronicles, Olga converted to Christianity under the name Helena in honor of the Holy Equal-to-the-Apostles Queen Helena.
In 965, Prince Svyatoslav, the son of Igor and Olga, made a military campaign against the Khazars, as a result of which the Khazar Khaganate
In 970, Svyatoslav determined the destinies for his sons, according to which Kyiv received Yaropolk, Oleg - the Drevlyansk land, and Vladimir - Novgorod.
After the death of Svyatoslav in a skirmish with the Pechenegs in 972, an internecine war of his children began, as a result of which Oleg died in 977, and Vladimir fled from Kyiv to Novgorod. However, in 980, Vladimir took the throne of Kyiv, having killed his brother Yaropolk. The reign in Kyiv of Vladimir I Svyatoslavovich, later nicknamed the Great (in the epics Vladimir Krasno Solnyshko) continued until 1015.
The Kyiv prince Vladimir the Great in 988 accepts Christianity in Chersonese, baptized 12 of his sons, and then the people of Kiev, declaring Christianity the state religion.
During the reign in Kyiv of Yaroslav Vladimirovich (1019-1054), later nicknamed the Wise, Kievan Rus flourished, which reached the peak of its power as a feudal state. Yaroslav the Wise approved the first annalistic code of laws of Russia - "Russian Truth".
After the death of Yaroslav the Wise, the Kiev principality went to his son Vsevolod, after whose death in 1093 Svyatopolk became the prince of Kiev, who died in 1113.
In 1113 the throne of Kyiv took Vladimir Monomakh, son of Vsevolod and Anna, daughter of the Byzantine emperor Constantine Monomakh. He continued the policy of his grandfather Yaroslav the Wise, trying to subjugate other princes to his influence. During his reign, the Kyiv state becomes the largest state in Europe in terms of territory, whose lands stretched from the Baltic Sea to Taman.
He occupied the throne of Kyiv in 1125 Mstislav the Great, the son of Vladimir Monomakh, continued campaigns against the Polovtsy, pushing them back beyond the Don and Volga and securing the northwestern borders of Kievan Rus, undertook campaigns against the Chud and Lithuanians.
However, in 1155 the throne of Kyiv took Yury Dolgoruky, who fought for him for several years with his nephew Izyaslav, which led to a further weakening of Kyiv.
In 1169, Andrei Bogolyubsky conquered Kyiv and secured his sole rule, but moved the capital of Russia to Vladimir. Kyiv was plundered by his troops and ceased to be the center and capital.
After the invasion of the Tatar-Mongol on the southern Russian lands and the complete ruin of Kyiv, the ancient state of Kievan Rus, breaks up into independent principalities - Kiev principality, Pereyaslav principality, Chernigov principality, Galicia-Volyn principality, Vladimir-Suzdal principality, Ryazan principality, Polotsk principality, Novgorod land and others.
In the 11th century, the steppes of present-day Ukraine were settled by the Polovtsy, and in the 13th century there was an outflow of the population of the former Kievan Rus to the east, where settlers founded new cities (Zvenigorod, Vyshgorod, Galich, etc.)
In 1299, the Kyiv metropolitan moved to Vladimir on the Klyazma, and from 1354 the territory of the dioceses under the rule of the Kiev metropolitan began to be called Makra Rosia - Great Russia, and from the 15th century this name passed to the Muscovite state, which was called Muscovy.
In 1303 Created Galician Metropolis, which covered six dioceses, which, according to the Byzantine chronicle, in 1395 was named Mikra Rosia - - Little Russia (Little Russia) as opposed to Great Russia.
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They unite in a powerful union, which will later be called Kievan Rus. The ancient state embraced the vast territories of the central and southern parts of Europe, united completely different culturally peoples.
Name
The question of the history of the emergence of Russian statehood has been causing a lot of controversy among historians and archaeologists for decades. For a very long time, the manuscript "The Tale of Bygone Years", one of the main documented sources of information about this period, was considered a falsification, and therefore the data on when and how Kievan Rus appeared were called into question. The formation of a single center among the Eastern Slavs is presumably dated to the eleventh century.
The state of the Russians received the usual name for us only in the 20th century, when the textbook studies of Soviet scientists were published. They specified that this concept does not include a separate region of modern Ukraine, but the entire empire of the Rurikids, located on a vast territory. The Old Russian state is called conditionally, for a more convenient distinction between the periods before the Mongol invasion and after.
Prerequisites for the emergence of statehood
In the era of the early Middle Ages, almost throughout Europe, there was a tendency to unite disparate tribes and principalities. This was due to the aggressive campaigns of some king or knight, as well as the creation of alliances of wealthy families. The prerequisites for the formation of Kievan Rus were different and had their own specifics.
By the end of the IX, several large tribes, such as the Krivichi, Polyany, Drevlyans, Dregovichi, Vyatichi, Northerners, Radimichi, gradually united into one principality. The main reasons for this process were the following factors:
- All unions rallied to confront common enemies - the steppe nomads, who often made devastating raids on cities and villages.
- And also these tribes were united by a common geographical location, they all lived near the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks."
- The first princes of Kiev known to us - Askold, Dir, and later Oleg, Vladimir and Yaroslav made aggressive campaigns in the North and South-East of Europe in order to establish their rule and impose tribute on the local population.
Thus, the formation of Kievan Rus gradually took place. It is difficult to talk briefly about this period, many events and bloody battles preceded the final consolidation of power in one center, under the leadership of the all-powerful prince. From the very beginning, the Russian state was formed as a multi-ethnic one, the peoples differed in terms of beliefs, way of life and culture.
"Norman" and "anti-Norman" theory
In historiography, the question of who and how created the state called Kievan Rus has not yet been finally resolved. For many decades, the formation of a single center among the Slavs was associated with the arrival of leaders from outside - the Varangians or Normans, whom the locals themselves called on these lands.
The theory has many shortcomings, the main reliable source of its confirmation is the mention of a certain legend of the chroniclers of the Tale of Bygone Years about the arrival of princes from the Varangians and the establishment of statehood by them, there is still no archaeological or historical evidence. This interpretation was adhered to by the German scientists G. Miller and I. Bayer.
The theory of the formation of Kievan Rus by foreign princes was disputed by M. Lomonosov, he and his followers believed that statehood in this territory arose through the gradual establishment of the power of one center over others, and was not introduced from outside. Until now, scientists have not come to a consensus, and this issue has long been politicized and is used as a lever of pressure on the perception of Russian history.
First princes
Whatever disagreements exist regarding the question of the origin of statehood, official history speaks of the arrival of three brothers in the Slavic lands - Sinius, Truvor and Rurik. The first two soon died, and Rurik became the sole ruler of the then large cities of Ladoga, Izborsk and Beloozero. After his death, his son Igor, due to his infancy, could not take control, so Prince Oleg became regent under the heir.
It is with his name that the formation of the eastern state of Kievan Rus is associated, at the end of the ninth century he made a trip to the capital city and declared these lands "the cradle of the Russian land." Oleg showed himself not only as a strong leader and a great conqueror, but also as a good manager. In each city, he created a special system of subordination, legal proceedings and rules for collecting taxes.
Several destructive campaigns against the Greek lands, which were made by Oleg and his predecessor Igor, helped to strengthen the authority of Russia as a strong and independent state, and also led to the establishment of a wider and more profitable trade with Byzantium.
Prince Vladimir
Igor's son Svyatoslav continued aggressive campaigns to remote territories, annexed the Crimea, the Taman Peninsula to his possessions, returned the cities previously conquered by the Khazars. However, the management of such economically and culturally diverse territories was very difficult to carry out from Kyiv. Therefore, Svyatoslav carried out an important administrative reform, placing his sons in charge of all major cities.
The education and development of Kievan Rus was successfully continued by his illegitimate son Vladimir, this man became an outstanding figure. national history, it was during his reign that the Russian statehood was finally formed, and also a new religion was adopted - Christianity. He continued the consolidation of all the lands under his control, removing the sole rulers and appointing his sons as princes.
Rise of the State
Vladimir is often called the first Russian reformer, during his reign he created a clear system of administrative division and subordination, and also established a single rule for collecting taxes. In addition, he reorganized the judiciary, now the governors in each region made the law on his behalf. In the first period of his reign, Vladimir devoted much effort to fighting the raids of the steppe nomads and strengthening the country's borders.
It was during his reign that Kievan Rus was finally formed. The formation of a new state is impossible without the establishment of a single religion and worldview among the people, so Vladimir, being a smart strategist, decides to convert to Orthodoxy. Thanks to rapprochement with the strong and enlightened Byzantium, the state very soon becomes the cultural center of Europe. Thanks to Christian faith the authority of the head of the country is strengthened, as well as schools are opened, monasteries are built and books are printed.
internecine wars, disintegration
Initially, the system of government in Russia was formed on the basis of tribal traditions of inheritance - from father to son. Under Vladimir, and then Yaroslav, such a custom played a key role in uniting disparate lands, the prince appointed his sons as governors in different cities, thereby maintaining a single government. But already in the 17th century, the grandchildren of Vladimir Monomakh were mired in internecine wars among themselves.
The centralized state, created with such zeal over the course of two hundred years, soon broke up into many specific principalities. The absence of a strong leader and harmony between the children of Mstislav Vladimirovich led to the fact that the once powerful country was completely unprotected against the forces of the devastating hordes of Batu.
Way of life
By the time of the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars in Russia, there were about three hundred cities, although the majority of the population lived in countryside where they cultivated the land and raised livestock. The formation of the state of the Eastern Slavs of Kievan Rus contributed to the mass construction and strengthening of settlements, part of the taxes went both to create infrastructure and to build powerful defensive systems. To establish Christianity among the population, churches and monasteries were built in every city.
The class division in Kievan Rus took shape over a long period of time. One of the first is a group of leaders, usually it consisted of representatives of a separate family, social inequality between the leaders and the rest of the population was striking. Gradually, the future feudal nobility is formed from the princely squad. Despite the active slave trade with Byzantium, others Eastern countries, there were not so many slaves in Ancient Russia. Among the subject people, historians single out smerds, who obey the will of the prince, and serfs, who have practically no rights.
Economy
The formation of the monetary system in Ancient Russia takes place in the first half of the 9th century and is associated with the beginning of active trade with the major states of Europe and the East. For a long time, coins minted in the centers of the Caliphate or in Western Europe were used on the territory of the country; the Slavic princes had neither the experience nor the necessary raw materials to make their own banknotes.
The formation of the state of Kievan Rus became possible largely due to the establishment of economic ties with Germany, Byzantium, and Poland. Russian princes have always prioritized protecting the interests of merchants abroad. The traditional goods of trade in Russia were furs, honey, wax, linen, silver, jewelry, locks, weapons and much more. The message took place along the famous route "from the Varangians to the Greeks", when the ships rose along the Dnieper River to the Black Sea, as well as along the Volga route through Ladoga to the Caspian Sea.
Meaning
The social and cultural processes that took place during the formation and flourishing of Kievan Rus became the basis for the formation of the Russian nationality. With the adoption of Christianity, the country changed its appearance forever, for the next centuries Orthodoxy will become a unifying factor for all peoples living in this territory, despite the fact that pagan customs and rituals of our ancestors still remain in the culture and way of life.
A huge influence on Russian literature and the worldview of people was exerted by folklore, for which Kievan Rus was famous. The formation of a single center contributed to the emergence of common legends and fairy tales glorifying the great princes and their exploits.
With the adoption of Christianity in Russia, the widespread construction of monumental stone structures begins. Some architectural monuments have survived to this day, for example, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, which dates back to the 19th century. Of no less historical value are examples of paintings by ancient masters, which remained in the form of frescoes and mosaics in Orthodox churches and churches.
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