Philosophy and education of the Middle Ages (middle of the 5th - middle of the 17th century). Presentation on the topic "education and philosophy"

With the development of cities and trade, business and diplomatic ties, in the course of military enterprises, the conquest of new territories and resettlement, people began to leave their homes more often. Travelers went far beyond the boundaries of the Christian world and brought interesting information about different peoples. Bright story about countries Far East in the XIII century, left the Venetian merchant and traveler Marco Polo.

In the XI-XII centuries, a large number of translations into Latin of books by Greek and Arabic scientists appeared: almost all the works of Aristotle, the main works of the Greeks and Arabs in geography, astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. The centers of translation were Spain and Norman Sicily, the only kingdom of this time where Orthodox Greeks, Muslim Arabs and Western Catholics lived peacefully side by side. The circle of knowledge of Europeans has been unusually expanded and enriched.

Medieval society was corporate. Each person had his own, clearly defined "niche", was a member of one corporation or another - a separate group of people who are engaged in a certain common business, live in a way corresponding to it, and obey special rules and regulations. Universities (Fig. 1) were corporations of people of intellectual labor - professors (teachers) and students (from Latin word"Studere" - user-bottom to engage in). The very word "university" means "corporation". Studying and teaching sciences became a special occupation. In some universities, all affairs were led by students (as was the case in Bologna), while in others (for example, in Paris), a council of professors. Classes were conducted everywhere in Latin, and people from different countries could study at any university. The “strangers” who settled in the city could not count on the support of the city court in clashes with local residents. In the fight against the city authorities, the universities sought self-government: they had elected leaders, their own court.

Rice. 1. Medieval University ()

Students from one country united in fraternities (or "nations"), and teachers created associations in subjects - faculties headed by deans. All together - both teachers and students - elected the head of the university - the rector (Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. Management scheme of a medieval university

Usually, in universities, in addition to the preparatory one, there were three faculties: theological (or philosophical), legal, where they studied laws, and medical. The classes were conducted as follows: the teacher - a master, or a professor - read excerpts from books and explained incomprehensible places, and students listened to and wrote down lectures ("lecture" in Latin - reading). Lectures were supplemented by disputes - verbal fights. These were competitions in knowledge and eloquence - disputes over pre-set questions, for example: "Was man created in paradise?" The attacker tried with his questions to reveal in the arguments of the enemy a contradiction either with his own arguments, or with the Bible and the writings of church writers recognized as the fathers of the church. Crowds of students and supporters of each participant in the dispute with unremitting attention and excitement caught every word, evaluated questions and answers. Sometimes the disputes were so stormy that they ended in fights between the participants or "fans".

In the 15th century there were already more than 60 universities in Europe. The University of Paris was famous for its teachers of philosophy and theology, the University of Bologna (Italy) for law, Salerno (Sicily) for medicine. Universities contributed to the emergence in Europe of secular intelligentsia and educated officials, the general rise of culture.

In the 11th-13th centuries, a new religious philosophy flourished in cathedral schools and universities - scholasticism (from the Greek "shole" - school). Thinkers of the early Middle Ages believed that faith and reason were incompatible. God cannot be understood with the mind - one must believe in him. “I believe, because it is incomprehensible,” said Tertullian, one of the church fathers, at the dawn of the Middle Ages. Scientists of the XI-XIII centuries no longer wanted to blindly believe. School lessons in dialectics, the books of Aristotle and St. Augustine instilled in them a love of reasoning. Reason must come to the aid of faith, strengthen it, they thought. Logic, philosophy should help to understand what God is, why he arranged the world in this way and what is destined for man in the world. To do this, you need to reason, prove your conclusions and logically refute the arguments of the enemy. Philosophers have developed this art and brought it to extraordinary sophistication. Thus was born scholasticism - a religious philosophy that seeks to know God and the world with the help of logical reasoning. The scholastics Anselm of Canterbury (XI century) and then Thomas Aquinas (XIII century) did the seemingly impossible: they logically proved the existence of God.

Church long time condemned the "mindfulness" of the scholastics. The dispute between the church and the philosophers was about the attitude towards the fathers of the church. The truth is stated in the Bible - both the church and philosophers agreed with this. But there are many obscure passages in the Bible that allow different interpretations. How can one find answers to the most important questions of the universe and not fall into error? The Church said: you need to know how the Church Fathers answered these questions. But philosophers have shown that different church fathers answered the same questions in different ways. And this means that even the church fathers are just people and they can be mistaken. The business of the philosopher is to compare the statements of different authorities and, logically reasoning, determine which of them is true. “Turning to reason, I turn to God,” said one of the scholastics, “for reason makes a person the “image and likeness” of God.” So the scholastics developed their own scientific method - a way to look for reasonable answers to the questions posed. The original medieval philosophy created by them contributed to the development of modern science.

One of the most famous scholastic philosophers of the 12th century was the Frenchman Pierre Abelard (1079-1142). Abelard from childhood showed great abilities for science and at the age of 13 he became an itinerant schoolboy. He quickly surpassed all his professors and defeated them in disputes. In 1117, Abelard began teaching at the Paris Cathedral School. His lectures were very popular, listeners and students flocked to him in droves. But he also had more and more enemies: when discussing this or that issue of philosophy or theology, Abelard did not retell the opinions of the church fathers, but offered his own interpretation. In 1119, the love story of Abel-ra and Eloise began, which became famous for many centuries. Young Eloise, the niece of a Parisian priest, surprised her contemporaries with her intelligence, education and beauty. Then women could not attend school, and Abelard was asked to become her home teacher. Soon Abelard and Eloise fell in love. Eloise gave birth to a son, Abel. The enraged uncle considered himself disgraced and decided to take revenge. His relatives, having bribed the servant of Abelard, attacked the philosopher at night and mutilated him. Eloise went to the monastery, but loved Abelard until the end of her life; her letters to her lover are shaking with sadness and tenderness. The students persuaded the crippled philosopher to continue his lectures. But then his ideological opponents fell upon Abelard. The most powerful of them was the famous mystic, founder of the Knights Templar and inspirer of the second Crusade, Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153). Abelard argued in his lectures and in books that it is possible to understand matters of faith only with the help of reason. “You cannot believe in what you did not first understand, and sermons about what neither the preacher nor his listeners can comprehend with the mind are ridiculous.” You need to understand in order to believe. You need to believe, not reason, - Bernard believed. - Faith should be simple and sincere, come from the heart, and not from the mind. Divine mysteries are higher than the human mind, they must not be touched. Wisdom interferes with the strength and purity of faith, leads to pride and delusion. Only in love for Jesus, in a deep experience of faith, does a person mystically unite with God. The dispute between Abelard and Bernard became a dispute between two directions of medieval thought: rationalism - reliance on reason (from the Latin "ratio") and mysticism - reliance on supernatural forces. The enemies of Abelard ensured that his teaching was condemned at a church council in 1121. Abelard was forced to throw his book into the fire with his own hands. The philosopher was in poverty, wandered around the monasteries, but the students still went to him, and he continued to teach. Bernard sent letters throughout Europe calling for the suppression of the activities of the "heretic". In 1140, Bernard managed to assemble a new church cathedral. Abelard came to him in the hope of defending his views in an open debate. But Bernard and his supporters did not want an open dispute. On the night before the cathedral, a decision was made: to burn all the books of Abelard, and to silence him himself. Abelard appealed to the pope's court, but the pope upheld the council's decision. The sick and broken philosopher retired to a monastery. In 1142 he died. Eloise buried him and after 20 years she herself was buried next to him. On their tomb they wrote: “May they rest from mournful labor and love” (Fig. 3).

Rice. 3. Grave of Pierre Abelard and Eloise ()

The pinnacle of medieval scholasticism was the work of the XIII century scientist Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). Thomas was the son of an Italian count, studied at the monastery school and university in Naples. Despite the protests of the family, he became a monk of the Dominican order. Thomas was a humble, kind and unusually hardworking person. His most famous book is The Sum of Theology. In this grandiose book, Thomas collected all the knowledge about God and the world accumulated in the Middle Ages. But he didn’t just add them up, as in arithmetic, into a sum, he created a picture of the entire Christian Universe, showing that each of its “details”, from a person to an ant, has its place and its role, intended by God. After his death, Thomas was called the "angelic doctor", and soon the church declared Thomas Aquinas a saint.

A contemporary of Thomas Aquinas, a monk of the Franciscan order, the Englishman Roger Bacon taught at the universities of Oxford and Paris. He argued that authority and reason are not enough to know the truth, but observation and experience are also needed. Only with the help of experience can we check whether our knowledge is correct. For many years the scientist was engaged in alchemy and astrology. Bacon conducted experiments with various substances, a magnetic needle and magnifying glasses. He foresaw many future discoveries. Bacon was considered a magician and was nicknamed "the amazing doctor."

Bibliography

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2. Atlas of the Middle Ages: History. Traditions. - M., 2000
3. An illustrated world history: from ancient times to the 17th century. - M., 1999
4. History of the Middle Ages: book. For reading / Ed. V.P. Budanova. - M., 1999
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1. Stud.ibi.spb.ru ().
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Homework

1. How did ideas about the world of medieval man change?
2. What kind of education could be obtained in the Middle Ages?
3. How was the medieval university organized?
4. What is scholasticism?
5. How did the views of Roger Bacon differ from the views of most medieval theologians?

The theoretical substantiation of the Christian worldview as the rationality of the Middle Ages begins in early patristics (before the Council of Nicaea, that is, before 325); on this philosophical and ideological foundation, the church fathers built the theoretical foundations of Christian education. They were Romans and Greeks - intellectuals with a classical education, that is, with the original sting of episteme and paganism. Hence the fundamental opposition between knowledge and faith, which has fluctuated throughout the history of Christian theology. Greco-Roman rationality, inherent in educated people, was a powerful conservative force that retained the standards of rational literary presentation. In general, however, in Christianity faith is supposed to dominate knowledge. And in medieval education, primacy is given to the acquisition of faith, to which knowledge must obey.
The history of medieval philosophy captures the era of Hellenism. The Church Fathers - philosophically and politically educated Greeks and Romans - canonized the Bible and the Gospels in the 2nd-6th centuries: the Greek-Byzantine fathers (Origen, Gregory of Nyssa, Dionysius the Areopagite, Maximus the Confessor) and the Latin ones (Jerome, Ambrose, Augustine, Boethius ). Educated people began to enter Christianity because of the crisis of the culture of the polis and rationalist philosophy: Justin - II century. and further, Clement of Alexandria, then Origen. They all laid the foundation Christian theology and contributed to the involvement of the educated, who developed an alternative syndrome of humanity and morality in defiance of the state-legal order deprived of them. The widespread discrediting of rationalism and its good hopes in late Hellenism gave rise to the desire to seek a connection between philosophy and religion.
The Church Fathers were guided by the indisputable truth of Scripture and oriented education towards this. They are characterized by the predominance of intolerance towards ancient philosophy and any dissent - fundamentalism, characteristic of this first period of the medieval worldview - from the 5th to the 11th centuries. The roots of intolerance are revealed in the bitterness of the prophets Jeremiah and Ezekiel against idolatry and persistence of the Jews in it: and though they cry in my ears with a loud voice, I will not hear them” (Ezekiel 8 – end). “It was these prophets who were the originators of the idea that all but one religion is wicked and that the Lord punishes idolatry. All the prophets were ardent nationalists and were looking forward to the day when the Lord would destroy all the pagans” (31, p. 326.). As soon as Christianity became the state religion - in the IV century. n. e. - immediately appeared "anti-Semitism in its medieval form, outwardly as an expression of Christian zeal" (ibid., p. 341). Intolerance is a sign of the closeness of this worldview system.
The Milan Edict of Constantine in 313 legalized Christianity along with other cults. Christians also allowed private property, which by the 5th c. quite accumulated. However, the transformation of Christianity into the dominant state ideology immediately began, namely, the bishop from North Africa asked Constantine to send troops to brutally suppress the heresy of the Donatists. Then the Council of Nicaea in 325 banned the heresy of Arius, although Constantine and his son Constantius were on her side. Julian - a relative and enemy of Constantine (who seized the throne - through the murder of his father, and then his brother), this "Apostate" gravitated towards pagan philosophers, secretly sent a person to get acquainted with their lectures, forbade Christians to teach in schools, which is why the Christian pogrom. In the IV century. in Alexandria they burned the temple of Serapis, and in 415, at the instigation of St. Cyril, a crowd of Christian fanatics carried out a number of Jewish pogroms, and then brutally murdered a woman mathematician, Hypatia, who adhered to Neoplatonism. officials, informers, soldiers. St. Cyril fiercely opposed the Patriarch of Constantinople, Nestorius, who argued that Mary was not the “Mother of God”, but the mother of a human face, and the divine face had no mother at all. The Council in Ephesus, hastily assembled under the chairmanship of Cyril, condemned Nestorius as a heretic and sent him into exile (see 33, p. 179).
Education and pedagogy in the Middle Ages have been little studied: there is little information, which, apparently, affects the negativism of the New Age towards the culture of the Middle Ages, to which in Russia after the revolution the negativism of Marxist-Leninist philosophy and pedagogy was added.
The break with ancient culture (philosophy, education, etc.) and the balance towards faith occurred in two versions: 1) the Western version - less radicalism against ancient philosophy with a positive use of its sources in the argumentation of doctrine and in education; 2) Eastern - greater negativism towards ancient philosophy, using it only as a subject of criticism. In the Western tradition, there was more attention to pedagogy, while in the East, after the era of the Church Fathers, the discussion of educational issues is gradually leaving religious literature, leaving more and more room for blind faith and dogmatic memorization (3, vol. 1, p. 9).
The Church Fathers theoretically systematized Christianity, developed a canon of faith as the basis of rationality new era, which led to the formation of a new medieval culture through commensuration with the former ancient rationality - in contrast to its radical denial and anti-culturalism of early Christians. The most influential, including in education, was the synthesis produced in the 5th century. Augustine, who relied on Platonism - based on Aristotle, reinterpreted in the spirit of scholasticism (i.e., devoid of empiricism), up to the formation of a new synthesis - Thomas in the 13th century, which formed the basis of the second - scholastic period of the Christian worldview, which also affected education.
St. Augustine (354-430) - in Orthodoxy - "blessed" - one of the main founding fathers of Christian theology as the theoretical basis of the Christian worldview, which was introduced in education. His main forte is the centering of ontology on anthropology, in other words, on understanding the world in the spirit of anthropomorphism. God (Holy Trinity) as a personified beginning of the world: God the Father, creating the world out of nothing (because, unlike the Platonic creative beginning, God had no prerequisites limiting his absoluteness, there was no “before”, because time is created only as an attribute created, changing world). Einstein also did not think of time outside of matter, which, however, he did not consider created; God the Holy Spirit (possessor of the values ​​and principles that govern creation—reminiscent of Plato’s “world of ideas” (Nietzsche: “Christianity is Platonism for the people”—unlike, for example, refined Neoplatonism); God the Son, who controls the created world, tracking and reproduction of the norm.In this division one can find something reminiscent of the paradigm of design and management activities person. Thierry of Chartres (XII century) compared the Holy Spirit with the Platonic World Soul, i.e. the target cause - a set of values ​​that guided the Father as a force that creates the material world - a condition for the realization of the Spirit (without which it would remain an internal potency, according to Aristotle, and then - Thomas), the Son is divine wisdom - a formal reason that saves the let go - the "created" world, that is, it raises its image to the requirements of the Holy Spirit and Creator (32, pp. 104-105).
Principles of ontology (the doctrine of the world): 1) the finiteness of the world, its creation by God - creationism, in contrast to Aristotle and other ancient theorists who considered the world to be infinite; 2) teleology: the subordination of world processes and human affairs to divine purpose and will; 3) the immortality of the soul as the basis of the ethical doctrine of sin and salvation through renunciation of the interests of earthly life; free will of a person as the basis of his guilt and responsibility. The epistemological principle of the subordination of knowledge ("natural reason", i.e., reason based on empiricism) to faith, i.e., to the authority of revelation contained in the Old and New Testaments. The predominance of intolerance for dissent. These principles constituted the theoretical foundations of the doctrine of morality, which was taught and brought up in the process of education.
A feature of Augustine's ontology is anthropomorphism, which already consists in the fact that he centered it on anthropology, and the latter on the analysis of the human soul, to which he, however, made a significant contribution. Augustine specifically substantiated the presence of freedom in the human soul, which he associates not with reason, but with will as a special principle. He was the first initiator of the philosophical analysis of the opposition of will and reason, the independence of the will, underestimated by Socrates. Reason understands the good, but the will can reject this good if it is mired in the base passions of the sensory world. Such is the original sin - the root corruption of Adam and Eve: the most important negative and, moreover, ineradicable characteristic of the image of a person involved in the interpretation of a person in education. The attraction to independent knowledge of good and evil is the lust of unrighteous pride with the loss of the leading vertical, spiritual duty to God, selfishness, self-love - the source of all evils. In contrast to the good generated by love for God and through it - for man.
If freedom of will is not allowed, then who is to blame for the fact that a person has sinned? The one who created the soul is God? Augustine, in his essay On Free Decision, developed a very important theory for the whole of scholasticism, what Leibniz called theodicy: theo is God, and dicea is the justification of God so that he would not be blamed for human sins. However, this is not only about protecting God, but also about the possibility of imputing guilt and responsibility to a person: to say that God is guilty means that a person is not inherent in sin and responsibility for it, first of all, before God, his commandments. And then there is no right, because there is no intent, misconduct and responsibility before the law. Augustine relies on the Epistles of St. Paul, which says that Adam committed a sin of his own free will: he preferred something lower to obedience and love for God. He himself chose - and therefore is guilty of committing a sin. Augustine understood that without freedom of choice there is no sin, no guilt and responsibility, and, therefore, in essence, there is no religion, no morality, no right, and therefore there is no society - especially, let us add, in the sense of an extended social order - a civilized society. However, as I. Derbolav (one of the main theoreticians of pedagogical anthropology of the 20th century) noted, according to Augustine, “his merit and freedom”, in contrast to sin, “a Christian thinks as dona dei”, that is, as a gift from God. But the gift of freedom is not yours and is not achieved by you. At the same time, one can also discover a paradoxical division between the freedom to do good, which comes from God, and the freedom to do evil, which only belongs to man (25, p. 466), which, however, was opposed by Abelard back in the 11th century.
Finally, the epistemology developed by Augustine as the doctrine of the knowledge of God on the basis of the passionate desire for personal salvation and the experience of the greatness and mercy of the Savior. Epistemology also rests on anthropology: the main mystery is not the cosmos, but ourselves as finite selves in their individuality. Plotinus also looked for truth in the inner world of the soul, but not specifically in himself (who should be ashamed that he lives in this insignificant bodily mask). Augustine, on the contrary, refers to his body, which "wants" earthly goods, coming into conflict with aspiration to God. This is allowed not on the basis of knowledge of one's own desires and the earthly world, but on the basis of the most complete renunciation of one's own will as obviously bad in favor of the will of God. It seems that knowledge here is somehow subordinated to love. The truth of the will of love for God is more important than all the truths about the world. The will of God can be mastered not by knowing God, but by cultivating love for him in oneself, with renunciation of base passions, and this is the guiding principle of education (see 3, vol. 1, p. 19). This is natural, since this love is the basis of my personal salvation as the goal of life, which education should serve. Love is based not so much on knowledge (although Kant will say that in order to love someone, you need to know him), but on the experiences of the soul, leading to illumination or illumination (revelation, etc.), affirming the existence of God as an almighty savior . This approach was still among the Jews. Russell: according to the Book of Jeremiah, the Jews refused to depart from their former pagan faith, “because then we were full and happy and did not see trouble” (31, p. 326); reason, correctly applied, proves the reality of such entities as God, immortality and free will, but the divine inspiration of Holy Scripture is proved by the fact that the prophets predicted the coming of the messiah on the basis of miracles and the beneficial effect that faith has on the lives of believers (the latter is still being problematized in disputes about the relationship between religion and education). Until the Renaissance, there was not a single Christian philosopher who did not accept these arguments (ibid., p. 343).
Something like proofs or arguments in favor of the existence of God in Augustine: finding features of perfection in the world that allegedly suggest their Creator. How then to deal with imperfections and evil? They should be considered ephemeral deviations - cf. Boethius: Can God do evil? No. Therefore, evil is nothing, for God can create everything (ibid., p. 386). Another proof is the "consent of mankind", if we exclude people with a perverted nature. Thirdly, God is a pure good in itself, which makes it possible to distinguish what is better and what is worse. All this does not prove the reality of God as a factor explaining the cosmos and man. This proves the presence in the minds of some people of faith in the existence of a supernatural source of goodness and salvation.
The theoretical and value foundations of medieval pedagogy in the West were laid by Aurelius Augustine, who analyzed the most important theoretical concepts and oppositions in understanding education and, in their light, the main problems of educational practice.
The role of the education system in culture is a “handmaid of theology” and an instrument of the church. The goal is the formation of a person of faith, which subordinates knowledge. The content of education is associated with a dispute about the role of philosophy and secular sciences. On the verge of excluding these disciplines, or, in any case, knowledge dangerous to religion: Tertullian (160-222) denied not only these sciences, but education in general. The first pope - Gregory the Great (VI century) allowed the study of only the texts of the Holy Scriptures (this is the pope, "guided by learned ignorance and endowed with unscientific wisdom" - this is how St. Benedict spoke of him, who founded the monastery in Monte Cassino in 500 (31, p. 400) In this century, in 529, Justinian closed Plato's Academy.
In contrast to these extremes, Augustine developed a balance between the relationship between religion and philosophy, though fluctuating (which it was throughout the Middle Ages). St. Ambrose revealed to him the role of philosophy (of the type of Plato): in the interpretation of Holy Scripture: philosophy strives for wisdom, revealing the world of incorporeal entities. Augustine's educational ideal is "stalking the truth" by breaking away from the shackles of sensory knowledge to the contemplation of the divine essence and beauty of the world through deepening into oneself, insights of inner knowledge. The latter is revealed through introspection and renunciation of clouding, sinful sensuality, which turns away from the ascent to God as the source of truth and virtue. The path to true faith lies through self-purification from bad passions. But for this it is necessary to cultivate the discipline of thought and orientation in knowledge about the world and life - mastery of the seven free arts - accordingly, he develops an "encyclopedia" as a subject and a training program: this knowledge is the duty of divine education, for wisdom is achieved through the comprehension of the final order, its generalization in philosophy, and these sciences substantiate the "entrance" into philosophy. Philosophy is the source of wisdom, in contrast to rhetoric as the elegance of speech. The novelty of this "encyclopedia" is its subordination to a special "Christian science" ("On Christian Science", see 3, vol. 1, pp. 141-152). Not to imitate Anthony, the great Egyptian monk, “of whom they say that without any science at all, by mere hearsay, he knew all the Scriptures by heart and, with the help of one sound reflection, completely understood it.” This is a miracle, just like the fact that “the apostles, after the descent of the Holy Spirit, in an instant, without learning, spoke in the languages ​​of all peoples” - such a miracle is not for ordinary people who should learn from knowledgeable people through whom God communicates his Word” (ibid., p. 141).
“If the so-called philosophers, especially the Platonists, somehow accidentally said something true and consistent with our religion, then we should demand such a teaching from them, as from illegal possessors, and not be afraid of it. The pagan sciences contain not only empty and superstitious inventions, they offer not only a heavy burden of useless labor - which each of us must turn away and run away from, leaving pagan societies and following Christ - but they also contain noble knowledge, very favorable to the benefit truths, contain also some moral rules, very useful, and a considerable number of truths related to the veneration of the one God. All this, the best in the teachings of the pagans, is, as it were, silver and gold, not created by themselves, but only mined, so to speak, in the mines of Divine, all-fulfilling Providence - there is a jewel that they misuse in the service of demons, which, however, a Christian, mentally avoiding communication with the pagans, which is dangerous in other cases, he must wrest from them for the benefit of the Gospel ”(3, vol. 1, pp. 150-151).
However, in a later version of this work (396), a different balance is struck: philosophy is no longer an "entrance" to the vision of God and no longer an integrative principle of education, but is subordinated to the exegesis of Scripture. Its role and essence is the literary and textual practice of exegesis, the interpretation of Scripture. Culture is a literary and textual practice that is biblically focused and preachy oriented. The philosophical paradigm of cultural aspiration is replaced by the rhetorical and literary paradigm as a tool of theology (Philosophy of Education/ An Entidopedia/ N.Y., 1996, p. 41).
Literature was used in teaching. Writings of the Latin Fathers of the Church, especially Augustine. Of the pagan thinkers - Cicero, Seneca. The "Encyclopedias" of the Hellenistic era - Varro, "Natural History" by Pliny, which were more and more worked on for educational purposes. Neoplatonist Marcianus Capella (5th century) “On the Marriage of Mercury (Hermes, Knowledge) and Philology” with an outline of the “encyclopedia” - 7 liberal arts that make up the school curriculum and a source of allegorical images.
Cassiodorus (c. 477 - c. 570) "Instruction in the divine and secular sciences" with an emphasis on the need for intellectual activity as an integral part of Christian culture - and general education for understanding the Scriptures - educator, organized the "Vivarium" monastery, which laid the foundation for correspondence and commenting books in monasteries as centers of medieval education. Compilation of encyclopedias with a tendency to systematize the type of "Treatise on the Nature of Things" by the monk Beda the Venerable (VIII century) or the work of Rabanus Maurus (IX century) "De universe". Boethius (480-525) played a special role in the transmission of the ancient heritage, who translated into Latin the logical works of Aristotle: "Categories" and "On Origin" (both analysts, "Topeka", "On Sophistic Refutations" - became known only in the XII century .), "Introduction" by Porphyry plus comments and writings by Boethius himself, especially on the quadrivium with adaptation to the new historical setting. Much of the ancient literature was contained in other church fathers. The legacy of Antiquity was generally rather meager. Including due to the decline in education, especially in late Hellenism, and also due to the negativism of the church, which sought to replace the spirit of ancient citizenship with Christian piety and the teaching of a righteous life - the guiding principle of education in school.
As new territories are conquered, the task of transferring the culture of Christianity to other peoples is added to this. This is connected with the teaching of Latin as a language of communication between peoples, which was learned primitively in school cramming, but at the same time became the language of theoretical thinking. Hence - the priority of the trivium - grammar, logic and dialectics. All this was important for the preparation of preachers. IN primary school(from 7 to 12 years old) - reading and memorizing the Psalter, primitive arithmetic of the calendar and holidays, singing. In high school, the seven-part canon. Geometry - in connection with the description of the Earth and geography. Bestiaries are medieval moralizing treatises with allegorical use of animal names (including mythical ones).
Higher education(from the age of 18) was given by sophists and rhetoricians only in big cities like, for example, a kind of university in Constantinople. Patriarchal and monastic schools prepared for the religious career.
Philosophical rationality is supplanted by symbolic and tropic language with characteristic mythological transfers of moral ideas to nature; commitment to the miraculous.
Ideas about the child in the Middle Ages. Extract from Bowen's book (53). There was no embryological theory to explain the origin of the individual; the church knew the biblical interpretation of Eve as the mother of mankind, who carried in her body the seed of all future generations, and thus, since all mankind is represented in the womb, everyone is corrupted by original sin. In the XVIII century. - a more acceptable version: each generation is contained as a seed within the seed of its progenitors. Character cannot be understood from either egg or sperm, and there was no genetic theory; believed (p. 185) that the egg is the whole personality, and that the sperm does nothing more than "fertilize" it. The fertilized egg enters into a dangerous pregnancy in the uterus. There are many devils, and they can easily penetrate the mother's peritoneum and infect the child with insanity and debilitating diseases. Prenatal personality development was explained according to Aristotle's theory: the soul becomes individualized in various aspects, mainly vegetative (or appetitive), affective and intellectual. The “juices” of the body, namely black bile, red bile, blood and phlegm, influence the soul in darkly imagined ways, which in mutually mixed proportions give rise to four “complexes” - choleric, phlegmatic, melancholic and sanguine, respectively related to the dominant qualities of temperament - excitability, composure, thoughtfulness and independence. All 4 are present in each personality, but their different mixture produces individual differences. During pregnancy and postnatal life, the child is susceptible to maternal influences: the moods, illnesses, attitudes of even close people are easily assimilated by the fetus and the newborn. Mothers were advised not to breastfeed their newborn for the first three days, as this would harm digestion. Mother's milk was seen as contributing to personality traits and, moreover, as being more beneficial for boys than for girls. If the mother does not have milk, it is important to find a wet nurse with the right personality and temperament, as these will be passed on through her milk. Breastfeeding is long, and for weaning, smear mustard on the nipples, which began with the first tooth. Associated with this theory of breastfeeding was the fear of an "unnatural" sucking reflex, which, according to belief, must be due to the membrane holding the tongue at the level of the mouth. If the parents were able, they called in a surgeon to cut through this membrane in the first three days; in another case, they or the midwife had to squeeze it with the nails of a large and index finger. Great care was taken to prevent the child from returning to the fetal position by swaddling it with long bandages against a flat board while the head was tied cercle (around) to form a stylish long, oblong skull. In this wrapped form, the child is presented by Comenus. (p. 186). The hands were released after 3-4 weeks of life, and the whole body between 9-12 months.
In fact, there was a poorly developed concept of the stages of childhood, even if Comenus recognized the stages of development in the Infansy school, they looked like imperfect versions of adulthood ( middle age), which parents and educators had to correct as quickly as possible; in all respects the adult model was superior to the child. The constant companion of childhood was the fear of punishment, and the maxim “spare the rod, spoil the child” was universal. Few children went to school, most worked in the fields and workshops, and with the progress of the century, in factories and mines without any training. Half of the French in the middle of the XVIII century. didn't live past her 15th birthday.

Characteristic features of the methods of teaching and educational practice

These methods are due to a certain return of Christianity to a grassroots culture, going to a primitive communal community, in which the worldview was not justified consciously theoretically, but spontaneously formed as an unshakable faith, firstly, on the basis of the life experiences of individuals and, secondly, in the context of Geminshaft - an immediate community in which people feel "the elbow, smell and sweat of each other" (Popper). This promotes faith without the control of the mind. Worldview semantic images were consecrated as unshakable establishments of ancestors - the fear of unclear prospects gave rise to the fear of "Promethean" daring, the fear of violating the establishments of the ancestors as divine. Plus mutual influence in a close community. According to M. Weber, this is a value-based rationality that absolutizes certain values ​​and fulfills their requirements in spite of reasonably identified life utility or harm. Taboo and ban on criticism. Another source of such methods is the influence of despotic priestly cultures in an era of intercultural interactions.
The differences between the Christian worldview and paganism are its proportion with the already established new goal-oriented approaches and structures of high culture and civilization, with such realities as philosophical episteme, state, law, trade, art, etc., as well as an alternative to political and legal formalism and affirmation of the value of the individual as a special integrity, fraught with the comprehension of God.
An important feature and advantage of Christian education is worldview education from childhood, in contrast to the modern secular school, which, as a rule, does not teach philosophy, although recently “philosophy for children” has been quite fruitfully taught in many countries. The basis of the medieval worldview is the comprehension of God, but not through his knowledge, but through the necessary experiences with the repetition of the name of God as a prerequisite for religiosity. Augustine considers the experience of “the fear of God” to be the starting point (Augustine, On Christian Science) (3, vol. 1, p. 142).
The educational role of fear and punishment, perhaps, is connected with the interpretation of human nature, in which evil is already inherent from birth, as is clear from the 1st book of Augustine's Confessions: “And if “I was conceived in iniquity, and my mother fed me in sins mine in the womb” (Ps. 50:7), then. where and when was I innocent? (1, p. 60). What Augustine characterizes as sins in an infant is more likely to be a manifestation of unconscious desires for the satisfaction of hunger, for the attention of adults, etc., and not for any of its evil nature. According to Augustine, however, the eradication of such sinfulness requires punishment.
Through the fear of God, an experience of piety is achieved: to become meek, not to contradict Scripture when it exposes our vices, or (in other cases) - when Scripture is incomprehensible - to think and believe that it, although sometimes dark for us, is better and wiser than all our wisdom ( 3, vol. 1, p. 142). (Highlighted by me. - V.P.)
3rd factor - knowledge that makes a person cry about himself, but in order not to fall into despair - in prayers (perhaps more often repeated) ask for the consolation of Divine help, which comes at 4 steps - the degree (experience) of strength and strength faith, etc.
John Chrysostom (350-407) in Byzantium, which was joined by faith and education in Russia, argued that the fear of God is the best educator of a child. Fear should be accompanied by ever more terrible stories from the Bible, from which the child should learn that it is impossible to hide anything from God, “for he sees everything and even that which is done in secret. And if you can plant this rule alone in the soul of a child, you will not need an educator, for this fear of God, better than any other fear, will present itself to the child and shake his soul” (ibid., p. 185). This, however, must be accompanied by punishments: "Do not abuse blows," for he will become accustomed to them and "learn to despise it, then all is lost. But let him be afraid of beatings all the time. let him not be subjected to them.” Let him think that he will be punished and not punished, so that fear does not go out, let him [fear] remain like a growing flame that burns all thorns. Like a wide and sharp hoe, penetrating into the very depths ”(On vanity and how parents should raise children (ibid., p. 182). This is in the spirit of the pastoral tribes mentioned by Plato, who, having conquered farmers, apply discipline methods to them his livestock.
The instillation of the fear of God and the expectation of a reward for righteous behavior is also retained by Comenius, although with a tendency to lighten the punishment. By the way, it is preserved in the recently written textbook of Orthodox culture by A. Kuraev.
Cane mode in schools. Fear should be dosed, gradually telling the child more and more terrible stories from the Bible (ibid., p. 187).
Further, John speaks of such methods as constant prayer: “to pray, and at night, as far as it is possible for him, to stay awake in prayer” (3, vol. 1, p. 193), - endless repetition strengthens the suggestion, Fasting and praise of the life of an ascetic as a means of taming sinful inclinations. The experience of repentance and confession, the singing of psalms, especially collective, in which mutual influence enhances the experience of fraternal community, turned to the One.
M. Buber emphasizes that the experience of this kind of fraternal community is the most important direct basis for the formation of faith. Note that the strength of the primitive faith is due to Geminshaft with its repetitive collective rituals. The suggestive role of this kind of collectivism is especially effective in monastic (and other) orders based on fraternal community, moreover, reinforced by deliberate isolation from the worldly environment - and all this is reinforced by vows, oaths and rituals.
All these principles and techniques were applied in school education as well. Methods of reading, memorizing, repeating and taking on faith before (or without) understanding the meaning. The method of indoctrination as a pseudo-explanation of certain statements from more general establishments, however, with a departure from the analysis of the validity of the latter or even with the prohibition of such an analysis, as in the above edification of Augustine: “... to think and believe that Scripture, although sometimes obscure for us, better and wiser than all our wisdom." The exclusion of knowledge dangerous to faith.
The closure in 529 of the last pagan schools by Justinian “was not only a political action, but also a symptom of the decline of pagan culture. The opening of new schools, church forms of education meant the painful birth of a new culture from the depths of paganism. Until the 13th century, when the formation of universities began, schools were monastic (at abbeys), episcopal (at cathedrals) and court (“pallacium”). During the period of the barbarian invasions, the schools attached to the monasteries and abbeys were something of a refuge and repositories of classical culture, places of making lists: the Episcopal schools were primarily the place of primary education. However, the court schools brought the greatest revival. The director of one of these schools was Alcuin of York, the king's adviser on culture and education” (32, p. 86).
“Early European Christian culture originated mainly in monasteries; while in the VI-VII centuries. she was influenced by Irish and Anglo-Saxon monk-theologians” (26, p. 423).
As B. Russell notes, the monastic movement spontaneously originated in Egypt and Syria at the beginning of the 4th century, and from the middle of this century it was taken under the leadership of the church (in order to stop the confusion that came from it, the separatist support of their bishops and to distinguish true ascetics from those who just looking for some shelter). In the middle of the century, the church carried the monastic movement to the West. At first, most of the monks did not work, did not read anything, except for what was prescribed by religion. St. Jerome took his library into the wilderness, but later recognized it as a sin. In 520 St. Benedict founded the monastery of Monte Cassino with a "Benedictine rule" that restricted ascetic zeal. In later times, the Benedictines became famous for learning and libraries, as well as many monasteries that collected, copied and commented on books (31, pp. 391-394).
From the "Pedagogy of the peoples of the world": from the 5th century. The Netherlands was part of the kingdom of the Franks - the Teutons, who conquered in the 4th century. western part of the Roman Empire. They adopted Christianity and tried to convert other nations to this faith, for which monks trained in cathedral and monastic schools were required.
The priests were supposed to help the sick and the poor and provide ritual services. The monks helped them, supporting the faith of the laity with all sorts of practical actions. The monks reclaimed the uncultivated lands, built dams, and did all kinds of manual work to show the laity an example of Christian humility. The monastic schools prepared them for this. In cathedral and monastic schools, education from 7 to 12 years old: they were taught to sing religious hymns, read passages from the Bible, copy books, calculate the time of holidays. In the cathedral schools that appeared in the 6th-7th centuries, Latin was taught - the language of the church, which should unite the population. This provided opportunities for promotion. Individual students studied philosophy, theology, and law (26, p. 235).
Literacy: in 1000, 1% could read. For conversion, they taught the language of the church - Latin, but with little results. “The Dutch resisted the French occupation and did not respond well to Christianization. Christian customs and holidays became paganized, as they were inculcated through their imposition on pagan ones” (ibid., p. 236).
Until the 12th century "England lagged noticeably behind in the formation of urban culture in comparison with Northern Italy and the Netherlands" (26, p. 72).
A shift in culture can come not only from above, from a change in worldview as the rationality of an era, but, according to Foucault's generalization (in The Archeology of Knowledge), it can be preceded by its own changes in cultural practices - political, legal, economic, medical, etc. In this spirit, Russell considers the positive role of the "dark ages" as preparing for the VIII-IX centuries. turn towards the progress of Europe from 1000 to 1914
Greco-Roman paganism in the West did not know that double duty which Christians from the very beginning owed to God and to Caesar, or, to express the same thought in the language of politics, to church and state.
The problems arising from this double duty were, for the most part, resolved before philosophers had worked out the necessary theories. This process went through two stages: the first paternal period - until the fall Western empire and the second ("dark") - after it. The activity of many generations of bishops, the highest point of which was the activity of St. Ambrose, laid the foundation for the political philosophy of St. Augustine. Then came the barbarian invasions, which opened a long streak of chaos and growing ignorance. The period from Boethius to St. Anselm, covering over five centuries, gave only one outstanding philosopher - John Scotus. “Despite the absence of philosophers, this period was by no means one of those during which no mental development took place. Chaos raised urgent practical problems, which were solved by the institutions and methods of thought that dominated scholastic philosophy; they remain important to a large extent for our time. These institutions and methods were not brought into the world by theoreticians, but created by practitioners in the heat of struggle” (31, p. 322).
In general, in the second, "dark" period, the barbarian conquests were overcome, combined with missionary activities and the conversion to Christianity of the Lombards, who devastated southern Italy, the Danes and Normans - all this characterizes France, England, Sicily and Italy, etc. It is obvious that all this activity stimulated the development of religious education and its institutions, especially monasteries, where the preservation and accumulation of knowledge and books, the experience of translating and commenting on them, and teaching in monastic schools was carried out.

The Carolingian Revival was a shift in education in the ninth century that was followed by a shift in culture. However, by the X century. secularization and moral discrediting of the church, which is slipping into corruption - simony (trading in church positions), as well as other sins characteristic of the secular population, is making itself felt more and more (see 36, pp. 122-126). As Russell writes, the monasteries were characterized by great wealth and dissolute lifestyle (31, p. 427). In 910, in the monastery of Cluny (Burgundy), a movement for the “moral reform of the church” (ibid., p. 322) was born, which also spread to other monasteries. Introduced strict regulations. Gregory VI "bought the title of pope to fight simony" (ibid., p. 431).
Gregory VII contributed to the establishment of celibacy in order to exclude the inheritance of church posts. Unmarried priests were also favored by the laity, who were incited by Gregory (ibid.).

Scholasticism and its Systematization by Thomas Aquinas

In the ninth century changes are outlined at the level of worldview, the further consequence of which was scholasticism. The first significant step towards this new phase of the rationality of the era was made by John Scotus Eriugena (810-877). He advocated a rationalization of theology:
“authority is born from true reason, but reason is never born from authority” (36, p. 112). Apparently, the prerequisite for the formation of scholasticism was critical thinking unsuccessful experience of persuading non-Christians, which did not appeal to the rational justification of religious authorities. Rationalization is a significant shift in theology as the basis of the rationality of the era, a shift that eventually led to the reformation of the church in the 16th century.
Unlike Augustine, scholasticism puts forward a program for the rationalization of theology - a justification for the unity of faith and reason. According to Eriugena, "true philosophy is true religion, and vice versa, true religion is true philosophy" (ibid.). Reason is based on the "free arts", on their most philosophical part - dialectics. It is logic as the science of correct thinking and, at the same time, the doctrine of the most general principles and properties of being.
The logical aspect of dialectics consists in the doctrine of the decisive role of general concepts in cognitive activity; at the same time, the interaction of the general and the individual somehow correlates with cognizable objects and, to this extent, goes to the problems of ontology. The most primitive way is to understand the categories of the general and the individual as existing in the world like special incorporeal "objects" that do not depend on the cognizing human mind (like the ideas of Plato, "paws in general", etc.). Individuals exist only by virtue of their attachment to the species, and the species to the genus. Thus, the ontological interpretation of dialectics takes precedence over its logical content. This ontologization of abstract concepts was then called realism. God is interpreted as the original universal that creates the world and is known in this world not through the inner intuition of a righteous person who has renounced the world, but through theophany (epiphany). This is a departure from the Augustinian knowledge of God, determined by faith, although John retains this path through self-knowledge, which expels in man commitment to God. In essence, knowledge of the created world is equally necessary for the comprehension of God. Unlike Augustine, the opposition of knowledge and faith is interpreted as their equivalence.
Note that all this leads to the fact that the "free arts", including logic as ontology, i.e. philosophy, are treated not just as tools (servants) of theology (interpretations of Scripture - as in Augustine), but as independent disciplines . "Dialectics" became the first philosophical discipline to separate from theology, and the seven-part canon also shifted to it (36, p. 134).
This shift towards the recognition of the equivalence of knowledge and faith was significantly conditioned by Arabic-speaking philosophy, especially by such representatives of it as Farabi (870-950) and Ibn Sina (980-1137) and others. They developed the doctrine of the duality of truth: along with the truths of revelation, alternative the truths of natural reason, based on experience, in which there are no grounds for the theses about the creation of the world and its finiteness in space and time; natural reason speaks of the presence of its own laws and the activity of observable things, matter that does not correspond to any goals; and also affirms the mortality of the soul, etc. The doctrine of the duality of truth has played a significant role in the development of the premises of scientific knowledge, their penetration into the content of education.
Averroes (Ibn Rushd; 1126-1198); from him such views penetrate into Europe, as well as the most important works of Aristotle and the works of other ancient philosophers, who were absent from Europe from the 6th-7th centuries. They said about Averroes: "Aristotle explained everything, and he explained Aristotle."
However, such problems began to be discussed in Europe already in scholasticism, which developed from the 11th-12th centuries. In the X century. Herbert (Pope Sylvester II - d. 1003), relying on Arabic sources, develops the quadrivium as a system of disciplines focused on experience and integrated on the basis of mathematics (with Arabic numerals). Thus, these shifts in worldview in modern times led to an innovative turn in the content of education - such an interpretation enhances the role of scientific knowledge, penetrates into cathedral and church schools and becomes more concrete in further discussions of scholastic philosophy (see 36, p. 121 ).
Berengary of Tours (d. 1088) and others sharpened the resolution of the main opposition of medieval philosophy in favor of reason, i.e., in the direction of rationalism. Berengaria strove for a rational interpretation of the rite of communion and reveals a contradiction in it: if the substances bread and wine are transformed into the body and blood, then how does the taste, visible form, color remain unchanged? During communion, these substances combine in a supernatural way. Otherwise, the body of Christ would have been eaten long ago. So the rite of communion should be understood more symbolically than literally (see 36, p. 134).
Such a rationalistic analysis evoked a strong reaction from Cardinal Peter Damiani (1007-1072) in the spirit of Tertullian: it is wrong to justify the dogmas of faith before reason, they lose the character of faith. (For our part, we will note that faith acquires a certain character through justification by reason.) Therefore, this kind of rationalist dialectic must be rejected or else subordinated to the justification of faith. This is similar to official position, however, and inconvenient because of the primitive straightforwardness. The moderate position was developed by Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109) - the "second Augustine", only somewhat rationalized. Faith is higher than reason, you need to believe in order to think. It is necessary to order the universals in such a way that they do not belong to the sensible world. This is understandable: the independence of reason in relation to faith is based on its orientation towards experience. Against this, Anselm puts forward an argument - the more a general concept (the farther from the experience of the subject), the more objective it is. But, being separated from empirical exemplifications, it ceases to serve as their explanation (ibid., pp. 135-137).
The founder of nominalism Roscellinus (1050-1120 or 1125). His position is akin to the views of Antisthenes, the Stoics: the primacy of the individual, because only it is objectively perceived. Communities are not objects, but emanate from the subject and are names (nomina) or even exist only in the sounds of the voice. The general does not exist objectively - not only outside the mind, but also in the mind itself. This leads to a denial of the objectivity of all unities, common grounds (and the laws of nature in particular). In the Trinity there are three Gods without unity - he was forced to renounce such "tritheism" (ibid., p. 146).
His student Abelard (1079-1142) is a moderate nominalist (conceptualist), the general exists in the mind in the form of concepts - concepts. (We could say - also in the texts - like Popper.) Abelard is especially interesting in understanding dialectics (close to Antiquity) in terms of "Yes and No" (the title of his work): dialectics is treated as a set of problematizations, but he leaves the answers official instances (most likely because they can be dangerous): why does knowledge of created things increase with the change of times, while in faith, where errors are especially dangerous, there is no progress? How to combine the dogma of the creation of the world with the eternity of the world and the Creator? A good deed is not necessarily due to divine grace, but comes from the will of man, grace is a reward. Man is responsible not only for sins, but also for merit. Rehabilitation of Ancient Philosophers: Socrates is in no way inferior to religious martyrs. The idea of ​​tolerance. Only a philosopher who is free from sacred authorities and authoritarian norms and is guided by natural laws can come to the truth, which means the restoration of ancient naturalism and the path to the secularization of morality. The founder of the opposition of philosophy to the Western European Middle Ages (see 36, pp. 150, 159).
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), in his philosophy, scholasticism received a certain completion in the concept of the harmony of religious faith and natural reason - as an alternative to Averroism with its duality of truth, which he became acquainted with through Latin translations, as well as with the main works of Aristotle. Harmony is expressed in the fact that the natural (based on experience in this world) mind is allegedly able to prove the existence of God. The proofs given by Thomas are untenable from a logical and scientific points vision (I. Kant). This is also recognized by contemporary Catholic authorities, such as N. Lobkowitz (19) and M. Grabman (8).
The proofs of Thomas are based not on logical and empirical argumentation, but on references to unfounded statements such as ancient pre-science and to anthropomorphic analogies characteristic of everyday life. religious consciousness. All 5 arguments are very skillfully extracted by Thomas from such a consciousness, as a result of which it is not surprising that they are believed by ordinary people who are not experienced in philosophy, logic (including scholasticism) and in scientific knowledge about the world.
Thomas created a unified hierarchical religious picture of nature, society and consciousness, largely corresponding to the culture of believers in the Middle Ages.
As Lobkowitz suggests, Thomas was probably the first to clearly distinguish between philosophy and theology (19, p. 127). The most important reason for the difficulty of being a Thomist is the duality of Thomas's approach. He seems to distance himself from the natural science of his time, trying to get by with metaphysics, but at the same time, he assumes what Aristotle called "physics", that is, the philosophy of nature, based on all available data about nature. The same inconsistency is characteristic of the doctrine of the soul, and, further, of the epistemology of Thomas, in which he used his natural scientific knowledge in metaphysical constructions (ibid., p. 129): Thomas did not see the history of philosophy as a developing area was not interested in culture" - the various practices of present life - in contrast to Hugh of St. Victor and other Victorian theologians, who developed their abstract schematisms in comparison with the surrounding life.
Opening in the XII century. The writings of the ancients, especially Aristotle, led to something like a minor cultural catastrophe: they absorbed all attention, except for such naturalists as Albertus Magnus or Roger Bacon, who retained an interest in the direct observation of nature. Of course, inattention to these "little things" was the condition for Thomas to become a great systematizer of the Christian tradition, but today we are interested in much more areas of human experience, and this fact is another argument against the modernity of Thomas's thinking.
Neo-Thomism was established in 1879 by the encyclical Aeterni patris of Leo XIII (he died before reaching his century, after the Second Vatican Council (1962-1965). Neo-Thomism, in fact, ceased to be studied at religious universities, where they sometimes switched from philosophy to actual sociological disciplines (19, p. 130).
Thomas is the most systematic of the thinkers of the Christian tradition. Augustine and Bonaventure are more "existential". Some Greek Fathers are more profound, Pascal is closer to our way of thinking. The popes are right: one cannot contradict Thomas without risking one's orthodoxy.
Thomism has had a tremendous impact on the theological tradition of the West. From the beginning of the XIV century. until the middle of the 18th century. all European universities taught philosophy and a significant part of theology according to Aquinas. Even in the Protestant universities of North and East Germany, not to mention Scandinavia, scholastic philosophy in the spirit of Thomas was taught up to 1750, that is, a generation or two after the death of Locke, Hume, and even Leibniz, Chr. Wolf and then Kant used scholastic terminology in their early lectures. The impact of scholasticism lasted as long as Latin remained the language of most of the academic subjects.
Neo-Thomism in its influence is no deader than existentialism or phenomenology. Only the teaching of Thomism must be freed from the ideological component before the conciliar period (ibid., pp. 130-132).
D. Bowen on the worldview and education system of the Reformation (XVI century). Excerpts from A History of Western Ed^ation.
Among the Jesuits, planning included not only the organization of the college, but also the principles of pedagogy established in the Ratio studiorum (a set of rules for teaching). They were based on the continuous use of Latin in situations of questions and answers, with the possible avoidance of the native language. Through Ratio's technique of lecture, concentration, exercise, and repetition, the Jesuit schools developed a pedagogical system ahead of anything found in Europe that, with an emphasis on uniformity, set high standards of achievement. They established for the first time in the history of Western education a certain tool of potentially deeply ranked social control, so they had a completely centralized system. The colleges were strategically positioned across Europe and by the end of the century (25) produced a significant number of graduates advancing into an elite capable of giving great advantages to other Jesuits.
The founding of new colleges was accelerated, as well as the smaller, more localized schools envisaged in the Constitution. The Jesuits dominated the education of boys and were referred to in the Catholic regions as the "mentors of Europe".
However, with the preservation of the Neoplatonist deviation from the ethos of the spirit of Christianity, which allowed the claims of each individual to receive an education.
In the last decades of the XIV century. Western educational thinking began to change significantly. Criticism permeates educational thinking, influences educational practice, curriculum and institutions. Many of the attributes that distinguish Art Nouveau began to open up. From the beginning of the 17th century Until today (p. 1), the main defining characteristic of Western education has been the discussion of the disagreement between religious and secular worldviews. (Apparently, this is characteristic of the period of emancipation of critical thinking as an alternative to the previous dominance of dogmatic control over the purposive-rational order. However, even in this previous period, there was rather only the appearance of unanimity, now and then torn by heresies.)
There is a growing tendency to seek solutions through thoughtful innovations, often with implicit utopian assumptions that there is better world, to be found or possibly created. A millennium of historical development resulted in a disturbing, divided society; on top of that, a century of intense religious and political conflicts, spawned by the ongoing efforts of the Catholic Church to assert its primacy. These conflicts are not only from this time, but are a continuation from the beginning of Christian Europe.
The diverging interests of church and state were exacerbated by the emergence of nation-states based on linguistic groupings, and their efforts to achieve a kind of secular unity led to conflict with the church,
After the speech of the Lutherans, Spain confronts the Protestant nations, but at the beginning of the 17th century. it has degraded, and the Holy Roman Empire is losing its authority, and Catholic Church ceases to be "Catholic" (i.e., "universal" in the literal sense of the word "Catholic"). Europe then enters a period of modernity in which political power is exercised by independent nation-states, with religious dependence shared with a large and growing number of different communities. Churches must now adapt and learn to live in an open society. It is in the conflict between ecclesiastical and secular authorities—and partly as a consequence of it—that Western education acquires its modernist character (p. 2).

Education as an instrument of Christian civilization

(p. 6) Accession of Charlemagne to the throne of the Holy Roman Empire in the year 1 of the 9th century. meant the onset of the second, main, period in the history of Western education: the period of the medieval civilization of Christian Europe. This civilization lasted, in fact, 8 centuries.
The development of education became the central concern of the Europeans when they began to deliberately seek to build a new civilization to replace the one that had been lost. Charlemagne himself established the goal of the new regenerated Christendom, the imperium christianum. From the 9th to the 16th century this civilization was not only built, but brought to a higher peak of development than had even been reached before, and the process of formation was one of the most vital and significant features.
(Below is confirmation of the paramount role of shifts in worldview in philosophy and religion, as well as Foucault's words about the emergence of a special interest in education, and, further, Hoskin and Baumann about the role of education in modern culture.)
In the XVI century. education is beginning to be seen as a highly important social process, especially after the incentives given by Erasmus and Luther, who argued that the promotion and affirmation of religious beliefs—and therefore political loyalty—can be controlled to a tangible degree through school and educational procedures. Both sides, Catholics and Protestants, are beginning to give attention to the problem of how education can be better used as a tool (p. 5) for the observance of their particular religious beliefs, and this has been taken forward in XVII century when the intellectual justification of religious schism and non-conformity of all kinds leads to an equally enduring conflict in education as in politics and other social affairs.
The movement of the educational community as a special new factor in social development, noted in the Western philosophy of education, but not noticed in our country (as well as the movements of other groups of the public). Education was more influential than religious movements, it was directed towards a wider social process than simply providing support for Catholic orthodoxy or Protestant schism.
It is important to recognize how profoundly Christianity has changed the classical ideal of education. In essence, the acceptance of a personal God guaranteed by incarnation, along with the belief that the path to education and lofty vision was potentially achievable by all, was a radical retreat. Here, however, it is necessary to reveal the contradictory position of the church on this issue. While Erasmus and other similar educators of the period—Luther, Melanchthon, More, Sadoleto, and Vives—reformed Platonism into a more acceptable literary version, Neoplatonism's concept of two classes of people, a vulgar majority and a devout minority, of which (p. 8) only the latter are really capable of "true education", still retains a very narrow view, which again goes against the ethical spirit of the Logos of Christianity.
Of equal importance in the development of education was its institutionalization. The work of the humanists of the Renaissance is responsible for the return of most of the classical teaching, its semantic purification in Greek and Latin, and for its translation into native languages; the technological advances of the craft guilds provided the printing press and the skill of book production that allowed the spread of this teaching, now organized into a pedagogical sequence from a mere introductory Latin grammar to large collections of the writings of Plato and Aristotle. And ready to propagate this teaching was the wide range of schools (in the general sense of the word) that existed everywhere in Europe, ranging from simple "small" schools and "pedagogies" through grammar schools to academies and universities, which were located in almost all large cities. The Jesuits, in particular, even found a spiritual mission in establishing schools all over the continent, and passionately aspired to become the educators of Europe, which they were later recognized as.
(p. 7) Education was inevitably drawn into the religious-political conflict of the sixteenth century, after having been the servant of the church for a millennium of Christian civilization.
Educational autonomy and secularity were rarely asserted. On the contrary, during the continuation of the Holy Roman Empire, education was essentially an element of Christianity, even if small jurisdictional disputes arose at times in various cities between the bishop and the civil authorities. This, of course, indicates that as the institutionalization of education increases, there are demands for executive independence, but that was another matter. The clearly understood purpose of education was to preserve and maintain the Christian faith. There was also a conviction that the content of a genuine education should be derived from the grammatical and literary study of the Christian classics. In the XVI century. many theoretical writings appeared, occupied centrally with the ideology of education, which tried to explain and justify its religious role and which were much larger in volume than in any of the previous periods of Western history. Engaging in Christian Educational Aims is main characteristic 16th century thinking

Development of the rationality of education

Little is known about elementary instructions - there was neither an established theory nor practice for the implementation of the leadership: schools catered to the middle and upper classes, who did not respect their native language (- there was no movement for literature in Germany during this period, comparable to Italy, England and France, and such families could provide instruction at home (p. 13).
Aristotle postulated a receptive ability in human consciousness, which allows him to perceive and arrange logically, in a parallel mental structure, the phenomena of the external world. This model of consciousness, its really significant influence on education, began in the early 16th century. with the advent of printed books, since they were par excellence a means of logical organization and presentations. The Aristotelian model of consciousness itself can easily be applied to the school class, since it is fundamentally a theory of interactive processes of learning and learning. It is important to involve the real personal experience, and not extracting it from previous authorities, which was misunderstood in the 16th century, concentrating on the method of this transmission, which increases with the development of printing. This is also reflected in Erasmus' treatises on class procedures, which speak of a gradual progression of learning from elementary grammar through a series of Latin and Greek texts to the study of selected passages of classical and Christian literature, with an emphasis on grammatical, syntactic and textual exegesis.
And other scholars have sought to convey the ideals of Christian humanism and the achievements of the pietas litterata; practiced school programs and in the printing of books it led to the production of textbooks. The process of education was suddenly transformed into simple, intermediate and advanced texts in Latin and Greek - and less so in Hebrew - together with ranked readers and anthologies known respectively as colloquies and florilegia, came out of the printing houses of Europe. According to the XX century. they are very crude, but in those days they are revolutionary. In the XVI century. hundreds (9) of such texts have appeared in schools.
In connection with the realization of the advantages of ranking texts, a program of instructions was organized - Johannes Sturmus, his approach spread in Protestant Europe. For Catholics, this has been transformed into a more strict form- in the context of Ratio studiorum.
Revival of ancient symbols and learning technologies. At the end of the XVI century. Western education has made remarkable progress. The mastery of symbols, by means of which experience can be accumulated and communicated, arose in early Antiquity, and, thanks to the genius of the Greeks, it was again developed into a series of relatively simple instrumental skills.
In the Greek classical era, education and its cultural impact rarely extended beyond the relatively small, wealthy, leisure class. The subsequent collapse of classical civilization in the early Christian centuries had profound repercussions in Europe, since then education again becomes narrowly limited, and during the early centuries of European history, from the sixth to the ninth century. - it only served as a collection of instrumental skills, which it was 2000 years before (an example of stagnation in the history of education!). However, the man fought for the revival of the classical heritage.

Bowen goes on to characterize the features European culture the end of the Middle Ages, which significantly determined the features of education. Small population and density - in the main countries. Lack of support for school systems, respectively - the emergence of various forms of educational procedures. In countries, on average, 50 million. Large cities - 100-150 thousand each. But there are tendencies towards a more systematic establishment of education.
There is no public press in the native language.
There is no continuous stimulation of public literacy. The educational ideology of Neoplatonism and "pious literacy" were maintained in a highly specialized and erudite literature - among the minority. This approach is unpopular and was not attracted to the more instrumental and professional aspects of education: schools of the 16th century. were still outside the scope of most of the occupations of the people, and public life - almost exclusively on oral face-to-face communication. Literacy was required and dominated by the clergy or those in their sphere of influence. It was in the 16th century. the word "clerk", meaning a person from a narrow spiritual circle, began to mean capable of writing, correspondence and counting.
Schools are motivated predominantly by religious beliefs: their ideology gravitated towards "pious literacy", the carriculum (curriculum) is based on a program of literary education, secular and sacred, support came from rulers and states that acted from religious stimuli. This, of course, did not negate the effects of increased commercial (p. 11) and economic activity and the rapid urbanization of Europe. But it's still kind of vague.

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The emergence of universities played the most significant role for the development of the West and in particular for the development of individual sciences and philosophical and theological thoughts that were relevant for the Middle Ages. Also, the heyday contributed to the improvement of medieval sciences and philosophy, which raised the issue of the relationship of faith, reason and life experience.

Education - "seven liberal arts". For such a fundamental development of education in general and the emergence of such an important institution of society as the university, ancient traditions were of key importance.

The medieval philosopher had to adapt many significant works ancient and oriental authors, since they often did not correspond to Christian doctrines and could become a threat to the powerful and widespread influence of the church on the people.

An important role in this was played by Thomas Aquinas, whose philosophical and theological synthesis answered many questions. The development of culture marked the beginning of the formation of various educational structures, different types of schools were distinguished: parish, cathedral and monastic.

Grammar, dialectic, rhetoric were taught in the monastic schools, and subjects such as mathematics, geometry, religious astronomy and music were introduced for higher educational institutions. The totality of these subjects was called the "seven liberal arts."

Basically, the schools met all the requirements of the church for education, but over time, secular-type schools were organized, which could be specialized. Therefore, in parallel with church-oriented schools, urban educational establishments and the chivalric education system, which was called the "seven knightly virtues".

Science and Philosophy - Experimental Significance

The largest medieval scientists and thinkers created a variety of teachings that contributed to the development of philosophy and science. The outstanding scientist Pierre Abelard believed that free thinking and an open mind should be the basis, and Bernard of Clervon insisted that only God's grace would help people discover the secrets of the universe.

The talented scientist Thomas Aquinas created an invaluable encyclopedia of knowledge about God and the world around him, which was presented in the form of logical chickens. Roger Bacon is considered one of the most unusual thinkers of the heyday of the Middle Ages, who combined theoretical and practical approaches to the experimental sciences.

In his famous works "Fundamentals of Natural Science", "Compendium of Philosophy", "Great Work" he emphasized the importance of experimental natural science for strengthening the faith of man. He diligently studied the structure of scientific knowledge, and included in his works reflections on the importance of inner, spiritual experience, combined with its practical comprehension and life experience.

There was a famous treatise by Thomas Aquinas "The Sum of Theology", which is divided into chapters, including one question and extensive discussions on a given topic. It raised the most pressing issues for medieval science and philosophy.

	Years of life	Essence of views

Paragraph 26 "Education and Philosophy in the Middle Ages"

In the early Middle Ages, people practically did not travel, because they considered it _______________________, in addition, there were bad ___________. The center of the world was considered - ___________________, and in the east it was located ___________, from which follow: _____________________________________________. The coasts of the _______________ ocean, which was considered closed, are inhabited by _________________________________. Chroniclers were indifferent to accuracy and used vague expressions: _______________________ _____________________. There was also no unified time reference system, so the beginning of the year was different in the countries. The days were divided into day and night. Crimes committed by _________ were severely punished, in addition, this time was considered __________ _____________________________________________. But as it developed: ________ __________________________________________________________________ the situation began to change and people began to travel more often. There was an interest in other countries. The story about the countries of the East was ___________ ___________. The study of languages ​​was also treated with caution, until translations of various works appeared. Translation centers became: ____________________________. The first universities appeared in Europe in the XII century. _____________________ worked here, who taught _________________. Classes were conducted only on _____________. Usually universities had three faculties: __________________________________ -___________________. Classes usually went like this: students wrote down __________________, which could be supplemented by _______________. In the 15th century there were already _______ such educational institutions. The most famous: _______________________________________________. The religious and philosophical doctrine, knowing God and the world, with the help of logic was called - _____________________. The created philosophy contributed to the development of science. Famous philosophers - scholastics of that time were:

	Years of life	Essence of views

Education, science and philosophy. Completed by: 6th grade student, Dmitry Pavlov Checked by: history teacher, Klyukvina E.F. 2012

The emergence of universities played the most significant role for the development of the West and in particular for the development of individual sciences and philosophical and theological thoughts that were relevant for the Middle Ages. Also, the heyday contributed to the improvement of medieval sciences and philosophy, which raised the issue of the relationship of faith, reason and life experience. Education:

Education - "seven liberal arts". For such a fundamental development of education in general and the emergence of such an important institution of society as the university, ancient traditions were of key importance. An important role in this was played by Thomas Aquinas, whose philosophical and theological synthesis answered many questions. The development of culture marked the beginning of the formation of various educational structures, different types of schools were distinguished: parish, cathedral and monastic.

Grammar, dialectic, rhetoric were taught in the monastic schools, and subjects such as mathematics, geometry, religious astronomy and music were introduced for higher educational institutions. The totality of these subjects was called the "seven liberal arts." Basically, the schools met all the requirements of the church for education, but over time, secular-type schools were organized, which could be specialized. Therefore, in parallel with church-oriented schools, urban educational institutions and a knightly education system were formed, which was called the “seven knightly virtues”.

Science and philosophy: The largest medieval scientists and thinkers created a variety of teachings that contributed to the development of philosophy and science. The outstanding scientist Pierre Abelard believed that free thinking and an open mind should be the basis, and Bernard of Clervon insisted that only God's grace would help people discover the secrets of the universe. The talented scientist Thomas Aquinas created an invaluable encyclopedia of knowledge about God and the world around him, which was presented in the form of logical chickens. One of the most unusual thinkers of the heyday of the Middle Ages is Roger Bacon, who combined theoretical and practical approaches to experimental sciences in his various activities. In his famous works "Fundamentals of Natural Science", "Compendium of Philosophy", "Great Work" he emphasized the importance of experimental natural science for strengthening the faith of man. He diligently studied the structure of scientific knowledge, and included in his works reflections on the importance of inner, spiritual experience, combined with its practical understanding and life experience. There was a famous treatise by Thomas Aquinas "The Sum of Theology", which is divided into chapters, including one question and extensive discussions on a given topic. It raised the most pressing issues for medieval science and philosophy. Thomas Aquinas

Thanks for attention!