Types and forms of conditioned reflexes. Classification of conditioned reflexes

Stimuli that cause a conditioned reflex are called conditioned stimuli, or signals. For example, the sight and smell of food are natural, natural conditioned stimuli for animals. The conditioned response to these stimuli is called natural.

Natural conditioned stimuli close to the natural habitat and appropriate conditions animal life (adequate), have especially great importance for his behavior (I. P. Pavlov, R. Ierks). But any stimulus can be made a signal of food, until then nutritionally indifferent to the body and in natural conditions not related to food, such as ringing, flashing a light bulb, and other agents outside world. These stimuli are referred to as artificial conditioned stimuli. The conditioned response to these stimuli is called artificial. The number of such stimuli is infinite.

Any change in the surrounding world, as well as a change in the state of internal organs and the internal environment, can become a conditioned stimulus, if it reaches sufficient intensity and is perceived by the cerebral hemispheres.

AT vivo almost all changes in the external world and the internal state of the organism do not become conditioned stimuli. Only very few of them can become conditional under certain conditions. Stimuli that previously evoked unconditioned reflexes, such as orienting or defensive ones, can also be turned into conditioned stimuli of food reflexes under certain conditions, most often artificial ones. Therefore, it cannot be considered that a conditioned reflex is a simple combination of two unconditioned reflexes. As a rule, a conditioned reflex - new form neural connection, and not the synthesis of two unconditioned, inherited reflexes.

Conditioned reflexes are also formed in animals to the ratio of stimuli that differ in some way, for example, in shape, color, weight, etc.

Conditions for the formation of conditioned reflexes

For the formation of a conditioned reflex, for example, a food reflex, the following conditions are necessary: ​​1. The action of a food-indifferent stimulus should, as a rule, begin earlier - precede the action of an unconditioned food stimulus. 2. The applied stimulus must not only precede, but also act for some time after the action of the unconditioned stimulus began, i.e., for some short period of time, coincide with the action of the latter. 3. The repeated use of the indifferent and unconditioned stimuli.

Thus, conditioned reflexes are formed, developed on the basis of unconditioned reflexes. Conditioned reflexes are formed faster to sound, more slowly - to visual, skin, even more slowly - to thermal conditioned stimuli. If the intensity of the conditioned stimulus is insufficient, conditioned reflexes are formed with difficulty or are not developed.

For the magnitude of conditioned food reflexes, the intervals between the applications of conditioned stimuli matter. Short-term intervals (4 minutes) reduce the conditional ones, and longer ones (10 minutes) increase, since the magnitude of the reflex depends on food excitability, the limit of working capacity and the speed of completion of the recovery processes in it (S. I. Galperin, 1941). The magnitude of the conditioned reflex is affected by the ratio between the intensity of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli, which determines the amount of excitation in their centers, the content of hormones, mediators and metabolites. For example, in a hungry animal, food reflexes are developed easily and quickly, while in a satiated animal, they are difficult or not formed. “The ability of the salivary centers to react is determined by the different composition of the blood of a hungry and well-fed animal. From a subjective point of view, this would correspond to what is called attention (IP Pavlov, Poln. sobr. soch., vol. III, 1949, p. 31).

The main condition for the formation of a conditioned reflex is the closure of a temporary nervous connection between two foci of excitation that arose under the action of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli. This temporary nervous connection is formed and strengthened only when a sufficiently strong unconditioned stimulus is applied, which creates sufficient or predominant excitation in the focus of the unconditioned reflex. An unconditioned stimulus must have biological significance, i.e., support and ensure the life of the organism or threaten its existence.

A conditioned stimulus that is not accompanied by an unconditioned one, not “reinforced” by it, ceases to act and loses its signal value. Therefore, conditioned reflexes are temporary connections of the organism with its environment, in contrast to unconditioned reflexes, which are relatively constantly reproduced when unconditioned stimuli act on receptors and are less dependent on environmental conditions. Even the simplest unconditioned reflexes are not absolutely constant, but relatively changeable and dynamic, but conditioned reflexes are many times more changeable and dynamic. This is a difference in reflexes, a greater or lesser dependence on external conditions underlined by IP Pavlov in the title itself - unconditioned and conditioned reflexes.

A conditioned reflex is easily formed on new stimuli, but this connection is just as easily terminated; the same stimulus under certain conditions can change its meaning and becomes a signal that causes another unconditioned reflex. This allowed IP Pavlov to conclude that an essential feature of higher nervous activity is not only that countless signal stimuli act, but also that they change their physiological action under certain conditions. V. M. Bekhterev also discovered this "principle of switching", or variable signaling.

The rate of formation of conditioned reflexes depends on the type of animal, on its individuality, on its life experience, on age, on the functional state of the nervous system, on the nature of stimuli and their significance for the existence of the animal, on external conditions. Conditioned defensive reflexes are formed sooner than conditioned food reflexes.

The latent period of the food motor reflex is 0.08 s in the dog, and 0.06 s for the defensive one. The latent period of the conditioned secretory reaction is longer. In humans, the latent period of the conditioned motor reaction is longer than in animals, it is 0.2-0.3 s, and in some cases it decreases to 0.1 s. The latent period of the conditioned motor reflex is longer than the latent period of the unconditioned motor reflex. The stronger the irritation, the shorter the latent period.

In the laboratory, the subject is isolated from the effects of the external environment, that is, the action of extraneous stimuli is excluded, and the conditioned reflex is formed only when a conditioned stimulus is used, reinforced by an unconditioned one. In addition, in the laboratories of IP Pavlov, conditioned salivary reflexes were developed in dogs. In these artificial conditions it was proved that the conditioned reflex of the salivary gland is a copy of the unconditioned reflex salivation. Vegetative conditioned reflexes are copies of unconditioned ones. But conditioned motor reflexes and especially motor skills differ significantly from unconditioned motor reflexes. If there were conditioned stimuli, then there would be no training and education. In this case, people could not acquire new forms of movement, work, household, sports and other skills, would not master speech.

Under natural conditions, along with the conditioned stimulus, extraneous stimuli certainly act, which correct the new movements produced in accordance with the conditions of life. The leading role in the correction of the developed motor skills of people belongs to speech stimuli, acting together with specific ones. Consequently, in the formation of new motor acts and speech movements (oral and writing) the main role belongs to the external feedback that enters the brain from the exteroreceptors (organs of vision, hearing, etc.) (S. I. Galperin, 1973, 1975). Simultaneously with the external figurative information, the correction of new movements is carried out by internal feedback, the arrival of impulses from the vestibular apparatus, proprioceptors and skin receptors. IP Pavlov emphasized the exceptional importance of kinesthesia (a combination of impulses from the motor apparatus and skin) in the formation of voluntary movements and speech. Therefore, new motor acts acquired during life do not repeat unconditioned motor reflexes, but correspond to the situation in which the organism is at the moment.

Kinesthetic impulses reflexively regulate movement mainly through the spinal cord and brain stem. A smaller part of kinesthetic impulses enters the cerebral hemispheres.

Thus, higher nervous activity consists of exteroceptive and motor-cerebral reflexes, and lower - of myotatic, interoceptive, viscero-visceral and viscero-motor.

The synthesis of external and internal information takes place in the brain, causing and forming new forms of behavior of people and animals and the motor functions of people's oral and written speech. Under natural conditions, the formation and execution of new motor acts involves not only individual stimuli, but mainly complex information about the current situation and a program of previously learned motor acts. In humans, the decisive role in behavior and speech function belongs to social laws. Physiological processes of the nervous system, caused by the receipt of external and internal feedback information, are interconnected with motor long-term memory.

Classification of conditioned reflexes according to receptor and effector features

The division of reflexes according to the receptor sign. one. Exteroceptive, formed under the action of a conditioned stimulus of the external world on the eye, ear, organs of smell, taste and skin receptors. 2. proprioceptive- with irritation of the receptors of the motor apparatus, with which the vestibular ones are associated - with irritation of the vestibular apparatus. Both groups of conditioned reflexes evoke mainly motor reflexes and therefore constitute the highest nervous activity. 3. Interoceptive- with irritation of the receptors of internal organs, related to lower nervous activity. They usually cause autonomic reflexes.

According to the effector basis, conditioned reflexes are divided into the following:

1. Automatic reflexes, formed by a combination of conditioned stimuli with the direct action of various chemical stimuli on the neurons of the cerebral hemispheres and subcortical centers through the blood. In the laboratory of I. P. Pavlov, after several injections of morphine (V. A. Krylov, 1925) or apomorphine (N. A. Podkopaev, 1914, 1926) to dogs, even before the introduction of these poisons into the blood, with only one rubbing of the skin in that place where the injection was made, or when pricked with a needle, or even only when the animal was placed in the machine in which the injection had previously been made, the picture of poisoning with these poisons already set in advance: profuse salivation, vomiting, defecation, drowsiness and sleep. Automatic reflexes are close to interoceptive ones, since during their formation the stimulation of the exteroceptors is also combined with the stimulation of the chemical receptors of the internal organs.

2. secretory reflexes(salivation reflexes, separation of gastric and pancreatic juices). The physiological significance of these reflexes is to prepare the organs of the digestive canal for digestion before food enters it, which contributes to the process of digestion. K. S. Abuladze also studied conditioned tear reflexes. In the school of V. M. Bekhterev (1906), the conditioned reflex separation of milk in a sheep during the cry of a suckling lamb was studied.

3. Motor reflexes of skeletal muscles. In the school of IP Pavlov, they were studied in the development of conditioned reflexes to defensive and food unconditioned stimuli.

During the development of conditioned food reflexes, in addition to the secretory component of the food reaction, its motor component was also recorded - chewing, swallowing food (N. I. Krasnogorsky). A conditioned motor reflex can be developed in the form of a dog running to a signal stimulus to a certain place in the room and to the feeder (K. S. Abuladze, P. S. Kupalov) or giving or raising the animal's paw as a kinesthetic conditioned stimulus, which is reinforced by a defensive unconditioned stimulus ( S. M. Miller and Yu. M. Konorsky, 1933, 1936).

In the laboratory of Yu. M. Konorsky (Poland), "instrumental" conditioned reflexes, or conditioned reflexes of the "second type", are formed. The dog, under the action of a conditioned stimulus, puts its paw on the pedal or presses on a special device that allows you to register the movement of the limb. This movement of the dog is reinforced by food. According to the hypothesis of Yu. M. Konorsky (1948), active conditioned connections between the two centers of the brain are established during the formation of "instrumental" conditioned reflexes only when potential connections between them have already developed in ontogenesis. The limbic system is the center of unconditioned reflexes of a higher order, connected by potential connections with the kinesthetic analyzer. These connections are transformed into active conditioned reflex connections in the process of training the movements produced by dogs during the formation of "instrumental" conditioned reflexes. Conditioned reflex movements cause tactile and proprioceptive impulses that enter the limbic system and cause the formation of conditioned reflex connections between the proprioceptive (kinesthetic) and motor areas (Yu. M. Konorsky, 1964).

Operant(Yu. M. Konorsky) are called instrumental reflexes of the 2nd type, developed in dogs upon receipt of proprioceptive impulses from the motor apparatus, for example, with repeated passive or active flexion of the paw in combination with food. These include pushing and grasping motor reflexes that allow you to get food from various closed devices (fish, turtles, birds, rats, mice, rabbits, dogs, monkeys). Electrical self-stimulation in rats of the brain is considered operant after they have been taught to press the pedal that closes the circuit with their paw (D. Olds). With self-irritation through implanted electrodes of the centers of positive emotions (in the hypothalamus, midbrain), the number of pressures can reach up to 8 thousand per 1 hour, and when the centers of negative emotions (in the thalamus) are irritated, the pressure stops. Operant reflexes are formed on the basis of motor long-term memory - strengthened feedbacks of unconditional and conditional centers with the motor analyzer. The high excitability of the motor analyzer due to the influx of proprioceptive impulses is essential.

In monkeys, a conditioned reflex was formed to open the feeder when pulling the stirrup or lever with the paw (D. S. Fursikov; S. I. Galperin, 1934), and in other animals, to pulling the ring or thread with their mouth or beak, after which they received food reinforcement.

Dogs developed conditioned alimentary motor reflexes to irritation of proprioceptors by reinforcing the displayed object with food, which differs from other objects that are identical with it in shape, color and other features, only by a certain weight (N. A. Shustin, 1953).

The enormous biological significance of conditioned motor food reflexes lies in the acquisition of food and in the preparatory changes in the functions of the digestive organs, which ensure the capture and mechanical processing of food and its movement through the digestive canal.

Conditioned motor reflexes are formed in dogs to intensify or inhibit contractions of the smooth muscles of the alimentary canal (SI Galperin, 1941).

Conditioned motor defensive reflexes are developed in response to skin irritation. electric shock in animals Tshkola I. P. Pavlov or humans (school of V. M. Bekhterev; V. P. Protopopov et al., 1909), which causes a flexion reflex.

A. G. Ivanov-Smolensky studied the conditioned motor reflexes of children with “speech reinforcement”, that is, after a conditioned stimulus he gave a verbal order (command), I. P. Pavlov recommended a preliminary instruction for the formation of conditioned reflexes in subjects healthy people in other words, he took into account the role of consciousness.

extrapolation(L.V. Krushinsky) are called motor reactions of animals not only to a specific conditioned stimulus, but also the direction of its movement. These adequate movements in new conditions are produced immediately due to irradiation of excitation in the nervous system and long-term motor memory.

Conditioned motor defensive reflexes are of exceptionally important biological significance. It consists in the fact that the organism avoids damage and death in advance, long before the damaging agents act directly on it. It has been proven that the action of conditioned stimuli can cause shock (S. A. Akopyan, 1961).

4. Cardiac and vascular reflexes. V. M. Bekhterev developed a method for studying conditioned cardiovascular reflexes in humans.

Cardiac conditioned reflexes were first formed by A.F. Chaly (1914). They are formed as a component of secretory and motor conditioned reflexes, but, as a rule, they appear before the conditioned secretory and motor response (W. Ghent, 1953).

It is possible to develop a conditioned reflex to slow down the heartbeat when pressing on the eyeball. IS, Tsitovich, (1917) developed conditioned vasomotor reflexes. For their study, plethysmography and electrocardiography are used. Conditioned motor-cardiac reflexes of changes in the work of the heart during movement are formed in children (V. I. Beltyukov, 1958). Conditioned reflexes to a persistent increase in blood pressure (hypertension) have been formed (W. Gent, 1960; S. A. Akopyan, 1961).

5. Conditioned reflex changes in breathing and metabolism in humans and animals were studied by employees of V. M. Bekhtereva, E. I. Sinelnikova and K. M. Bykov, who carried out extensive studies of conditioned reflex changes in pulmonary ventilation and gas exchange during muscular work and other conditions.

For the first time, conditioned respiratory reflexes in dogs were formed by V. M. Bekhterev and I. N. Spirtov (1907), and in humans - by V. Ya: Anfimov (1908).

6. Conditioned reflex changes in immunity. S. I. Metalshchikov (1924) developed a conditioned reflex to the formation of antibodies in the blood when the conditioned stimulus coincided with the introduction of a foreign protein or a killed bacterial culture into the body. A. O. Dolin and V. N. Krylov formed a conditioned reflex to agglutination (1951).

IV Zavadsky developed a conditioned reflex to leukocytosis in healthy people (1925).

V. M. Bekhterev (1929) observed an increase or decrease by 10-15% in the number of leukocytes in people during weak or moderate hypnotic sleep.

In the school of I. P. Pavlov, conditioned reflexes were developed for many functions of the body, in addition to those listed. In the school of L. A. Orbeli, a conditioned reflex to urinary retention was formed in animals. Under the action of a conditioned stimulus, motor, secretory, cardiovascular and other reflexes are simultaneously evoked. Conditioned alimentary and defensive reflexes, on which the work of the school of I. P. Pavlov mainly focused, have been studied best of all.

It has been proved that under the action of conditioned stimuli it is possible to form a conditioned reflex to inhibition of the shock reaction. A conditioned reflex to changes that occur during blood loss has also been formed (S. A. Akopyan, 1961), conditioned reflexes to blood clotting (A. L. Markosyan, 1960).

A conditioned reflex to an increase in urination in humans was first formed by A. A. Ostroumov (1895).

When a conditioned reflex is developed for a certain function, for example, secretory or motor, under the action of the same conditioned stimulus, other conditioned reflexes are formed, for example, cardiac and respiratory. But the formation of various conditioned reflexes occurs in this case in different dates. This discrepancy in the formation of different conditioned reflexes is designated as schizokinesis (W. Gent, 1937).

Cash and trace conditioned reflexes

The indifferent stimulus lasts a short time(a few seconds), and then, even during its action, it is accompanied by giving food, “reinforced”. After several reinforcers, the previously indifferent stimulus becomes a conditioned alimentary stimulus and begins to cause salivation and a motor alimentary reaction. This is a conditioned reflex. But not just cash. an irritant can become a signal of an unconditioned reflex, but also a trace of this stimulus in the central nervous system. For example, if you apply light for 10 seconds, and why give food after 1 minute after its termination, then the light itself will not cause a conditioned reflex separation of saliva, but a few seconds after its termination, a conditioned reflex appears. Such a conditioned reflex is called a trace reflex (P. P. Pimenov., 1906). In this case, a temporary connection is formed in the brain between the cortical neurons of the food center, which are in a state of excitation, with the neurons of the corresponding analyzer, which have retained traces of excitation caused by the action of this conditioned stimulus. This means that in this case it is not the present conditioned stimulus that acts, but the trace of its action in the nervous system. Short trace reflexes are distinguished, when reinforcement is given a few seconds after the stimulus has ceased, and late ones, when it is given after a considerable time.

It is more difficult to form a conditioned reflex when an indifferent stimulus is applied after an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned reflexes for time

A certain period of time can become a conditioned stimulus (Yu. P. Feokritova, 1912). For example, if an animal is regularly fed every 10 minutes, then after several such feedings a conditioned reflex is formed for a while. In the absence of feeding, salivation and a food motor reaction begin around the 10th minute. In this case, both a short period of time and a very long one, measured by many hours, can become a conditioned stimulus.

The formation of a conditioned reflex for time occurs as a result of the formation of a temporary nervous connection between the focus of the cerebral hemispheres, into which correctly alternating afferent impulses enter, and the focus of the unconditioned reflex, which causes a motor reflex or a change in the function of an internal organ. Many periodic processes take place in the body, for example, the work of the heart, contractions of the respiratory muscles, etc. At the same time, afferent rhythmic impulses from these organs enter the corresponding perceiving areas of the cerebral hemispheres, which, by changes in their functional state, makes it possible to distinguish the rhythm of these signals and distinguish one moment of time from another.

IP Pavlov believed that time as a conditioned stimulus is a certain state of irritated neurons. A certain degree of this state of excitation as a result of internal or external (sunrise and sunset) rhythmic processes is a signal that a certain period of time has passed. It can be assumed that these reflexes are formed on the basis of inherited circadian (circadian) rhythmic biological processes that are rebuilt for a long time with changes in the external environment. In humans, synchronization of biorhythms with astronomical time occurs in about 2 weeks.

Conditioned reflexes are temporarily formed in dogs after dozens of reinforcements.

Conditioned reflexes of higher orders

It is possible to form a new conditioned reflex not only with reinforcement by an unconditioned, but also by a conditioned, firmly reinforced reflex (G. P. Zeleny, 1909). Such a reflex is called a second-order reflex, and the main, strong reflex, reinforced by an unconditioned stimulus, is called a first-order reflex. To do this, it is necessary that a new, previously indifferent stimulus, stop 10-15 seconds before the start of the action of the conditioned stimulus of the first-order conditioned reflex. The new indifferent stimulus must be much weaker than the main stimulus of the first-order reflex. Only under this condition does the new stimulus become a significant and permanent conditioned stimulus of the second-order conditioned reflex. With stimuli of medium physiological strength, this interval between two produced stimuli is approximately 10 s. For example, a strong food reflex to a bell was developed. If after that a black square is shown to the dog and then, having removed it, after 10-15 seconds, a call is given (without reinforcing the latter with food), then after several such combinations of showing the black square and using an unreinforced call, the black square becomes a conditioned food stimulus, despite the fact that that his display was never accompanied by food and was reinforced only by a conditioned stimulus - a call.

Under the action of a secondary conditioned food stimulus, the dog fails to form a third-order reflex. Such a reflex is formed in a dog only if the first-order conditioned reflex was developed on the basis of a defensive reflex, with reinforcement by a strong electric current applied to the skin. Under normal conditions, a fourth-order defensive reflex cannot be developed in dogs. Reflexes of higher orders provide a more perfect adaptation to the conditions of life. Children develop conditioned reflexes of the seventh and higher orders.

Natural are such conditioned reflexes that are formed on the properties of unconditioned stimuli - smell, color, shape, etc.

We have already given the example of a child who has never tasted a lemon. Such a child does not show any food reaction to the sight, smell and shape of a lemon. However, it is enough for him to try a lemon, as already its appearance, smell, shape cause salivation. This is because a natural conditional for these properties of lemon has formed. Such natural conditioned reflexes are formed not only to the properties of the unconditioned stimulus, but also to other stimuli that always accompany this unconditioned time.stimulus. Artificial conditioned reflexes are distinguished from natural conditioned reflexes. This is the name of conditioned reflexes that are formed to stimuli that are not associated with the unconditioned and are not its property.

EXCITATION AND INHIBITION IN THE BRAIN CORTEX

Two interrelated processes - excitation and inhibition, continuously proceed in the cerebral cortex and determine its activity. The formation of a conditioned reflex is also associated with the interaction of these two processes. Studying the phenomena of inhibition in the cerebral cortex, IP Pavlov divided them into two types: external and internal. Let us consider these two types of inhibition in the cortex.

As we already know, the development of a conditioned reflex occurredwalks in special conditions - in special isolated chambers, where sounds and other irritants do not enter. If, during the development of a conditioned reflex, a new stimulus begins to act on the dog, for example, noise, strong light, a sharp call, etc., the conditioned one does not form, and the old, already formed conditioned one weakens or completely disappears. The conditioned reflex is inhibited due to the appearance of another focus of excitation in the cerebral cortex. IP Pavlov called such inhibition, caused by an additional stimulus, the action of which causes another reflex act, external inhibition. This type of inhibition can also occur in other parts of the nervous system. IP Pavlov also gave this type of inhibition the name of unconditional inhibition.

Unconditional inhibition is possible not only as a result of the appearance of a second focus of excitation. It can also occur with a significant increase in the strength or duration of the action of the conditioned stimulus. In this case, the conditioned reflex sharply weakens or completely disappears. I. P. Pavlov called such inhibition transcendental. Since this type of inhibition can occur not only in the cortex, but also in other parts of the central nervous system, it was classified as unconditioned inhibition.

Another type of inhibition, characteristic only of the higher parts of the central nervous system and having a very importance, is the internal inhibition. IP Pavlov also called this type of inhibition conditional inhibition. The condition that determines the occurrence of internal inhibition is the non-reinforcement of the conditioned stimulus by the unconditioned one.

There are several types of internal inhibition arising from different conditions non-reinforcement of the conditioned stimulus by the unconditioned stimulus.

Consider some types of internal inhibition.

In the formation of a conditioned reflex, a prerequisite is the reinforcement of the conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned one. If, after the conditioned reflex has been developed, call it several times and not understrengthened by an unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned reflex gradually weakens and finally disappears. For example, if a dog with otherbut worked out conditionalsalivation reflex to the bell several times to cause salivation only with a bell and never reinforce with an unconditioned stimulus, that is, do not give food, salivation will gradually decrease, and finally stop. IP Pavlov called such a gradual disappearance of the conditioned reflex the extinction of the conditioned reflex. The extinction of the conditioned reflex is one of the types of internal inhibition.

Some time after extinction, the conditioned reflex can be restored either without reinforcement or after a single application of the unconditioned stimulus. Thus, during extinction, internal inhibition occurs due to the fact that the conditioned stimulus is repeated several times without reinforcement by the unconditioned stimulus.

Another type of internal inhibition is differentiation. This type of internal inhibition consists in the fact that the conditioned reflex activity of the animal manifests itself only in the presence of one specific stimulus and does not manifest itself even in the presence of a stimulus very close to it. This is achieved by the fact that one of the stimuli is reinforced, and the other, close to it, is not reinforced. As a result, a conditioned reflex reaction occurs to a reinforced stimulus and is absent to an unreinforced one. So, for example, if you develop a conditioned reflex in a dogbut discharges at 100 metronome beats per minute, initially close to 100 frequencies will also cause salivation. In the future, when 100 metronome beats are reinforced with food and other frequencies are not reinforced, it can be achieved that salivation in a dog occurs at 100 metronome beats, and is absent at 96 beats.

The process of internal inhibition is of great importance in the life of the organism.

Time	conditioned stimulus within 30 seconds	Conditioned salivation for 30 seconds in drops	Note
12 hours 7 minutes 12 " ten " 12 " thirteen " 12 » 16 » 12 » 19 » 12 » 22 » 12 » 25 » 12 » 28 »	metronome beats » » » » » » » » » » » » » »	13 75	Not fortified but with food same » » » » » » » » » » » »

In view of the fact that conditioned reflexes are formed during life on the basis of individual experience, the ability to differentiate, that is, to distinguish various close stimuli from each other, acquires exceptionally great importance in the life of the organism. animal that lives in difficult conditions environment, at in large numbers similar external stimuli will be able to exist under the condition of fine differentiation, i.e., distinguishing some stimuli from others. For example, an animal that cannot distinguish (differentiate) a rustle made by a weak prey animal from a rustle made by a strong enemy animal is doomed to a quick death.

Conditioned reflexes differ from unconditioned reflexes in diversity and inconstancy. Therefore, there is no clear division of conditioned reflexes and their specific classification. Based on the needs of the theory and practice of dog training, the main types and varieties of conditioned reflexes are distinguished.
Natural conditioned reflexes are formed on the constant natural properties and qualities of the unconditioned stimulus.

For example, in a dog, natural conditioned reflexes are formed to the sight, smell, and taste of food. They can be formed on the appearance, voice, smell, certain actions of the trainer and his assistant, on the training suit, raincoat, fetching object, rod, whip, stick and other items used in dog training, as well as on the environment and conditions in which which the dog is trained.

These reflexes are easily and quickly formed and persist for a long time in the absence of subsequent reinforcements. If the dog is 1-2 times painful irritation with a leash, and he will be afraid of only one type of leash. Most of the natural conditioned reflexes in dogs are used as the basis for developing other conditioned reflexes needed in the service.

Artificial conditioned reflexes.

Unlike natural ones, they are formed on extraneous stimuli that do not have the natural signs of an unconditioned stimulus, but coincide in time with its action. So, when training sound signals- commands, call, whistle, buzzer, visual gestures, lighting a light bulb, as well as odor and other stimuli in dogs, artificial conditioned reflexes are continuously and in large numbers formed.

They have an important signal-preemptive and adaptive value to continuously changing environmental conditions. Distinctive feature of all artificial conditioned reflexes - delayed formation with a large number of combinations. In addition, they are easily slowed down and quickly fade away when not reinforced. More difficult is the formation of a stable and reliable skill from an artificial conditioned reflex.
Conditioned reflexes of the first, second and higher orders.

Types of conditioned reflexes

Responses formed on the basis of unconditioned reflexes are called conditioned reflexes of the first order, and reflexes developed on the basis of previously acquired conditioned reflexes (skills) are called conditioned reflexes of the second, third and higher order.

The mechanism of formation of a second-order conditioned reflex can be explained by the example of teaching a dog to work by gestures to control its behavior at a distance. First, first-order conditioned reflexes to the corresponding commands are developed by reinforcing them with unconditional influences. After these conditioned reflexes have been consolidated into skills, second-order conditioned reflexes can be developed on their basis to gestures or other signals without reinforcement by unconditioned stimuli.

Conditioned reflexes of searching the area, searching for a scent trail, sampling things by smell are developed according to the principle of the formation of conditioned reflexes of the second, and sometimes third order.
The significance of higher-order conditioned reflexes in training lies in the fact that they not only ensure the formation of complex skills in response to various trainer signals, but also contribute to the manifestation of extrapolative reflexes in a difficult environment.

Positive conditioned reflexes

Conditioned reflexes, the basis of the formation and manifestation of which are the processes of excitation and vigorous activity animal are called positive reflexes. They are mainly related to the dog's motor reactions. The majority of general disciplinary and special skills also constitute positive conditioned reflexes. For example, overcoming obstacles, crawling, moving a dog along a trail, finding and carrying things, detaining an assistant, and other complex actions of a dog include processes of strong and prolonged excitation of the nerve centers of the cerebral cortex. Some positive conditioned reflexes are replaced by others or end with inhibition in order to stop the active actions of the dog.

Negative conditioned reflexes.

Conditioned reflexes developed on the basis of the process of inhibition are called negative. Inhibitory conditioned reflexes for the body are as important as positive ones. In combination with each other, they make up the majority of complex skills that balance the behavior of the dog, make it disciplined, free the body from unnecessary excitations and positive conditioned reflexes that have lost their meaning. Negative conditioned reflexes include the cessation of undesirable actions by the dog, endurance during landing, laying and standing, differentiation of smells when working by instinct, etc.

Conditioned reflexes for time.

The expedient rhythm in the behavior of a trained dog is explained by conditioned reflexes to time, which are formed for time intervals in the mode of care, feeding, training, work and rest during the day, week, month and even year. As a result, biorhythms of active and passive, working and non-working states, periods of effective and ineffective training are formed in the dog's behavior.

When training dogs for various combinations of conditioned stimuli with unconditioned stimuli, coinciding, delayed, delayed and trace conditioned reflexes are formed in time.

Coinciding conditioned reflex is formed when a signal - a command is applied simultaneously or 0.5–2 seconds earlier than the unconditioned stimulus. The response occurs immediately after a command or gesture is given. When training dogs, as a rule, coinciding conditioned reflexes should be developed. In these cases, the dog's responses to commands and gestures are clear, energetic, and the developed conditioned reflex lasts longer and is resistant to inhibition.

Delayed conditioned reflex is formed when the action of a signal - a command, a gesture is reinforced by an unconditioned stimulus with a delay of 3-30 seconds. The response of such a reflex to a conditioned signal manifests itself for a delayed time of reinforcement with an unconditioned stimulus. For example, if the trainer reinforces the “Lie down” command by influencing the dog after 5 seconds, then the resulting conditioned reflex does not appear immediately, that is, the dog lies down 5 seconds after the command is given.

Such reflexes in dogs are the result of a violation of the methods and techniques of training.
Delayed conditioned reflexes are more common in dogs assigned to slow trainers.

delayed conditioned reflex It is formed during prolonged action of a conditioned stimulus and its late reinforcement with an unconditioned stimulus. In the practice of training, delayed conditioned reflexes are formed in a dog when the trainer reinforces with an unconditioned stimulus not the first command, but its multiple repetitions. Similar mistakes can be observed when controlling a dog at a distance and without a leash. In this case, the trainer cannot quickly influence the dog, and is forced to re-issue commands to make it perform the desired action. The resulting conditioned reflex manifests itself with a great delay, i.e., after repeated repetition of a command or gesture.

trace conditioned reflex is produced on the basis of a trace of excitation in the central nervous system caused by a conditioned stimulus, when reinforced by the action of an unconditioned stimulus after some time. Between the fading focus of excitation from the conditioned stimulus and the focus of excitation from the action of the unconditioned stimulus, a temporary connection is formed in the cortex, called the trace conditioned reflex. The development of such conditioned reflexes in dogs proceeds with great difficulty.

A trace conditioned reflex can form faster if the signal stimulus has a long-term stimulating value for the dog, and the unconditioned stimulus causes a strong excitatory or inhibitory reaction. For example, the “Listen” command, reinforced by the actions of the helper after 1-2 hours, causes the dog to be alert and expect the helper within this period of time.

from the book Araslanov Filimon, Alekseev Alexey, Shigorin Valery "Dog Training"

Depending on the characteristics of the responses, the nature of the stimuli, the conditions for their application and reinforcement, etc., various types of conditioned reflexes are distinguished. These types are classified based on various criteria, in accordance with the tasks. Some of these classifications are of great importance, both in theoretical and practical terms, including in sports activities.

As well as unconditioned, conditioned reflexes can be divided according to the receptor and effector features and their biological significance.

According to the receptor basis, conditioned reflexes are divided into exteroceptive, interoceptive and proprioceptive. Conditioned reflexes are most easily formed when exteroreceptors are stimulated.

According to the effector basis, conditioned reflexes are divided into vegetative(the effector is internal organs) and somatomotor(skeletal muscle effector).

According to their biological significance, conditioned reflexes are divided into food, defensive, sexual, statokinetic and locomotor, as well as conditioned reflexes that maintain the constancy of the internal environment of the body(homeostasis).

However, a conditioned reflex can be formed not only to a conditioned signal that is simple in structure, but also to a complex stimulus - a combination of signals related to one or different sensory systems. Complex stimuli can act simultaneously and sequentially.

With a complex of active stimuli, signals come from several stimuli at the same time. For example, a conditioned food reflex can be caused by the simultaneous exposure to the smell, shape and color of the stimulus.

With a complex of sequentially acting stimuli, the first of them, for example, light, is replaced by a second, for example, sound (in the form of a high tone), then a third, for example, the sound of a metronome. Reinforcement follows only after the action of this whole complex.

The ability to respond to complex stimuli allows us to classify conditioned reflexes according to such an indicator as reflex order . For example, a dog has developed a strong salivary conditioned reflex to the light of a light bulb. Such a reflex is called a reflex of the first order. In the future, a new conditioned signal (the sound of a bell) is used, which is reinforced not by an unconditioned stimulus, but by the already used conditioned one - the light of a light bulb. After several such combinations, it becomes a signal for the separation of saliva. This means that a second-order conditioned reflex has formed.

The most important form of conditioned reflexes are higher order reflexes, which are formed on the basis of established conditioned reflexes. In dogs, it was possible to develop a conditioned reflex up to the third order, in monkeys up to the fourth, in children up to the sixth, in an adult, conditioned reflexes of the ninth order were described.

Sensory and operant conditioned reflexes. Each reflex contains afferent (sensory) and efferent (executive) components (links). In some cases, the formation of new conditioned reflexes can occur with the formation of only new sensory components, in others, with the formation of both components. As a result, conditioned reflexes can be of two types - sensory and operant (effector).

In sensory conditioned reactions (called Yu. Konorsky conditioned reflexes of the 1st kind), response acts are either inherited (food, defensive, orienting, sexual and other unconditioned reflexes), or previously well-fixed conditioned reflexes (conditioned reflexes of higher orders). Consequently, they are characterized by the formation of only the afferent part of the reflex, in which an indifferent stimulus turns into an active one. The response to the conditioned stimulus remains the same as with the unconditioned or previously well-developed conditioned stimulus. For example, during the development of a defensive conditioned reflex to smell in the central nervous system, connections are established between afferent cells that perceive irritation of the olfactory analyzer and the pain center. At the same time, the nature of the response conditional and unconditional reactions coincides. In both cases, salivation begins. Similarly, other sensory conditioned reactions are developed and manifested (in particular, defensive motor conditioned reflexes in the form of hand withdrawal, reinforced by pain stimulation, tendon, pupillary, blinking reflexes).

Conditioned reflexes of this kind cannot always sufficiently change the relationship of the organism with the environment and fully provide adequate adaptation, since new forms of the response reactions themselves are not organized in this case. A more adequate adaptation is ensured by the fact that animals and humans are able to radically change the nature of their effector reactions in their relationship with the environment.

Operant conditioned reflexes(according to the classification of Yu. Konorsky, reflexes of the 2nd kind) are characterized by a new (not inherited from ancestors or not previously available in an individually acquired fund) form of response. These reflexes are also called "instrumental", since different objects (tools) are used in their implementation. For example, an animal opens a latch on a door with a limb and takes out the food behind it. Since the formation of such reflexes creates a complex set of newly formed movements, these reflexes are also called "manipulative".

In the formation of the corresponding conditioned operant reflexes, the most important role belongs to the impulses coming from the motor apparatus. An elementary model of a conditioned operant reflex was observed at. development of a classical food conditioned reflex to passive paw flexion in a dog (Yu. Konorsky). Two types of conditioned reactions were revealed in the animal - conditioned reflex salivation in response to passive flexion of the paw (sensory conditioned reflex, or reflex of the 1st kind) and multiple active flexion of the limb, which was not only a signal, but also a way of obtaining food (operant conditioned reflex, or reflex of the 2nd kind).

In the formation of operant conditioned reactions, the most important role belongs to the feedback between the cells in the nerve centers of unconditioned or previously well-developed conditioned reflexes and the cells of the centers of the motor analyzer. This contributes high level excitability of motor centers, due to the flow of afferent impulses from the proprioreceptors of contracting muscles.

Thus, one of the conditions for the development of operant motor conditioned reflexes is the mandatory inclusion in the system of stimuli of an impulse that arose spontaneously or was caused by an active or passive movement. The formation of these reflexes depends on the nature of the reinforcing agent. Operant conditioned reflexes form the basis of motor skills. Their fixation is facilitated by feedbacks carried out through the proprioreceptors of the muscles that perform the movement, and through the receptors of a number of other analyzers. Through this afferentation, the central nervous system signals the results of the movement.

The formation of new movements, i.e., not inherited from ancestors, is observed not only in humans, but also in animals. But for a person, this process is of particular importance, since almost all complex motor acts (in particular, physical exercises in various types sports) are formed precisely as a result of training.

Natural (natural) and artificial conditioned reflexes. Conditioned reflexes are easier to develop in response to influences that are ecologically close to a given animal. In this regard, conditioned reflexes are divided into natural and artificial.

Natural conditioned reflexes are developed to agents that, under natural conditions, act together with the stimulus that causes the unconditioned reflex (for example, the type of food, its smell, etc.).

An illustration of the regularities in the formation of natural conditioned reflexes are the experiments of I. S. Tsitovich. In these experiments, puppies of the same litter were kept on different diets: some were fed only meat, others only milk. In animals that were fed meat, the sight and smell of it already at a distance caused a conditioned food reaction with pronounced motor and secretory components. Puppies fed only milk for the first time reacted to meat only with an indicative reaction, sniffed it and turned away. However, even a single combination of the sight and smell of meat with food completely eliminated this "indifference". Puppies have developed a natural food conditioned reflex.

The formation of natural (natural) conditioned reflexes is also characteristic of humans. Natural conditioned reflexes are characterized by rapid development and great durability. They can be held for life in the absence of subsequent reinforcements. This is explained by the fact that natural conditioned reflexes are of great biological importance, especially in the early stages of the organism's adaptation to the environment. It is the properties of the unconditioned stimulus itself (for example, the type and smell of food) that are the first signals that act on the body after birth.

But, since conditioned reflexes can also be developed to various indifferent signals (light, sound, smell, temperature changes, etc.), which in natural conditions do not have the properties of an irritant that causes an unconditioned reflex, then such reactions, in contrast to natural ones, are called artificial conditioned reflexes. For example, the smell of mint is not inherent in meat. However, if this smell is combined several times with feeding meat, then a conditioned reflex is formed: the smell of mint becomes a conditioned signal of food and begins to cause a salivary reaction without reinforcement.

Artificial conditioned reflexes are developed more slowly and fade faster when not reinforced.

An example of the development of conditioned reflexes to artificial stimuli can be the formation in a person of secretory and motor conditioned reflexes to signals in the form of the sound of a bell, metronome beats, strengthening or weakening the illumination of touching the skin, etc.

Positive and negative conditioned reflexes. Conditioned reflexes, in the dynamics of which the activity of the organism is manifested in the form of motor or secretory reactions, are called positive. Conditional reactions that are not accompanied by external motor and secretory effects due to their inhibition are classified as negative or inhibitory reflexes. In the process of adapting the organism to changing environmental conditions, both types of reflexes are of great importance. They are closely interrelated, since the manifestation of one type of activity is combined with the oppression of other types. For example, during defensive motor conditioned reflexes, conditioned food reactions are inhibited and vice versa. With a conditioned stimulus in the form of the command "Attention!" the activity of the muscles causing standing in a certain position and inhibition of other conditioned motor reactions that were carried out before this command (for example, walking, running) is called.

Such an important quality as discipline is always associated with a simultaneous combination of positive and negative (inhibitory) conditioned reflexes. For example, when performing certain physical exercises (diving into water from a tower, gymnastic somersaults, etc.), inhibition of the strongest negative defensive conditioned reflexes is required to suppress reactions of self-preservation and feelings of fear.

Cash and trace reflexes. As already noted, I.P. Pavlov determined that for the formation of a conditioned reflex, it is necessary that the conditioned signal begins to act before the unconditioned one. However, the interval between them, i.e., the degree of separation of the unconditioned stimulus from the conditioned signal, may be different.

Conditioned reflexes in which the conditioned signal precedes the unconditioned stimulus, but acts together with it (i.e., the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli act together for some time) are called in cash.(Fig. 2. A, B, C ). Depending on the duration of the delay of unconditional reinforcement from the beginning of the action of the conditioned signal, the available conditioned reflexes in animals are classified as coinciding (0.5 - 1 sec.), Short-delayed (3 - 5 sec.), Normal (10 - 30 sec.) and delayed ( over 1 minute).

At trace conditioned reflexes , the conditioned stimulus is reinforced after the termination of its action (Fig. 2. D, E, F) Between the fading focus of excitation in the cortex from an indifferent agent and the focus of excitation in the cortical representation of the reinforcing unconditioned or previously well-developed reflex, a temporary connection is formed.

Trace conditioned reflexes are formed during short (10-20 seconds) and long (late) delays (1-2 minutes or more). The group of trace conditioned reflexes includes, in particular, a reflex to time, which plays the role of the so-called "biological clock".

◄Fig. 2. Scheme of the combination of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli in time with present and trace stimuli.

Gray rectangles are the time of action of the conditioned stimulus:

The black rectangles are the duration of the action of the unconditioned stimulus.

Cash and trace conditioned reflexes with a long delay are complex shapes manifestations of higher nervous activity and are available only to animals with a sufficiently developed cerebral cortex. The development of such reflexes in dogs is associated with great difficulties. In humans, trace conditioned reflexes are formed easily.

Trace conditioned responses are of great importance in exercise. For example, in a gymnastic combination consisting of several elements, trace excitation in the cerebral cortex, caused by the action of the first phase of movement, serves as an irritant for programming the chain of all subsequent ones. Inside the chain reaction, each of the elements is a conditional signal for the transition to the next phase of movement.

Higher nervous activity is a system that allows the human body and animals to adapt to variable conditions external environment. Evolutionarily, vertebrates have developed a number of innate reflexes, but their existence is not enough for successful development.

During individual development new adaptive reactions are formed - these are conditioned reflexes. An outstanding domestic scientist I.P. Pavlov is the founder of the doctrine of unconditioned and conditioned reflexes. He formed a conditioned reflex theory, which states that the acquisition of a conditioned reflex is possible when a physiologically indifferent stimulus acts on the body. As a result, more a complex system reflex activity.

I.P. Pavlov - the founder of the doctrine of unconditioned and conditioned reflexes

An example of this is Pavlov's study of dogs that salivated in response to a sound stimulus. Pavlov also showed that innate reflexes are formed at the level of subcortical structures, and new connections are formed in the cerebral cortex throughout the life of an individual under the influence of constant stimuli.

Conditioned reflexes

Conditioned reflexes are formed on the basis of unconditional, in the process of individual development of the organism, against the background of a changing external environment.

reflex arc The conditioned reflex consists of three components: afferent, intermediate (intercalary) and efferent. These links carry out the perception of irritation, the transmission of an impulse to the cortical structures and the formation of a response.

The reflex arc of the somatic reflex performs motor functions (for example, flexion movement) and has the following reflex arc:

The sensitive receptor perceives the stimulus, then the impulse goes to the posterior horns of the spinal cord, where the intercalary neuron is located. Through it, the impulse is transmitted to the motor fibers and the process ends with the formation of movement - flexion.

A necessary condition for the development of conditioned reflexes is:

• The presence of a signal that precedes the unconditional;
• the stimulus that will cause the catching reflex must be inferior in strength to the biologically significant effect;
• the normal functioning of the cerebral cortex and the absence of distractions are mandatory.

Conditioned reflexes are not formed instantly. They are formed for a long time under the constant observance of the above conditions. In the process of formation, the reaction either fades away, then resumes again, until a stable reflex activity sets in.

An example of the development of a conditioned reflex

Classification of conditioned reflexes:

1. A conditioned reflex formed on the basis of the interaction of unconditioned and conditioned stimuli is called reflex of the first order.
2. Based on the classical acquired reflex of the first order, a second order reflex.

Thus, a defensive reflex of the third order was formed in dogs, the fourth could not be developed, and the digestive one reached the second. In children, conditioned reflexes of the sixth order are formed, in an adult up to the twentieth.

The variability of the external environment leads to the constant formation of many new behaviors necessary for survival. Depending on the structure of the receptor that perceives the stimulus, conditioned reflexes are divided into:

• Exteroceptive- irritation is perceived by body receptors, dominated by reflex reactions (gustatory, tactile);
• intraceptive- are caused by action on internal organs (changes in homeostasis, blood acidity, temperature);
• proprioceptive- are formed by stimulating the striated muscles of humans and animals, providing motor activity.

There are artificial and natural acquired reflexes:

artificial arise under the action of a stimulus that has no connection with an unconditioned stimulus (sound signals, light stimulation).

natural are formed in the presence of a stimulus similar to the unconditioned (smell and taste of food).

Unconditioned reflexes

These are innate mechanisms that ensure the preservation of the integrity of the body, homeostasis of the internal environment and, most importantly, reproduction. Congenital reflex activity is formed in the spinal cord and cerebellum, controlled by the cerebral cortex. Characteristically, they persist for life.

reflex arcs hereditary reactions are laid down before the birth of a person. Some reactions are characteristic of a certain age, and then disappear (for example, in small children - sucking, grasping, searching). Others do not show themselves at first, but with the onset certain period appear (sexual).

Unconditioned reflexes are characterized by the following features:

• Occur independently of the consciousness and will of a person;
• species - appear in all representatives (for example, coughing, salivation at the smell or sight of food);
• endowed with specificity - they appear when exposed to the receptor (pupil reaction occurs when a beam of light is directed to photosensitive areas). This also includes salivation, secretion of mucous secretions and enzymes. digestive system when food enters the mouth;
• flexibility - for example, different foods lead to the secretion of a certain amount and variety chemical composition saliva;
• on the basis of unconditioned reflexes, conditioned ones are formed.

Unconditioned reflexes are needed to fulfill the needs of the body, they are permanent, but as a result of illness or bad habits may disappear. So, with a disease of the iris of the eye, when scars form on it, the reaction of the pupil to light exposure disappears.

Classification of unconditioned reflexes

Congenital reactions are classified into:

• Simple(quickly remove your hand from a hot object);
• complex(maintaining homeostasis in situations of increased CO 2 concentration in the blood by increasing the frequency of respiratory movements);
• the most difficult(instinctive behavior).

Classification of unconditioned reflexes according to Pavlov

Pavlov divided innate reactions into food, sexual, protective, orienting, statokinetic, homeostatic.

To food salivation at the sight of food and its entry into the digestive tract, the secretion of hydrochloric acid, gastrointestinal motility, sucking, swallowing, chewing.

Protective are accompanied by contraction of muscle fibers in response to an irritating factor. Everyone knows the situation when the hand reflexively withdraws from a hot iron or a sharp knife, sneezing, coughing, lacrimation.

indicative occur when sudden changes occur in nature or in the organism itself. For example, turning the head and body towards sounds, turning the head and eyes to light stimuli.

Sexual associated with reproduction, preservation of the species, this includes parental (feeding and caring for offspring).

Statokinetic provide bipedalism, balance, movement of the body.

homeostatic- independent regulation of blood pressure, vascular tone, respiratory rate, heart rate.

Classification of unconditioned reflexes according to Simonov

vital to maintain life (sleep, nutrition, economy of strength), depend only on the individual.

role-playing arise upon contact with other individuals (procreation, parental instinct).

The need for self-development(the desire for individual growth, for the discovery of something new).

Congenital reflexes are activated when necessary due to a short-term violation of internal constancy or variability of the external environment.

Table comparing conditioned and unconditioned reflexes

Comparison of the characteristics of conditioned (acquired) and unconditioned (innate) reflexes
Unconditional	Conditional
Congenital	Acquired in the course of life
Present in all members of the species	Individual for each organism
Relatively constant	Arise and fade with changes in the external environment
Formed at the level of the spinal cord and medulla oblongata	Carried out by the brain
Are laid in utero	Developed against the background of congenital reflexes
Occurs when an irritant acts on certain receptor zones	Manifested under the influence of any stimulus that is perceived by the individual

Higher nervous activity carries out work in the presence of two interrelated phenomena: excitation and inhibition (congenital or acquired).

Braking

External unconditional braking(congenital) is carried out by the action on the body of a very strong stimulus. The termination of the action of the conditioned reflex occurs due to the activation of the nerve centers under the influence of a new stimulus (this is transcendental inhibition).

When several stimuli (light, sound, smell) are simultaneously exposed to the organism under study, the conditioned reflex fades, but over time, the orienting reflex is activated and inhibition disappears. This type of inhibition is called temporary.

Conditional inhibition(acquired) does not arise by itself, it must be worked out. There are 4 types of conditional inhibition:

• Fading (disappearance of a persistent conditioned reflex without constant reinforcement by an unconditioned one);
• differentiation;
• conditional brake;
• delayed braking.

Braking required process in our life activity. In its absence, many unnecessary reactions would occur in the body that are not beneficial.

An example of external inhibition (the reaction of a dog to a cat and the SIT command)

The meaning of conditioned and unconditioned reflexes

Unconditioned reflex activity is necessary for the survival and preservation of the species. good example is the birth of a child. In the new world for him, many dangers await him. Due to the presence of innate reactions, the cub can survive in these conditions. Immediately after birth, the respiratory system is activated, the sucking reflex provides nutrients, touching sharp and hot objects is accompanied by an instant withdrawal of the hand (manifestation of protective reactions).

For further development and existence have to adapt to the surrounding conditions, this is helped by conditioned reflexes. They provide rapid adaptation of the body and can be formed throughout life.

The presence of conditioned reflexes in animals enables them to quickly respond to the voice of a predator and save their lives. A person at the sight of food carries out conditioned reflex activity, salivation begins, the production of gastric juice for the rapid digestion of food. The sight and smell of some objects, on the contrary, signals danger: the red cap of fly agaric, the smell of spoiled food.

The value of conditioned reflexes in Everyday life human and animal is huge. Reflexes help to navigate the terrain, get food, get away from danger, saving one's life.