Topics 4-5. Anatomical, physiological, psychological and social characteristics of a person in different age periods.

1. EDUCATIONAL OUTCOMES OF THE LESSON (purpose of the lesson):

During the course, the student must:

know: the concept of "age", "chronological", "biological" age, definitions of growth, development, patterns of growth and development in the age aspect, age periodization

analyze and evaluate: anatomical, physiological, psychological, social characteristics of a person in different age periods.

In the course of independent work, the student should pay attention to: on the features of the formation of body systems in different age periods

2. MATERIAL FOR SELF-EDUCATION:

Questions for self-preparation:

1. Define the terms "age", "biological age", "chronological age".

2. Tell us about the periods of ontogenesis, reflecting the stages of growth and development. Tell the age periodization.

3. Explain the concepts of "growth" and "development". What is their relationship?

4. What is meant by a "critical period of development"? Give examples of critical periods.

5. What are the main patterns of growth and development of children do you know?

6. What does physical development include?

7. What is meant by the concepts of "acceleration" and "retardation"?

8. What is included in the concept of psycho-emotional and social development?

9. What is included in the concept of cognitive development?

10. Describe the physical, psycho-emotional, social and cognitive development in different periods of human growth and development.

11. Name the main age features of the organism in different periods of human ontogenesis.

General concepts about age and age periods human life

The development of the human body occurs continuously, throughout life. In the process of individual development of a person, a number of periods can be distinguished, each of which has its own characteristic features. The duration of each of these periods is determined biological features organism of this species, and also largely depends on the action of social and environmental factors.

The concept of "period of life" of a person is closely related to the concept of "age".

Under age accepted to understand:

1) the period of time from the birth of the organism to the present or any other moment;

2) the biological evolution of the organism, i.e. characteristic of his life, reflecting the moment of birth, growth, development, maturation and aging.

There are chronological (passport, calendar) and biological (anatomical and physiological) age.

Chronological age - this is the period from birth to the moment of its calculation, i.e. the difference between the date of the study and the date of birth.

biological age - a set of features that characterize the biological state of the organism, the level of its viability and general health.

Chronological age has clear boundaries in time - hour, day, month, year. In this case, the biological characteristics of this particular organism are not taken into account.

Biological age is determined by the totality of metabolic, anatomical, functional, regulatory, psychological characteristics, adaptive capabilities of the body. It also represents certain periods of time, but unlike the calendar time intervals of biological age, during which irreversible age-related changes occur, are less clearly limited. It is these time intervals that are used as criteria for the age periodization of human life, since many indicators of the functional development of the body, its systems correlate primarily with biological age and, to a lesser extent, with calendar age.

Biological age may not correspond to chronological.

In some pathological conditions (for example, with progeria), the biological age is ahead of the calendar, and in some others it lags behind it (for example, with infantilism). The discrepancy between the terms of chronological and biological age also depends on the constitutional and racial characteristics of the organism, the state of human health, regional differences associated with climatic conditions, the regimen and nature of nutrition, etc.

The allocation of age periods is rather arbitrary, and the idea of ​​age periods is relative, but for practical purposes such a division is necessary. The criteria by which certain stages of life, certain age periods of a person are determined, their duration depend on a number of factors: the biological characteristics of the organism, social factors (environmental conditions, living standards), the level of scientific knowledge and the state of health.

Age periods- these are certain periods, time intervals that are necessary to complete a certain stage of the morphological and functional development of individual tissues, organs, systems of the body and the whole organism as a whole.

During ontogenesis, three main periods can be distinguished:

The period of growth and development, the formation of functional systems, lasting until the age of morphological, sexual, psychological maturity;

The period of relative stability, maturity of the functional systems of the body;

The period of extinction, weakening and destruction of functional systems during the aging of the body, which occurs after the cessation of reproductive function.

The boundaries between certain age periods can not always be clearly established.

The division into age periods is most detailed for childhood, since the period of childhood is characterized by a continuous process of growth and development, when the organs and functional systems of the child change in accordance with known age limits.

In childhood, 2 stages and 6 periods of development are distinguished:

A. Intrauterine stage:

a) phase of embryonic development (up to 2-3 months)

b) phase of placental (fetal) development (from 3 months to birth)

B. Extrauterine stage:

1) neonatal period (neonatal) (first 4 weeks of life);

2) the period of infancy - infantile (1 month - 12 months);

3) pre-preschool, or the period of early childhood (from 1 year to 3 years);

4) preschool period (from 3 to 6-7 years old);

5) junior school period (from 7-8 to 10-11 years old);

6) senior school, or adolescence, period (from 11-12 to 16-18 years).

The most significant changes in the body children occur in the first year of life, when literally every month is accompanied by qualitatively new, very tangible shifts in development, which make it possible to very accurately and reliably identify these small stages of a child's life. Such a detailed and precise distinction cannot be made in any other age period.

In life adult a person can also be identified certain stages, or age periods. However, the classification of these periods and their time limits may change, which is associated with the development of scientific knowledge in the field of age-related physiology and human biology.

Currently there are the following periods in the life of an adult:

1) adolescence (from 16 to 20 years for women, from 17 to 21 years for men);

2) mature age (from 20 to 55 years for women, from 21 to 60 years for men)

a) I sub-period - from 20 to 35 years for women, from 21 to 35 years for men

b) II sub-period from 35 to 55 years for women, from 35 to 60 years for men

On the border of mature and old age, due to the importance of the processes occurring in the body, a special age interval is distinguished - the menopause (from 45 to 60 years for women, from 50 to 60 years for men);

3) old age (from 55 to 75 years for women, from 60 to 75 years for men);

4) senile age (from 75 to 90 years);

5) late senile, or macrobiotic, age (after 90 years; such people are called centenarians).

The age boundaries of these periods are rather arbitrary, especially for the older ones. age groups. There is no generally accepted definition of old age in the world.

Typically, retirement age is taken as the basis, but in different countries it is not the same, it is different for men and women, for different professional groups. In addition, with an increase in life expectancy, improvement of living conditions, it can change.

The allocation of stages of human life is due to various anatomical, physiological, psychological, social characteristics, differences in some needs, as well as ways to satisfy them. Therefore, the periodization of a person's life is important for developing recommendations for adequate lifestyles, nutrition, disease prevention, etc.

In each age period, it is possible to single out especially significant turning points or critical phases when the genetic program of development changes and the sensitivity of the organism to the effects of adverse environmental factors sharply increases. Critical periods are characterized by more significant physiological, psychological and morphological changes that require special attention in the formation of health in these periods of ontogenesis.

For example, the critical period of development is the age of the beginning of learning, when qualitative changes in the morphofunctional maturation of basic brain processes occur during a period of sharp changes in social conditions.

The critical periods include, first of all, the neonatal period, the period of puberty (puberty), menopause and the period of aging.

There are such critical periods in adulthood, and they are associated both with the physiological and, to a greater extent, with the psychological and social characteristics of a particular period of life.

Critical phases of growth and development of children were developed by Yu.E. Veltishchev. For a practitioner, the following critical periods are most important:

· 3-4 months of life - immunological and metabolic stress when trying to turn on their own defense systems (mother's protection or "passive immunity" falls, restructuring of phosphorus-calcium metabolism);

· from 12 to 24 months of age - a critical period associated with a vertical position, activation of developmental opportunities, but against the background of a change in the position of organs, a minimum level of immune protection, leading to frequent morbidity and sensitization;

· critical period of 2-4 years is associated with a change in the leading position of thyroid hormones that cause growth and development in early childhood to an increase in the role of ACTH and glucocorticoids, which is characterized by a powerful membrane-protective effect, a decrease in vascular permeability, a decrease in acute morbidity, a rapid intellectual leap, but also the ability to quickly form a chronic pathology.

· pre- and pubertal - occurs during this period maximum voltage all systems, all protective and adaptive mechanisms, all body functions.

Growth and development

Such concepts as "growth" and "development" are closely related to the concepts of "age period", "biological age". At each stage of the age biography there are specific features that reflect the stages of growth and the degree of development of the organism.

Growth and development of a person is a continuous process that takes place throughout his life, in which simple quantitative changes lead to fundamental qualitative changes. The processes of growth and development are interconnected and interdependent.

Growth- this quantitative changes associated with an increase in the number and / or size of cells, the size and mass of organs, tissues, the whole organism as a whole.

Development implies quality changes - morphological differentiation of tissues and organs, their functional improvement, the emergence of new knowledge, skills, or their disappearance, fading over time, i.e. development can go along two lines - ascending (progress) and descending (regression). In addition, two forms of development are distinguished: evolutionary and revolutionary, spasmodic.

The development of a person continues throughout his life, starting from the moment of the formation of a zygote and ending with death; growth (an increase in length and an increase in body weight) ends at the end of adolescence, although cellular and tissue growth occurs (for example, the growth of nails and hair continues even for some time after the biological death of the organism).

The processes of growth and development are interrelated, which is manifested in the fact that certain stages of development can occur only when certain body sizes are reached. So, puberty in girls can only occur when body weight reaches a certain value (for representatives of the European race, this is about 48 kg).

In cases where growth processes are simultaneously observed in many different tissues of the body, one speaks of the phenomenon of the so-called "growth spurts". First of all, this is manifested in a sharp increase in the longitudinal dimensions of the body due to an increase in the length of the trunk and limbs.

In the postnatal ontogenesis of a person, the following are distinguished: "growth spurts"

In the first year of life (1.5-fold increase in length and 3-4-fold increase in body weight per year, growth is mainly due to lengthening of the body);

At the age of 5 - 6 years (the so-called "half-height jump", as a result of which the child reaches approximately 70% of the body length of an adult (growth is mainly due to elongation of the limbs);

At 13-15 years old (pubertal growth spurt due to both lengthening of the trunk and lengthening of the limbs).

As a result of each growth spurt, body proportions change significantly, more and more approaching adults. In addition, quantitative changes are accompanied by qualitative changes in the functioning of organs and systems.

The processes of growth and development have a number of patterns, which include:

genetic predetermination;

staging;

Certain morphofunctional changes characteristic of each period of a person's life.

The main regularity of the ratio of growth and development is their mismatch in time or space, i.e. they do not occur simultaneously: first, quantitative changes are observed, leading then to qualitative ones.

This explains the jumps in growth in certain age periods, the discrepancy between the terms of physical and psychosocial development (especially pronounced in adolescence), the decrease in individual body functions in certain periods of life.

The degree and speed of changes that occur to a person are not the same in different periods of his life: the younger the body, the more intense the processes of positive development are, with age they slow down significantly.

So, the most significant growth rates are in early childhood, when there is a significant increase in the main morphological indicators (body length by the end of the first year of life increases by 47-50%, in the second year - by 13-15%, in the third - by 9-10%). % in relation to the previous one; in the future, the rate of increase in body length steadily decreases).

In childhood, growth and development occur in an ascending line, in the form of progress; in adulthood, these processes are somewhat stabilized, and in the elderly and senile, they go into regression, i.e. development is downward.

There are the following the main patterns of growth and development of the child:

1. Slowing down the growth rate with age (increase for the first year is 47-50%, for the second - 13-15%, for the third - 9-10%).

2. Uneven growth rates: the first growth leap - from 0 to 1 year of life; half-growth jump at 5–7 years, the second growth jump - in the prepubertal period (Fig. 1).

3. Systemogenesis.

4. Reliability of the biological system (duplication and interchangeability of the cellular composition of the system.

5. Cranio-caudal growth gradient (distal segments grow faster than proximal ones (after birth)).

6. Alternating directions in growth (periods of elongation and rounding).

7. Gender specificity of growth (crosses of height and weight in boys and girls).

8. Asymmetry of growth.

a brief description of anatomical, physiological, psychological and social characteristics of a person in different age periods (Volkov S.R., Volkova M.M., 2005)

In the period prenatal development several sub-periods can be distinguished (actually germinal - from the moment of fertilization of the egg to implantation in the uterine mucosa; implantation sub-period - lasts about 2 days; actually embryonic - lasts 5-6 weeks; embryofetal - lasts 2 weeks, when the placenta is formed; fetal, or placental , - lasts from 9 weeks to the moment of birth). However, for practical purposes, it is convenient to divide into two main stages: the period of embryonic development and the period of placental development (fetal).

Fig.2. Critical terms for the development of possible malformations by organ systems

The most important from a biomedical point of view is the first of them (Fig. 2.). It is during this period that the laying, formation and differentiation of organs, tissues and systems take place, the highest rates of their development are observed. At this stage, the embryo turns into a fetus with organs and systems characteristic of the early period of human development. Therefore, the impact of adverse factors, both external and internal, can cause damage to developing tissues and lead to gross anatomical and dysplastic malformations or even death of the embryo and spontaneous abortion.

During the period of placental development, there is an intensive development of tissues and organs, an increase in the mass and length of the fetal body. There is preparation for extrauterine existence.

The first stage, from which the extrauterine life of a person actually begins, is childhood. In turn, the period of childhood should be recognized as the most important from a medical and social point of view. newborns. This period can also be divided into two - early and late.

Early sub-period of newborn early neonatal ) is the period from the moment of ligation of the umbilical cord until the end of the 7th day of life. It is characterized by the processes of adaptation of the organism to extrauterine existence. The most physiologically significant changes occur in the respiratory system and the circulatory system - the lungs begin to function (the beginning of pulmonary respiration) and the pulmonary circulation, while hemodynamic pathways of the prenatal period are blocked and blood flow in the vessels of the lungs and brain increases. In the same hours and days, energy metabolism and thermoregulation are rebuilt, enteral nutrition of the child begins. It should not be forgotten that all the organs and systems of a newborn child are underdeveloped, and the least mature and least differentiated is the nervous system. Due to the immaturity of the cerebral cortex, any stimuli entering the central nervous system (CNS) cause its prolonged inhibition, which explains the almost constant sleep of the newborn, interrupted only during feeding. The non-differentiation of the cerebral cortex is also due to the fact that a child is born only with unconditioned reflexes (sucking, swallowing, searching, palmar-oral, etc.). At this time, the child is completely helpless.

late neonatal the period lasting from the 7th to the 28th day of life is largely characterized by the intensive development of analyzers, primarily visual, the beginning of coordination of movements, the formation of conditioned reflexes, the emergence and establishment of emotional, visual, tactile contact with the mother, the appearance of a smile and facial expressions joy in response to communication, which can be considered the beginning of the actual mental life of the child.

A distinctive feature of the neonatal period is the maximum intensity of all metabolic processes. Thus, the value of basal metabolism per 1 kg of body weight in a newborn is almost twice as high as in adults. Such important physiological acts as respiration, blood circulation, excretion also occur intensively (the number of respiratory movements reaches 45 per 1 min, the heart rate - up to 160 per 1 min). Plastic processes are also actively proceeding, body weight is rapidly increasing, which is ensured by significant functional stress. digestive systems s. In this case, it is necessary to take into account the low enzymatic activity of the gastrointestinal tract.

The neonatal period is characterized by the resistance of the child's body to many infections (scarlet fever, measles, rubella, diphtheria, etc.), which is associated with passive immunity received from the mother during fetal development or as a result of feeding breast milk. The own immune system is poorly developed, therefore, there is an increased sensitivity to pathogenic microorganisms.

The newborn also has an imperfect neuroendocrine and renal regulation of water-salt metabolism, which determines the tendency to dehydration. As you know, water plays an extremely important role in life processes (metabolism, thermoregulation, maintaining a constant internal environment, etc.). The body of a newborn contains approximately 1.5 times more water relative to body weight than the body of an adult. Over time, with growth and development throughout life, the body becomes depleted of water, especially intensive in the first 6 months of life.

Other organs and systems of the body of a newborn are also imperfect, all the main functions of which are in a state of unstable balance, and any adverse effect can provoke the development of a pathological process. It is during this period that some borderline conditions can be observed (erythema of the newborn, physiological jaundice, sexual crisis, transient fever, etc.), which are on the border of the norm and pathology and which never recur, but when exposed to negative factors, they can turn into a pathological process. .

After the neonatal period comes the period infancy, which conventionally begins on the 29th day of life and ends at 12 months. This period is characterized by the fact that the main processes of adaptation to extrauterine life have already been completed, there are rapid, more intense than in subsequent years, the growth and development of the child. Literally every day adds something new in physical, neuropsychic, motor, intellectual and social development. So, by the end of the first year of life, the body weight of a child triples compared to the initial one, growth increases by 50%, head circumference - by 12 cm, chest circumference - by 13-15 cm. At the same time, the proportions of the child's body are approaching the proportions of an adult. High growth rates during this period are provided by a large relative energy consumption that exceeds the energy requirement of an adult by 3 times, so an infant needs much more food per 1 kg of body weight than an adult. However, the remaining functional immaturity of the digestive tract requires careful attention, first of all, to the issues of rational feeding and regimen.

Motor and static functions continue to improve: by 2 months. the child, being in an upright position, holds his head well; from 5 months rolls over from back to stomach and back; by 7 months sits down on his own, by the end of the year begins to walk, manipulate with toys.

Striking changes take place in the mental development of the child: conditioned reflexes appear, the movements of the eyeballs become coordinated, the child fixes his gaze on bright objects, follows their movements; auditory concentration appears; the child begins to recognize his loved ones, smiles, walks, and at 5-6 months. babbles the syllables "ba", "ma", "pa". By the end of the year, he pronounces the first meaningful words that can be combined into simple sentences, fulfills some simple requirements, understands prohibitions.

Physical development slows down somewhat by the year, mental development continues at a faster pace. However, all the main functions of the body, all organs and systems remain in a state of unstable balance, and any adverse effect can disturb it.

Passive immunity characteristic of the neonatal period is lost by 2 months, and the formation of one's own immune system is relatively slow, so there is a high probability of diseases, especially of the respiratory and digestive systems. Also, due to the lack of the body's ability to limit the pathological process within a particular organ or tissue, there is a tendency to diffuse reactions, generalization of inflammatory phenomena and the development of septic conditions.

Preschool the period (from 1 year to 3 years) is characterized by further rapid improvement of the child's motor skills and abilities, his psyche and speech, greater maturity of the main physiological systems and individual organs. Active growth continues, but its pace has already been somewhat reduced. The main distinguishing features of a child of this age are his mobility, curiosity, active knowledge of the environment. Speech becomes richer, more expressive, more figurative, sentences become more complex, with good grammatical control. Emotional manifestations are expressed, the child's behavior is difficult to control, there are episodes of capriciousness, stubbornness, shyness. This period also requires proper organization the regime of the child, his upbringing, in order to, if possible, protect the still unsettled child's psyche from excessive emotional stress, and the unformed organism from the negative effects of the external environment. At the same time, it is important not to miss the slightest opportunity for the comprehensive development of the child, because it is during this period, due to the plasticity of the central nervous system its main characterological features are formed, the foundations of future behavior are laid, the possibility of better adaptation to the outside world.

For preschool period (from 3 to 7 years), another acceleration of growth rates is characteristic, while the increase in body weight slows down somewhat. The development of the skeleton continues, the muscles become stronger. The length of the limbs increases, the proportions of the body are even closer to those of an adult. Milk teeth, which appeared in earlier age periods, begin to change into permanent ones.

The intellectual abilities of the child are actively developing. Children during this period speak their native language fluently, many begin to read, writing and drawing skills appear, which is associated with the development and improvement of fine coordinated movements. Memory is significantly improved, which contributes to a good memorization of poems, stories, assimilation of a foreign language. The functional capabilities of the child's body are gradually improving.

Thus, the immune system reaches a certain degree of maturity, which significantly reduces the tendency to diffuse and toxic reactions, but the frequency of infectious diseases remains high due to the increased contact of the child with others.

IN junior school period (from 7 to 12 years), many organs and systems of the child reach full morphological and functional development. The formation of the bone skeleton is being completed, the muscular system continues to develop and strengthen. There is a complete replacement of milk teeth with permanent ones. At the same time, the first signs of sexual dimorphism appear in the structure of the skeleton, in physical development.

In this period, the structural differentiation of the cerebral cortex ends. The intellect of the child is further developed, independent judgments appear, strong-willed qualities, perseverance develop, the circle of interests expands, individual differences in psychology and behavior.

At primary school age, loads increase - both physical and psycho-emotional.

Senior school (adolescent, pubertal) period (from 12 to 16-18 years old) is one of the most difficult and crucial stages of human life, both in terms of morphological and functional changes occurring in the body, and in terms of psychological adaptation to socio-economic conditions, which is associated with change in social and legal status. Therefore, in this period, in addition to biological age, one can distinguish the so-called legal teenage years, which is associated with the emergence of legal, legal liability, the beginning of permitted labor activity and the termination of labor and legal benefits (from 14 to 18 years).

From the age of 15, the patient himself consents to the provision of medical care(surgery, complex diagnostic or treatment procedure, etc.). Until this age, consent to medical intervention is given by the parents of the child.

Biologically, this period begins with the formation of secondary sexual characteristics, and ends with full puberty.

The most characteristic feature of the period is a significant activation of the endocrine apparatus: the functions of the gonads, the thyroid gland, and the hypothalamic-pituitary system are enhanced. The onset, duration, and pace of puberty depend on the individual's genetic program, constitutional type, climatic conditions, nutrition, excessive physical and psycho-emotional stress, alcohol consumption, smoking, and other factors.

Signs that determine the onset of puberty are an increase in the mammary glands in girls and an increase in testicles in boys. In most girls, this happens at the age of 10-11, then the appearance of pubic hair is noted, and after 1.5 years - in the axillary region.

In parallel, there are significant changes in the functioning of the sweat and sebaceous glands. At the age of 12-14, the first menstruation occurs - menarche. A regular menstrual cycle is established for about a year, its duration is individual. By the age of 15-16, secondary sexual characteristics in girls reach the stage of complete morphological and functional development, however, the hormonal background and the reproductive function of the ovaries differ from those in women of mature age.

The beginning of a noticeable increase in the testicles is considered the first sign of the onset of puberty (at 11.5-12 years). Pubic hair, which is the first visible sign of the onset of puberty in boys, occurs at the age of 12-13 years. Thus, puberty in boys begins on average 1–1.5 years later than in girls. The next signs of puberty are successively advancing voice mutation, a change in the shape and increase in the cartilage of the larynx, hair growth on the face and in the axillary fossae, however, the nature of facial hair is not yet as pronounced as in adults. From the age of 12-13 there is an increase in the length and diameter of the penis. This process continues until the age of 16-17, when the size of the external genital organs becomes the same as in adults. It is at this age that secondary sexual characteristics in young men reach the stage of full maturity. An increase in the linear dimensions of the trunk and limbs and maturation of the skeleton are also associated with the activation of the endocrine system. This is the last period of rapid growth in childhood, and the process of increasing growth occurs more actively at the very beginning of the puberty period (annual increases are 10-12 cm, adolescents gain almost 25% of their adult height during this period), and by the age of 15-17, when the length of the body and legs reach the size of an adult, the pace of physical development is somewhat reduced. However, the chest volume, shoulder width, body weight continue to increase (in adolescence, a person gains up to 50% of his adult weight), muscle strength increases.

In adolescence, further morphological and functional changes occur in other organs and systems.

Adolescence is the most difficult period for psychosocial development, for both boys and girls. During this period, a transformation of character takes place, the will is brought up, individual traits of personality, temperament, constitution are most clearly manifested, behavior often acquires the features of deviant and delinquent.

However, there are also common specific socio-psychological characteristics that are characteristic of adolescents. This is the variability of mood, and the desire for self-affirmation, independence (emancipation) from elders, rejection of their opinions, experience, and often laws. This is the desire for grouping with peers, and increased sensitivity to the opinions of others about their abilities, appearance.

These are peculiar hobbies and related activities, and emerging sexual desire and problems associated with its implementation. At this time, the process of restructuring thinking from the concrete to the abstract takes place, the worldview of an adult develops. All these moments in the life of adolescents, when exposed to any adverse biosocial factors, can lead to negative reactions from the central nervous system (affective reactions - aggressive, auto-aggressive, suicidal attempts, etc., pubertal neuropsychiatric anorexia, bulimia, dysmorphophobia and etc.), and in some cases - to the development of somatic diseases (arterial hypertension, chronic gastritis, etc.).

In general, for a child, unlike an adult, the disproportionality of the body and its individual parts is characteristic: the legs are relatively short, the body is long. The head is large, but these proportions gradually level off with age (Fig. 3).

Fig 3. The proportions of the human body in different age periods.

At the end of the childhood period, a large stage of life begins - the period of an adult, which begins with youthful age (from 16-7 years old to 20-21 years old). In accordance with the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child and the Family Code Russian Federation children are considered to be persons under the age of 18; therefore, in Russia, medical supervision of children and adolescents up to 18 years of age, inclusive, is carried out in the system of providing medical care to children, i.e. in children's and adolescent clinics, hospitals, centers.

Strictly speaking, it is rather difficult to establish clear biological boundaries for the end of childhood, puberty and the beginning of adulthood, adolescence, since adolescence is not strictly related to calendar age, and the end of this period merges with adolescence, so many morphological, structural and functional changes organism, beginning in adolescence, are completed in adolescence.

However, adolescence also has some peculiarities. This period is characterized by the completion of physical development. So, the growth process slows down significantly: body length increases during this period by an average of only 1 cm per year. Body weight also increases at a slower rate. The formation of the skeleton is completed. The morphological structure and functioning of all organs and systems acquire the features and properties of a mature organism.

At this age, the character is finally formed, the further formation of the personality, its self-affirmation takes place.

The age of civil and full legal responsibility is coming: boys and girls get the right to vote, military service falls at this time, many create their own families.

Mature age (from 20 to 55 years for women and from 21 to 60 years for men) covers most of a person’s life, its length is quite large, the changes occurring in the body are quite significant, therefore this stage of life is divided into two sub-periods. The first of them begins with the end of adolescence and continues until about 35 years; the second - lasts up to 55 years for women and up to 60 - for men, including an intermediate menopause.

The first sub-period of mature age is characterized by the cessation of growth, the full flowering and stability of all body functions. At this time, the individual features of the organism and personality are most clearly manifested, and the prevailing morphological, physiological and mental properties of the organism remain basically relatively the same and stable.

In this period, there are several important points of the age biography. The first of them, attributable to the age of 20-25 years, causes more anxiety among girls. It is at this age (in certain ethnic and cultural groups, these terms may deviate by 4 years in one direction or another) that one of the main tasks facing the girl from the point of view of psychosocial development is the task of creating a family and giving birth to a child. Men in this period are externally and internally concerned not with the problems of creating a family, but with the problems of establishing a possible more sexual contacts.

Next important points in the age biography of men and women, age does not coincide, although the problems that are characteristic of both women and men are in many ways similar.

For women, the age of about 30 years, and for men - about 40 years is to a certain extent critical, and the main problems come down to determining their place in society, the search for the meaning of life. The duration of this period is short and is about 3 years, ending in a stable state, until the next important period - menopause, which falls on the second stage of adulthood.

The second sub-period of adulthood is characterized by a significant restructuring of the neuroendocrine system, which affects the functioning of almost all organs and systems of the body and leads to a decrease in the intensity of metabolic processes, the appearance of the first clinical signs of diseases characteristic of older age groups. First, minor microstructural changes appear in various tissues, organs and systems, which indicate the beginning of their aging. These changes are accompanied by the loss of intracellular fluid and the death of parenchymal cells, the functionally active tissue is replaced by an inactive one (fat, connective elements) and the accumulation in the tissues of an excess amount of various substances and decay products of some cellular structures. There is a decrease in the activity of many enzymes and a slowdown in metabolic processes.

Having reached a certain critical level, microstructural changes lead to a decrease in the functionality of individual organs and entire body systems, which is smoothed out to a certain limit by the development of compensatory processes. However, already at the age of 30-35 years, the first signs of atherosclerosis of the aorta appear, at the age of 40-50 years - cerebral atherosclerosis, at the same age emphysema often develops. Thus, a person enters the next age period - old age.

Elderly age (from 55-60 to 75 years) is characterized by an acceleration of the aging process, which is due to a decrease in the body's compensatory and adaptive capabilities to increasing age-related changes in the structure and functions of tissues, organs and systems. are changing appearance man, his behavior, psyche. Diseases characteristic of this age period appear and develop ( ischemic disease heart disease, hypertension, cancer, etc.). Social status is changing, many people at this age stop working and become pensioners. Significant changes are observed in mental activity: mental activity decreases, memory worsens, the ability to concentrate, attention weakens, as well as the possibility of its concentration on any one subject, occupation, type of activity and switching attention from one occupation to another.

IN senile age (after 75 years), the involutionary processes that began in previous periods become more pronounced, acquire an expanded character. At the same time, there is a sharp decrease in all basic physiological functions, a drop in the level of reliability of adaptive mechanisms, a gradual attenuation life processes; increases the likelihood of natural death.

All manifestations of the aging process can be divided into chronobiological, coinciding with calendar age (phenomena of osteoporosis, muscle atrophy, vascular sclerosis, etc.), and ontobiological, coinciding with the rate of aging, biological age (changes in the cardiovascular, digestive systems, neurohumoral regulation, etc.). .d.). The chronobiological manifestations of aging are the more pronounced, the higher the species life expectancy. Signs of aging are observed throughout the individual life of the organism at all levels of its organization: at the molecular, cellular, tissue, organ and system levels, as well as at the level of a single whole, but in old age they are most pronounced. These signs, observed at the level of the whole organism, are manifested primarily by the external features of a person, characterized by changes in the shape, size of the body, its individual parts, which often makes it possible to establish the age quite accurately, although the individual rate of aging, the time of appearance of externally visible changes, the degree of their severity is very are different and are determined both by its biological characteristics, heredity, and environmental factors (living conditions, nutrition, work, the presence of professional and domestic hazards, etc.).

However, one can distinguish common signs characteristic of old age. This stage of life is characterized by a decrease in the size of the body, its height, weight, senile atrophy, affecting to a greater or lesser extent all organs and systems. Thinning of the skin, the appearance of age spots, loss of elasticity and, as a result, the formation of wrinkles are observed; hair becomes gray, brittle, sparse. The eyes lose their normal luster, become dull, faded, visual acuity decreases, ptosis of the eyelids may develop, and increased tearing is often observed. Hearing acuity is also reduced. Decrease in jaws, loss of teeth are noted. Increased bone fragility, osteoporosis and osteochondrosis phenomena are observed, senile kyphosis may appear, muscles atrophy, their strength decreases, movements lose confidence, smoothness, gait becomes slow, cautious. During this period, working capacity is significantly reduced, fatigue sets in faster - both physical and mental. The main age features of a healthy person are presented in Table. 2.

Table 2. Age features of a healthy person

Parameters	growth period	Mature age	Elderly and senile age
Leather	Pink, elastic, smooth	Pink, elasticity decreases, wrinkles appear	Pale, a yellowish tint is possible, wrinkles are pronounced, flabby, turgor is reduced, elasticity is lost, age spots appear
mucous membranes	Pink, shiny	Pink	Pale pink, possibly cyanotic
hair growth	Only on the head, the hair is soft, thin	Appears in the armpits and on the pubis; in men - on the limbs and body; gray hairs appear on the head	Hair is sparse, brittle, thinning, often graying, baldness
Teeth	The growth of milk teeth, their replacement with permanent ones	Complete set of permanent teeth	Loss of teeth, reduction in jaw size
Skeleton development	Bone growth, skeleton formation	Skeleton fully formed	Osteoporosis, osteochondrosis, possible deformities (kyphosis), brittle bones
body proportions	Relatively short limbs and large head	Proportional, according to the type of constitution	Reducing body size, height and weight, changing the shape of body parts
Breath	Depends on age: than younger child, the more often and more superficially	Respiratory rate - 16-18 in 1 min, rhythmic	Somewhat more often and more superficially than in adulthood, respiratory arrhythmia is possible
heartbeat	From 160 beats per minute in newborns to 60-90 in adolescence and youth, severe respiratory arrhythmia in young children	60-90 beats per minute, rhythmic pulse, good filling and tension	Often a tendency to bradycardia (50-60), arrhythmias often develop, the pulse is small, empty
Analyzer system	Farsightedness in the neonatal period is replaced by normal vision, hearing is acute; continuous development of taste sensations	Visual acuity 1.0 from a distance of 5 m, whispered speech - 6 m; taste perception - individually	Decreased vision and hearing, the development of senile farsightedness and hearing loss; decreased taste perception
movements	Uncoordinated in the early period, more accurate - in the subsequent	Precise, coordinated in full, smooth	Limitation of joint mobility, gait is slow, uncertain, movements lose their smoothness
Adaptive capabilities	Low in the early period, increase in the process of growth	Sufficiently high, stable	Decreases with aging
mental activity	Depends on the stage of development: labile, vulnerable during critical periods, stable during periods of equilibrium	Stable, largely dependent on the type of higher nervous activity	Labile, with a predominance of inhibition processes, mental activity is reduced
Ability to self-satisfy needs	Complete dependence on others at an early age, limited - in preschool, complete independence - in older age periods	Complete self-sufficiency	Limited, largely dependent on health status
sexual function	Undeveloped in the early periods, the appearance of sexual desire in adolescence	Hypersexuality in adolescence and adolescence, individual stable later on	Sexual activity, potency, ejaculatory capacity are reduced; sexual arousal occurs more slowly, vaginal hydration decreases

The development of a person, as a biosocial being, occurs in various areas: physical, social, psycho-emotional and related cognitive ( Volkov S.R., Volkova M.M., 2005).

physical realm, or physical development, includes a set of morphological and functional properties of the organism, corresponding to the chronological and biological age. In childhood, physical development is a dynamic process of growth - an increase in length, weight, individual parts of the body, organs and systems of the body - and biological maturation and the formation of a mature organism. Since in childhood the processes of physical development proceed most intensively, its assessment is carried out more often than in other age periods, when physical development, having reached a certain level, stabilizes. The simplest physical development can be assessed using anthropometric indicators, which include length (height), body weight, head and chest circumference. Anthropometric measurements entered the practice of medical examination in the 30s of the XIX century. For a more accurate assessment of physical development, centile tables are used, as well as various coefficients and indices.

Physical development, which includes, in addition to height and body weight, a number of physiometric indicators (muscle strength, lung capacity - VC, etc.), serves as one of the performance criteria, so the assessment of physical development is widely used not only in pediatrics, but also in professional selection , in sports, school medicine.

The level of physical development, the rate of increase in height, increase in body weight, the sequence in increasing various parts bodies are determined by many factors, among which are:

Hereditary (length and body weight of parents, grandparents);

Biological (the health of the individual, his psychological, emotional state, the state of health of his parents);

Climatic and ecological;

Socio-economic (financial situation of the family, living conditions, the level of general culture and education of parents, the level of development of health care and medical culture, occupational hazards);

Lifestyle (mode, nutrition, physical activity, bad habits, etc.).

In addition to these factors, growth and development rates are also subject to gender (thus, puberty in girls and boys begins at different times, the main anthropometric, functional indicators in men remain higher than in women) and individual differences. These and other factors can influence physical development both positively and negatively. For example, both excessive physical activity and its lack can inhibit human growth, and adequate physical activity, being a stimulator of osteogenesis and the growth of cartilage and muscle tissue, contributes to the linear growth of a person.

Some factors have a multidirectional effect on growth and development. Thus, a hot climate, as one of the factors affecting physical development, inhibits growth, but accelerates maturation, i.e. human development.

The degree of influence of certain factors depends on the strength and duration of their impact. Thus, a moderate and short-term nutritional deficiency does not lead to a significant delay in physical development; on the contrary, severe deficiencies in the main components of nutrition can lead to marked developmental delay and even health problems.

In the middle and second half of the XX century. it was noticed that from decade to decade, the height and body weight of children increase, the terms of biological maturation accelerate in general (permanent teeth erupt earlier, growth zones close, puberty occurs at an earlier age). This phenomenon has been named acceleration (from lat. accelero-accelerate). From the 90s of the XX century. acceleration processes began to change deceleration, those. a slowdown in the development of new generations, which is manifested by a decrease in height and body weight, a slowdown in puberty, a decrease in muscle strength and endurance in adolescents at the end of the 20th - early XXI in. compared to their peers in the 1960s and 1980s.

Acceleration processes were associated with the improvement of social conditions, there were also theories of the influence of exogenous (including solar activity) and endogenous factors, leading either to acceleration or to a slowdown (retardation) of the physical development of mankind.

However, to a lesser extent, acceleration affected psycho-emotional and social development.

Psycho-emotional And social development is a specific aspect of human development associated with its interaction with environment and manifested by a combination of mental processes and phenomena (sensations, perceptions, emotions, memory, etc.). The main function of the psyche is to search, based on the emerging need, for certain actions aimed at satisfying it, assessing these actions, and monitoring their implementation.

The basis of the psycho-emotional and social development of a particular person is the mastery of social needs that have been formed in the course of evolution and are necessary for the individual for life. Psycho-emotional development continues throughout a person's life.

Each stage of its development corresponds to its own expectations inherent in this society, which the individual may or may not justify.

The theoretical psychologist Eric Erickson, the author of the theory of psychosocial development of the personality, formulated the tasks of certain stages of human development and showed what success or failure in solving them can lead to. Not everyone manages to overcome the psychological failures that arose in the early stages of development, at an early age, so they have to solve many problems already in adulthood. And overcoming the difficulties of the previous stage is the key to a successful solution of the psychological problem that arises in the later stages of development, therefore, for the normal psycho-emotional and social development of a person, it is necessary to solve emerging problems at the stage at which they arose.

The psycho-emotional and social development of a person determines the quality of his life; a person’s personal life, his relationships with people, professional satisfaction, as well as all aspects of physical health largely depend on it, since mental well-being directly affects the functions of the body. In addition, adequate psycho-emotional and social development inherent in a healthy person allows him to better adapt to various living conditions.

Human development is largely determined by its environment, which include:

The immediate environment (family - children, parents, brothers, sisters, grandparents, friends);

Professional environment (work colleagues, classmates);

Domestic environment (neighbors, acquaintances; people who have common interests with the individual);

social group, to which this individual belongs (in terms of education, income, living conditions);

Society as a whole.

cognitive development a person, due to his social essence, also continues throughout life, largely depends on the stage of his development (see Table 1.) and is closely related to the concept of "cognition". Cognition is the process of reflection and reproduction of reality in the mind of an individual. The result of knowledge is new knowledge. In other words, the cognitive development of a person is a process of development of his intellect, and in general it obeys the same laws as psycho-emotional and physical development.

Table 1. Characteristics of the stages of human growth and development

Sphere of change	Characteristics of the stage of growth and development
Stage 1. Neonatal period and infancy (0-1 year)
Physical	Body weight is tripled. Height increases by 50% (approximately 25 cm). Head circumference increases by 12 cm, and chest - by 13-15 cm. From 1 month. tries to hold his head, lying on his stomach, holds well from 2 months, from 5 months. rolls over from back to stomach, from 6 months - from stomach to back, from 7 months. crawls well, sits on his own, walks on his own from the age of 1. First teeth - from 5-6 months, by 1 year 6-8 teeth
	Cries to make himself known. From 1 month auditory and visual concentration appears, from 2 months. follows objects, smiles. From 3-4 months. emotionally hums, recognizes loved ones, from 6 months. laughs loudly, babbles syllables. At 1 year can say 8 - 10 simple words. At 6 months distinguishes those who care for him. At 7 months cries at the sight of strangers. Positive knowledge - trust, negative - mistrust. A sense of trust arises when the needs of the child are met consistently, through the image of the mother who satisfies his needs; he acquires the feeling that the world is a safe place. Feelings of distrust arise when either care for a child is inconsistent or there is a frequent change of caregivers. The result of a positive choice is faith in the future, a negative one - suspicion, fear of the future.
Cognitive (up to 2 years)	This is the sensorimotor (motor) stage. The child explores the world around him with the help of touch, hearing, smell, taste, as well as through physical perception. At first, activity is focused on your body, then on events and objects. Ultimately, goal orientation occurs.
Stage 2. Preschool age (1-3 years)
Physical	During the second year, the child adds about 3 kg in body weight, growth increases by 7-8 cm, in the third - 2 kg and 5 cm, respectively. Makes movements that require coordinated muscle work: runs, walks up stairs, jumps, climbs, plays with small items. Learning to use the toilet. Get dressed with a little help or on your own. By the age of 2, he has 20 milk teeth. Eats independently with a spoon, drinks from a cup
Psycho-emotional and social	Likes to play alone or next to other children. Dislikes taking orders. Learning to be independent. He is overwhelmed with a mass of impressions from the outside world, cannot analyze them on his own, resorts to the help of adults (period of questions). Positive cognition - independence; negative - dependence, doubt and shame. Children learn doubt and shame through rough handling in the process of controlling their bodily functions (intestines and bladder) or being in too limited an environment. The result of positive knowledge is self-confidence, negative - a guilt complex, self-doubt
Cognitive	Responds well to adults. Shows items named by adults. Follows simple directions given slowly and clearly. Starts to speak in short sentences. Understands that an object removed from sight continues to exist. Likes to choose activities and toys
Stage 3. Preschool age (3 to 7 years old)
Physical	The average weight gain per year is -2 kg, and the length is -5 cm. At 5-7 years old, milk teeth are replaced by large molars (molars). Gross motor skills are improved. Controls fine motor skills more (draws, sculpts). Does a lot of self-care activities (dressing, eating, using the toilet)
Psycho-emotional and social	Has a clear idea of ​​himself. Reacts to the judgments of parents and other adults about him. More independent than in early childhood. Makes his choice. Plays easily with other children and loves group play. Observes adults and imitates them. Likes daily routine and may feel insecure if the daily routine changes too often. Positive cognition is initiative, negative cognition is passivity. Children experience a sense of guilt and moral responsibility for their desires. The result of positive cognition is the ability to act independently, negative - a sense of social inadequacy
Cognitive	Knows many names of people and names of places and things. Learns new words quickly. From the age of 5 he begins to read individual words. Considers. Groups similar items. Separates dissimilar objects. Follows directions. Very curious and has a rich imagination. Asks a lot of questions. Has a strong independent point of view, sometimes unable to understand that there are other views. Has an indefinite idea of ​​time
Stage 4. Junior school age (6-12 years old)
Physical	The annual increase in body weight is 2-3 kg, in height 5-6 cm. Milk teeth change: at 7-8 years old - internal, 8-9 - external incisors, 10-11 years old - front, 11-12 - back premolars and second molars. Movement is well coordinated. Develops muscle tone, balance, strength and endurance. Large and fine motor skills are well developed, which is used for games and sports, cycling and dancing. Puberty begins at age 10 for girls and 12 for boys.
Psycho-emotional and social	Begins to form long-term friendships. Spends more time without parents. Forms small closed groups that do not allow other children, especially of the opposite sex. Begins to understand that other people have feelings too. Has a lot of emotions, sometimes it is difficult to express them. The onset of puberty, accompanied by hormonal changes, entails many dramatic mood swings. Positive knowledge is industriousness, negative knowledge is restlessness. Students need to be able to enjoy success and mastery in solving new problems. They come to this through the approval of the teacher and peers. Feelings of inferiority arise when students do not have the opportunity to succeed or their knowledge is not recognized. The result of positive knowledge is success in activity, negative - an inferiority complex
Cognitive	More attentive, remembers longer and follows more complex directions. Thinks logically and makes decisions about the real world. Able to use new information. May question and resist adult decisions
Stage 5. Senior school (teenage) age (from 12 to 16-18 years). Adolescence (from 16 to 20 years for women, from 17 to 21 years for men)
Physical	Body weight increases by 7-25 kg (usually by 17.5 kg), height - by 15-55 cm. Reaches reproductive maturity. Girls at the beginning of the period, as a rule, are taller than boys of their age, and at the end of the period they are lower.
Psycho-emotional and social	Due to recent changes in his body, he feels awkward among parents and strangers. Easily embarrassed when undressing in front of adults or when talking about the body, height and sexual development. Be more responsible for your behavior. Often rebels against the authority of adults. The social and emotional experience is wide because it is a time of strong friendships and early love relationships. Positive knowledge - the formation of personality, negative - dispersion of personality. There is the first integral awareness of oneself and one's place in the world. The result of positive cognition is a developed sense of one's own individuality, negative - a lack of understanding of one's own "I" or uncertainty in understanding one's own "I"
Cognitive	Thinks logically. Deals with abstract or concrete concepts. Thinking about himself personally. Plans for the future. Makes a decision by imagining alternatives, which makes the decision more difficult. Begins to judge himself more sensibly. Trying to change the physical appearance. Often comes up with an ideal world and idealizes himself. Easily disappointed. Can set unrealistic goals
Stage 6. Young adulthood (20 to 35 years old)
Physical	By the age of 23, the development of all body functions is completed. Growth in most women ends by the age of 17, in men - by the age of 21. Reaches a maximum of muscle strength in 25-30 years, then it begins to decrease. The best fine motor skills are developed up to 35 years, after which fine motor skills

Development is associated not only with quantitative changes, an increase or decrease in some mental manifestations, properties and qualities. Accordingly, mental development cannot be reduced to the fact that something increases with age ( lexicon, the amount of attention, the amount of memorized material, etc.) or decreases (children's fantasy, impulsiveness, emotionality, etc.). According to V. A. Krutetsky, development is due to the fact that at certain age periods a qualitatively new, so-called "new formations" appears in the psyche. In mental development, a person goes through a number of periods, stages, each of which has a certain specificity. Each age period is associated with the previous period, arises on its basis and serves as the basis for the onset of the next period. Age is not so much a biological as a social category.

Within each age there are significant individual differences that are the result of individual variants of living conditions and activities, as well as natural individual differences, in particular differences in the typological properties of the nervous system. The specific conditions of life and activity are very diverse, as are the individual characteristics of the individual. Age does not have precise and definite characteristics; age characteristics are understood as the most typical, characteristic features of children of a particular age.

There is an uneven mental development, which lies in the fact that under any, including the most favorable, conditions of training and education in a child, various mental properties of a person are not at the same level of development. In certain periods, the most favorable conditions for the development of different aspects of the psyche. Some of these conditions are temporary, transient. Age periods, when the conditions for the development of certain mental properties and qualities will be the most favorable, are called sensitive periods. "Sensitive" - ​​the most sensitive to the relevant external influences, training and education. For example, for the development of speech, the period from 1 to 5 years is sensitive, for the formation of many motor skills - primary school age. If you miss the sensitive period, then in the future it is very difficult to develop the corresponding qualities. Sensitivity depends on the patterns of organic maturation of the brain and on the fact that some mental processes and properties can be formed only on the basis of already formed other mental processes and properties.

Age is an integrative characteristic of a person, which reflects the duration of a person's existence and the degree of his development acquired as a result of life.

Age types:

1. Chronological (passport)

2. Conditional age (the degree of human development in accordance with the age norm)

Allocate conditional age: biological, psychological (mental), social, personal.

Age periodization according to Elkonin

1) Infancy (0-1 year) - emotional communication with adults

2) Early childhood (1-3 years) - object-manipulative activity

3) Preschooler (3-7 years old) - role-playing game

4) Junior student (7-11 years old) learning activities

5) Teenager (11-15 years old) intimate-personal communication

6) Early youth (15-18 years old) educational and professional activities

Age features of younger schoolchildren, their consideration in physical education classes.

Junior school age begins at 6-7 years old, when the child starts school, and lasts until 10-11 years old. Educational activity becomes the leading activity of this period. The strengthening of the physical and psychological health of the child continues. Especially ... attention to the formation of posture is important, since for the first time the child is forced to carry a heavy briefcase with school supplies. At primary school age, there is an increase in the desire of children to achieve. Therefore, the main motive for the activity of a child at this age is the motive for achieving success. Sometimes there is another kind of this motive - the motive of avoiding failure. Certain moral ideals, patterns of behavior are laid in the mind of the child. The child begins to understand their value and necessity. But in order for the formation of the child's personality to be most productive, the attention and assessment of an adult is important.

It is very important for every person to realize himself as a comprehensively developed personality. Without this, high self-esteem, which is the core of the personality, maintaining an active life position, inner balance, and creativity is impossible.
Therefore, from a psychological and pedagogical standpoint, the upbringing of personal physical culture among schoolchildren is presented as the upbringing of their needs, motives and interest in the values ​​of physical culture.

Age features of adolescents, their consideration in physical education classes

It is believed that adolescence covers the age from 10-11 to 14-15 years, coinciding in general with the education of children in the middle classes of the school. Psychological features of adolescence are considered as crisis and are associated with restructuring in three main areas: bodily, psychological and social.

At the bodily level, there are significant hormonal changes, at the social level, a teenager occupies an intermediate position between a child and an adult. The main attention in the upbringing of a teenager should be focused on the development of the motivational sphere of the personality: determining one's place in life, shaping a worldview and its influence on cognitive activity. Relevance: The main activity of a teenager, like a primary school student, is teaching, but the content and character learning activities at this age, it changes significantly, as does his relationship to peers, adults and himself.

In the conditions of modern civilization, in conditions of decreasing natural motor activity the most effective, purposeful effect on the body ... should be considered systematic physical exercises. exercises. Sports training provides enhanced growth of muscle performance. As the fitness of the body increases, muscle performance increases accordingly.

Age features of senior schoolchildren, their consideration in physical education classes.

In early youth, teaching continues to be one of the main activities of high school students. Due to the fact that in the upper grades the circle of knowledge is expanding, that students apply this knowledge in explaining many facts of reality, they begin to relate to teaching more consciously. High school students point to motives such as proximity to graduation and choice life path, further continuation of education or work in the chosen profession. This is the period of completion of puberty and at the same time the initial stage of physical maturity. For a high school student, readiness for physical and mental stress is typical. The senior student is on the verge of entering an independent life. This creates a new social situation of development. Senior students evaluate the educational process in terms of what it gives for their future. They begin to look at school differently than teenagers.

their consideration in physical education classes.

Physical development favors the formation of skills and abilities in work and sports, opens up wide opportunities for choosing a profession. Along with this, physical development has an impact on the development of certain personality traits. For example, awareness of one's physical strength, health and attractiveness affects the formation of high self-esteem, self-confidence, cheerfulness, etc. in boys and girls, on the contrary, awareness of one's physical weakness sometimes causes them to become isolated, distrust in their own strength, pessimism.

The concept of the goal of education in pedagogy.

The professional activity of a teacher, like any human activity, is preceded by a realization of the goal. The absence of a goal does not allow classifying the work of a teacher with children as the activity of a professional; this work can only be classified as some kind of activity, as a set of actions, but in no case as an educational process.

A conscious goal sets the impulse for activity.

At a superficial glance, it seems unrealistic when a teacher organizes work with children without a clearly formulated and meaningful goal, thereby stimulating some kind of activity, being himself in a state of chaotic activity.

Teachers who declare the same goal mean different versions of this goal, since their individual consciousness has individualized their idea of ​​the result of professional activity.

Therefore, the problem of goal-setting requires not only serious attention, but also time and professional efforts to identify a possible general version of the goal so broad that it includes numerous individualized variations of the ideal image of an educated person.

DEFINITION OF THE TERM "AGE"

According to the dialectical understanding, development is not only a process of purely quantitative changes, as well as an increase or decrease in any mental manifestations, properties and qualities. Accordingly, mental development cannot be entirely reduced to the fact that with age something increases, for example, vocabulary, attention span, amount of memorized material, or decreases, for example, children's fantasy, impulsiveness in behavior.

Age is understood as a certain period in the physical and mental development of a person, limited by relative chronological boundaries, in particular early childhood, preschool age, adolescence, adulthood, old age. For the same time periods in different periods, there are changes in the pace and quality of changes in the physical and mental appearance of a person. It should be especially emphasized that in this case, in each period, various physical and psychological features characteristic of this particular period change especially intensively. Already by a certain chronological age, most people, if they live in relatively the same socio-economic conditions, reach approximately the same level of physical and mental development. This circumstance is provided for by legislation, which determines the age at which a person acquires certain rights and obligations. For example, the age of civic maturity gives the right to be elected and be elected to the elected bodies of society, the call for military service, the right to a pension, etc. The definition of age is often associated with the concept of "development", in particular with the development of the psyche. The development of the psyche is a consistent, progressive and generally irreversible quantitative and qualitative changes in the psyche of living beings. It should be noted that the ontogeny of the human psyche has a stage-by-stage character. The sequence of its stages, periods (this is early, preschool childhood, junior, middle and senior school ages) is irreversible and predictable. But at the same time, individual differences in the development of the psyche can be observed in each age period. The process of development of the psyche continues in adulthood, throughout a person's life. The main factors in the age development of a person are: self-education, professional work, as well as social work, sports and other activities, family life, raising their children. The driving forces of the development of a person as a person are the internal contradictions that arise in the process of development.

TYPES OF CHILD AGES

D. B. Elkonin studied the problems of appropriation by the child of the ways of human activity as the basis for the development of his human abilities. According to the theory of D. B. Elkonin, all childhood ages can be divided into two types. At the ages of the first type (this is infancy, preschool childhood, adolescence), the child develops predominantly the social-motivational side of some activity. The orientation of the child in the system of relations, motives of human actions is formed. At the ages of the second type, following the first (this is early childhood, primary school age, early adolescence), the child already develops the operational side of this activity.

Consequently, there is an alternation of some ages, in which children primarily develop needs and motives, with other ages, when specific operations of this or that activity are formed in children. For example, in infancy, in emotional communication with a close adult, the needs and motives for business cooperation, as well as the development of the objective world, arise. They are realized in objective activity at an early age, when the corresponding operations take shape. But at preschool age, in play activity, the needs and motives of the activity that becomes leading in the next junior school age are predominantly developed. Therefore, two specific types of ages are, as it were, linked to each other.

Another researcher, L. S. Vygotsky, also distinguished two types of age periods that replace each other: stable and critical. At stable ages, development takes place within a characteristic social situation slowly, evolutionarily, in such small steps that the effect of development becomes obvious only in the form of a new formation that appears abruptly. In others, i.e. critical, periods, on the contrary, development takes place rapidly, rapidly. Crises, according to L. S. Vygotsky, have not only negative, but actually positive significance. The rejection of the old social situation of development and the formation of a new one constitute the main content of the crisis period. Crises that combine destructive and constructive tendencies are the norm of ontogeny.

The periodization proposed by L. S. Vygotsky includes the following periods: crisis newborn ™, infancy (2 months - 1 year), crisis of one year, early childhood (1 - 3 years), crisis of three years, preschool age (3 - -7 years), crisis of seven years, school age (8-12 years), crisis of thirteen years, puberty (14-17 years), crisis of seventeen years.