Latin and Greek borrowings in Russian. Latin loanwords

Even before the settlement of the Germanic tribes, Angles, Saxons and Jutes in the British Isles, trade relations existed between these tribes and the Romans, which left some traces in the languages ​​of these tribes. Borrowings of this period, which is usually called the first period of Latin borrowings, reflect the nature of the cultural, economic and military relations of the Roman and Germanic tribes. New words usually express new concepts that arose in connection with the introduction to the higher culture of the Roman people of this period. Such borrowings include the following words: port (Lat. portus), cycene (kitcen) from Lat. coquina, piper (pepper) from Lat. Piper and others.

The assumption that these words were borrowed by the Anglo-Saxons before they moved to the British Isles is based on comparative historical analysis. Comparing the lexical composition of various Germanic languages ​​and dialects, comparative historical linguistics has established the commonality of many words of Latin origin in these languages. Naturally, there was an assumption that the Anglo-Saxons brought these words with them. However, the presence of many of these words in the language of the Celts, with whom the Anglo-Saxons came into contact on the islands, does not make it possible to accurately establish, in view of the lack of monuments, whether these words came into Old English directly from Latin or were borrowed from the Celtic language already in Britain.

The bulk of Latin borrowings is associated with the introduction of Christianity in 597. Most of these borrowings express church-religious concepts. The general upsurge of culture associated with the introduction of Christianity led to the emergence of new concepts that needed an appropriate language design. New words appeared from the Latin language, denoting concepts from the sphere of culture and everyday life.

Here are some examples of Latin words that found their way into Old English and have survived in modern English.

Household items, tools, implements: ancor (anchor) from Lat. ancora; box (box) from Lat. buxus; cealc (chalk) from Lat. calcem; paper (paper) from Lat. paryrus; pyle (pillow) from Lat. pulvinus; post (post) from Lat. postis; purs (purse) from Lat.bursa; sicol (sikle) from Lat. secula;

Clothing items: cappe (cap) from Lat. cappa; socc (sock) from Lat. soccus.

Measures of weight for their length: circul (circle) from Lat. circumlus; pund (pound) from Lat. pondo; ynce (inch) from Lat. incia.

Names of animals, birds and fish: assa (ass) from Lat. asinus; camel (camel) from Lat. camelus; turtle (turtle) from Lat. turtur; truht (trout) from Lat. tructa.

Plant names: palm (palm) from Lat. palma; pere (pear) from Lat. pyrum; rose (rose) from Lat. rosa; lilie (lily) from Lat. lilium; plante (plant) from Lat. planta.

Words related to the concepts of religion:

engel (angel) from Lat. angelus; biscop (bishop) from Lat. episcopus; cyrice (church) from Lat. cyriaca; munuc (monk) from Lat. monachus; nunne (nun) from Lat. nonna; papa (pope) from Lat. papa.

In total, according to the estimates of the English linguist Bo, by the end of the Old English period, there were about 450 Latin borrowings, not counting derivative words and proper names.

A significant number of Latin words entered the English language during the period of the 11th-13th centuries, during the period of the Normans. However, these words, in their majority, have already undergone, to a greater or lesser extent, phonetic, grammatical and semantic changes in the Norman dialect of French, which borrowed these words from Latin.

The largest number of words borrowed by English from Latin are the so-called book borrowings. These are words that have entered the language not as a result of direct, live communication between peoples, but through written documents, books, and so on. Book borrowings are qualitatively different from other types of borrowings. First of all, they are less subject to any kind of changes, especially semantic ones. It is logical to explain this by the fact that book borrowings, for a long period of time, are limited by the scope of their use - the literary form of a given language. Further, these borrowings are usually abstract, abstract or terminological in nature.

Most of the Latin book borrowings in English fall on the period of the 16th, as well as the 15th-16th centuries, that is, the Renaissance in England. There are over a thousand Latin words in the works of Wycliffe, Langland, and Chaucer that have not been previously attested in English. In the Renaissance, words from the field of medicine, literature, theology, technical terms and so on appear. A list of these words cannot be given within a short chapter. To do this, you need to create a special dictionary.

Most of these borrowings can be distinguished by morphological features, for example, verbs that have the suffix -ate- in the infinitive, formed from the past participle of Latin verbs of I conjugation, as separate, translate, meditate, exaggerate, congratulate; verbs with the suffix -ute- in the infinitive, derived from the basis of the past participle of the group of Latin verbs of III conjugation, like prosecute, execute; adjectives formed from Latin present participles with stems in -ant- and -ent-, e.g. evident, transparent, patient, triumphant, apparent, obedient.

The following centuries - XVII, XVIII - witnessed book borrowings from the Latin language. In most cases, these are the so-called "learned words", often retaining the morphological features of Latin words, such as inertia, sanatorium, genus, radius, curriculum, datum, vacuum.

Finally, in modern English there are also such borrowings that have completely preserved their Latin appearance, that is, they have not undergone and are not currently undergoing any linguistic assimilation. These words and expressions are used in the language as a kind of quotation from the Latin language. The scope of their use is very limited: they are usually used in the styles of scientific prose, in business documents, in an elevated oratorical style of speech. These borrowings include such expressions as: alma mater, bona fide, ex officio, conditio sine quanon, and so on.

As noted in the previous chapter, in the process of borrowing words from one language to another, there are cases when the same word is borrowed twice. This is possible only in cases of long-term historical and cultural ties between peoples whose languages ​​come into contact. Such is the history of the influence of Latin on English. Many Latin words appeared in English twice: once from French, another time from the Latin language itself. The second borrowing is usually removed from the first by a significant period of time necessary for the newly borrowed word to be considered as a new one. Etymological Franco-Latin doublets are obtained.

Some word-forming elements - prefixes and suffixes - should also be attributed to the number of Latin borrowings of a bookish nature. These derivational morphemes were not borrowed from Latin as independent lexical units; they were borrowed as part of whole words and only later comprehended as word-forming morphemes. However, in the linguistic literature they are called borrowed affixes.

Thus, the Latin language had a significant impact on the enrichment of the English language with new words. This is largely due to the fact that the Norman conquest of England, which brought with it a huge number of French words, set the stage for a relatively free influx of Latin words due to etymological relationship. In historical lexicology, it is sometimes difficult to determine whether a particular word has entered the English language from French or Latin.

Among borrowed Latin words, a certain group of words stands out, which in one or another sound form, grammatical design and semantic content can be found in a number of languages ​​- international words. It was the Latin language that gave the most significant number of such words. This is explained by the fact that the Latin language in the era of feudalism was for many countries of Western Europe the international language of science, and in some countries in general the literary language. The Latin language retained its significance as the language of science until the 17th-18th centuries. Modern medicine, chemistry, botany, zoology, philosophy, politics, art still widely use the Latin bases to designate newly emerging concepts. Of the Latin words borrowed into English and being international words, the following words can be mentioned: obligation, constitution, alibi, agriculture, microscope, modern, laboratory, program, system, socialism, communism, capitalism, climate, radius, tradition and so on.

medical term borrowed from Latin

In Russia, Latin became widespread with the reforms of Peter I. At first, it was used exclusively by scientists, diplomats and lawyers, but gradually Latin became Russified and became understandable to wider sections of society, and many Latin words firmly entered the Russian language and took root: literature, architecture, fashion, notary, lawyer and many other words are no longer perceived as alien.

In modern society, Latin is already essential not only for doctors, but also for entrepreneurs, lawyers, lawyers and representatives of other professions. Persona non grata, status quo, terra incognita - these are just a tiny part of those Latin expressions and catchphrases that we see almost every day. Moreover, without a minimum knowledge of the Latin language, without an understanding of well-known Latin expressions, proverbs and catchphrases, it is no longer possible to imagine a modern intelligent person.

The original Russian medical vocabulary is rooted in the common Indo-European language-base and the common Slavic language-base, on the basis of which in the 7th-8th centuries. originated the Old Russian language. Writing appeared in Russia in the middle of the 10th century. in the form of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) language.

It is possible that the original keepers of medical knowledge among the ancient Slavic tribes, like among many other peoples, were the priests-sorcerers. The common Slavic word Doctor, which has a common root with the words “grumble”, “speak”, originally meant a sorcerer, sorcerer, fortuneteller, soothsayer, healing with charms, conspiracies and slander. From the depths of centuries, the words witnessed in ancient Russian handwritten monuments have come down to us, belonging to the common Slavic layer: thigh (diminutive “thigh, tibia”; hence “tibia”), thorn, side, eyebrow, hair, pox (pox), head, throat , chest, hernia, lip, tooth, face, forehead, urine, nose, nail, fetus, kidney, cancer, arm, spleen, heart, crown, ear, etc.

We can consider Old Russian words that are common to Church Slavonic and Old Russian languages, as well as words that belonged to one of them, but steadily entered the Russian literary language, for example: pregnant, infertility, twins, illness, pain, sick, pus, lower leg, larynx, thirst, stomach, bile, conception, health, vision, intestine, skin, bone, medicine, medicinal, treatment, heal, brain, callus, muscle, nostril, smell, touch, edema, poisoning, groin, liver, hymen, shoulder, sole, lower back, navel, erysipelas, mouth, spasm, body, jaw, skull, neck, ulcer, etc. Modern terminology includes such ancient names as the ligament, duodenum, epigastrium (the Church Slavonic and Old Russian word “vyya” referred to neck, and the Church Slavonic words “finger” and “womb” meant, respectively, “finger” and “stomach”).

Many old Russian names of diseases and their symptoms have long been out of use, and their identification with modern terms succeed with great difficulty. Such names include, for example, vdush (asthma), goldfish (jaundice), kamchyug (arthritis), bloody womb (dysentery), falling sickness (epilepsy), burning burning ( anthrax), leprosy (leprosy, lupus and some other skin lesions), overthrow (scabies), shaking (malaria).

Some of the Old Russian words used in the modern medical dictionary have changed their meaning. So, for example, the word "corn" in ancient times meant enlarged lymph nodes or an ulcer, the word "composition" - a part of the body or an organ, as well as a joint in the modern sense, the word "gland" could mean a tumor ("gland merli people"). The Old Russian word "belly" had several meanings: life, property, animal. The word "eye", originally meaning "ball (shiny)", only in the XVI-XVII centuries. acquired a modern meaning along with a synonym - the common Slavic word "eye" and finally supplanted the latter only in the 18th century. In literary monuments of the XVI century. for the first time the word "back" appears as a synonym for the ancient word "ridge" in the monuments of the 17th century. - the word "lungs" instead of the ancient name "ivy", the word "cough" is found for the first time.

Many original Russian names that existed in the language of ancient Russian empirical medicine and were recorded in all kinds of "Healers", "Travniki" and "Vertograds" did not survive in the language of scientific medicine and gave way to other names, most often of Greek-Latin origin.

Grecisms of anatomical and physiological content are found sporadically already in the early monuments of ancient Russian literature. The penetration of Greekisms after the adoption of Christianity by Russia (X century) was facilitated both by direct contacts with Byzantium and its culture, and by the growth in the number of translated Church Slavonic works. The latter were often compilations of passages from the works of Aristotle, Hippocrates, Galen, and Byzantine physicians.

Latin vocabulary was originally also borrowed through the Greek-Byzantine intermediary, although in an extremely negligible amount. Actively it began to penetrate in the XV-XVI centuries. through the Polish language. In the 17th century in connection with the progress of education in Ukraine, Latinisms began to be borrowed directly from works in Latin. Perhaps the very first of these works - Vesalius' Epitome, which is the author's brief extract from the essay On the Structure of the Human Body, was translated in 1657-1658. prominent Russian educator Epiphanius Slavinetsky. It is assumed that the translation was supposed to serve as an anatomy textbook for students of the school of Russian doctors, allegedly opened in 1654-1655. under the Apothecary order. Although the translation of E. Slavinetsky has been lost, it can be assumed on the basis of his other work “The Complete Greek-Slavic-Latin Lexicon” that he created certain prerequisites for mastering the terminology of Western European medicine of that era. E. Slavinetsky used only two ways of translating terms - the use of original Russian equivalents and tracing [for example, he translated the term polyphagia (from the Greek poly- a lot and phagein is) with the word "polyeating"] and almost did not use borrowings.

A significant step in the understanding and mastering of Greek-Latin vocabulary by Russians, including medical content, was made by the remarkable lexicographer of the early 18th century. F.P. Polikarpov. His “Trilingual Lexicon, that is, Slavonic, Hellenic-Greek and Latin Treasures” (1704), consisting of 19712 articles, contains a significant number of names of diseases and medicinal herbs in Greek, Latin and Russian. Big number synonyms given by him testifies to a wide range of literary medical sources used. Each article begins with a Russian name, which most often represents either the Russian equivalent (stone disease, smallpox, erysipelas, okovrach or full-timer, etc.), or a descriptive designation; borrowings are used less often - and Latinisms (apoplexy, dysentery, doctor, etc.).

After the first graduates of the Greco-Latin Academy, in 1658 in Moscow, classicisms began to be borrowed directly from the works of ancient authors and on a much larger scale than before. Special attention was devoted to teaching scientific anatomical and surgical terminology in Latin at the First Hospital School, established in 1707 at the direction of Peter I and led by N. Bidloo.

During the Petrine era and after it, throughout the entire 18th century, hundreds of scientific Latinisms poured into the actively developing Russian literary language, both directly from Latin writings and through Western European languages. AT early XVIII in. the following words became widespread: medic, medicine, medicine, medicine, pill, pharmacist, prescription, sangva (lat. sanguis blood), urine (lat. urina urine), febra (lat. febris fever). In the middle of the XVIII century. the words abscess, ampulla, amputation, tonsillitis, vein, consultation, constitution, contusion, muscle, nerve, oculist, patient, dissector, pulse, respiration (breathing), retina, relapse, section, scalpel, scurvy (scurvy) appear in the literature, temperament, fiber (vein), fistula, etc.

A huge contribution to the substantiation of the principles and the development of Russian scientific terminology was made by M.V. Lomonosov (1711-1765). A brilliant connoisseur of classical languages, he repeatedly emphasized their importance for the needs of education and for the progress of terminology in Russia. M.V. Lomonosov took part in the review of the first anatomical atlas translated from German language A.P. Protasov (1724-1796), who laid the foundations of scientific anatomical terminology in Russian.

Russian doctors-translators of the XVIII century. credit for the creation of Russian scientific medical terminology. It was truly a feat of learning and patriotism. Russian translators had to overcome significant difficulties in the transfer by means of their native language of the names of abstract concepts developed by Western European languages, including the classicisms and neoclassicisms mastered by the latter.

The shortcomings of terminology were felt especially sharply by Russian medical teachers. The teaching of medical disciplines in Russian was possible only under the condition of the development of domestic terminology. Therefore, many prominent Russian doctors became both translators and philologists. Among them, first of all, we should mention the chief physician of the St. Petersburg Admiralty Hospital M.I. Shein (1712-1762), who created the earliest summary of Russian anatomical terms in Russian literature.

Translators were able to cope with the names of diseases and symptoms more easily, because they often had equivalent designations that existed in the language traditional medicine. The situation was more difficult with scientific anatomy, since many anatomical formations, for example, pleura, pancreas, tro-chanter, did not have Russian names at all. In such cases, it was not uncommon to create descriptive compound terms instead of a single Latin (or Latinized Greek) word. So, M.I. Shein created the Russian equivalent for the word diaphragma "abdominal obstruction". Along with this, translators resorted to tracing. A.P. Protasov introduced the name Clavicle, which is a tracing-paper from the Latin word clavicula (from clavis key).

In the process of the formation of domestic terminology, there was almost no foreign language term for which different authors would not offer several equivalents in Russian. Not all of them have stood the test of time and have been replaced by terms of Greek-Latin origin, including neologisms.

The first dictionaries of medical terms in Latin, Russian and French were compiled by the first Russian professor of "midwifery" N.M. Ambodik-Maximovich (1744-1812). In 1783, his “Anatomical and Physiological Dictionary” was published, containing about 4000 items, and the Russians were extracted, according to the author, “from various printed, church and civil, as well as new, old and handwritten books”, and also represented "hand-made" his work. In the next issue - "Medico-Pathological-Surgical Dictionary" (1785) - "the names of diseases and their symptoms that are in human body, as well as devices, operations, dressings used in surgery to perform certain manipulations.

Russian medical vocabulary was presented in the first academic dictionary of the Russian language - "Dictionary of the Russian Academy" (1789-1794) - more than 600 words. Popular common Russian names were included, as well as borrowed scientific terms of Greek-Latin origin. The words were accompanied by very complete, carefully worded definitions. The medical part of the dictionary was compiled by the leading Russian scientists, doctors A.P. Protasov and N.Ya. Ozertskovsky (1750-1827). In this dictionary, in particular, the term Inflammation, created by Shein in 1761, was first recorded as a tracing-paper from the Latin word inflammatio (from inflammo to set fire, ignite, ignite).

A major contribution to the creation of Russian anatomical terminology was made by the founder of the Russian anatomical school P.A. Zagorsky (1764-1846), who wrote the first Russian anatomy textbook (1802), where he introduced Russian equivalents of a number of Latin terms. E.O. Mukhin (1766-1850), who also created an anatomy course in Russian.

A qualitatively new stage in the lexicographic processing, clarification and systematization of the rapidly growing Russian medical terminology can be considered the “Medical Dictionary”, compiled in 1835 by A.N. Nikitin, founder and first secretary of the Society of Russian Doctors of St. Petersburg. It was the first medical dictionary in Russia in which the terms were interpreted. Medical community in the first half of the 19th century. highly appreciated the work of Nikitin "for a deep knowledge of the Russian language and an extensive acquaintance with Russian medical literature", which allowed "to present without innovation the nomenclature in its entirety and in such a way that henceforth it could serve as a model of Russian medical terminology."

Throughout the 19th century Russian medical vocabulary continued to be actively replenished with terms that had an international distribution, the predominant mass of which was classicism and neoclassicism, for example, Abortion, alveolus (Alveolus of the lung), Ambulatory, Bacillus, Vaccine, hallucination (Hallucinations), Dentin, Immunization, Immunity, Heart attack, Infection, Cavern, Carbuncle, Lymph, Percussion, Pulp, Reflex, Exudate, etc., preserved to this day.

At the same time, there were also extreme purists among Russian doctors who objected to borrowings and neologisms, defended the original Russian common vocabulary, which they endowed with special medical significance. This point of view was held, in particular, by V.I. Dahl (1801--1872) - a doctor by profession, creator of " explanatory dictionary living Great Russian language. However, none of the replacements he proposed was retained in the language of domestic medicine.

The majority of Russian physicians defended the terms established in professional usage, regardless of whether they are internationalisms of Greek-Latin origin or their Russian equivalents. They also realized the importance of preserving the Latin termini technici, i.e. reference, international not only in meaning, but also in form, according to the Latin transcription of names. In 1892-1893. was published in translation from the German language "Encyclopedic Medical Dictionary" by A. Vilare. The preface to the Russian edition of the dictionary stated that "over the past decades, Russian medical terminology has developed significantly and strengthened among practical doctors, however, it is not yet at such a height that it excludes the use of Latin names." It defended the advantage of the then generally accepted Latin terms such as autodigestio, abrachia, acromegalia, epilepsia, and objected to the corresponding Russian names "self-digestion", "handlessness", "giant growth", "falling", etc. It is interesting that the further fate of these terms turned out to be different: Self-digestion, and not autodigestio, was fixed in the language, and the rest of the terms were preserved in the form of borrowing, without being accompanied by Russian equivalents (Abrachia, Acromegaly, Epilepsy).

Modern Russian medical terminology on the basis of linguistic origin, forms of writing, functions performed at the national or international levels, can be divided into the following main groups:

• 1) original Russian names;
• 2) borrowed classicisms, assimilated to varying degrees, adapted to the sound and morphological system of Russian literary language; the vast majority of them actually perform the function of internationalisms, i.e. terms that have received interlingual distribution in at least three languages ​​from different language groups (for example, in Latin, French, English, German, Russian, etc.);
• 3) primordial Western Europeanisms that actually perform the function of internationalisms;
• 4) Latin termini technici.

In the second half of the XX century. medical vocabulary continues to be enriched with internationalisms. In modern Russian medical terminology, internationalisms and their Russian equivalents (including tracing papers of a foreign term) act as synonyms. At the same time, in some cases, the Russian equivalent is preferably used, for example, Lice instead of pediculosis (Pediculosis), Scabies instead of Prurigo, Ossification instead of Ossification, Diarrhea instead of Diarrhea, Dwarfism instead of Nanism, Infringement instead of Incarceration, Eversion of the eyelid instead of Ectropion. In other cases, internationalisms are preferred, for example, Puncture, not Puncture, Malignancy, not Malignancy, Favus, not Scab, Palpation, not Feeling, Enucleation, not Ecclusion, Gynophobia, not Misogyny. In many of the above cases, the preferred use of a borrowed word is explained by the fact that its Russian equivalent is also used in the general literary language in a broader or different sense. Sometimes the Russian equivalent retreats before internationalism, since it is easier to form derivative words from the latter, for example Placenta (placental) - Children's place. Often such synonyms are almost equal, for example: Bleeding, Hemorrhage and Hemorrhage (hemorrhagic), Myopia and Myopia (myopic), Pancreas and pancreas (pancreatic), Blood transfusion and Hemotransfusion (hemotransfusion).

Many terms of Greek-Latin origin, including neoclassicisms, penetrate Russian terminology through Western European languages. Often they were able to win the actual status of internationalisms, appearing almost simultaneously in two or more languages, and it is often difficult or impossible to find out in which particular Western European language this or that term, marked with the seal of classical or neoclassical origin, first appeared. Many terms, having appeared initially in English, French or German language design, are subject to simultaneous or subsequent formal romanization; however, this process can also develop in the opposite direction: from a term Latinized in form to its nationally adapted counterpart.

Sometimes a clear indication that classicism or neoclassicism was borrowed through Western European languages ​​is phonetic features that are not characteristic of classical languages. Thus, the presence of the [w] sound in some words, which was absent in classical languages, indicates that the word was borrowed from German (Sciatica, neoclassicisms Schizophrenia, schizothymia, etc.). Under the influence of the phonetic system of the French language, the term Senestopathy (French cеnestopathie) arose, originating from Greek words koinos (general), aisth3sis (sensation, feeling) and pathos (suffering, illness).

Influenced by Western European languages ​​in some Latinized words Greek origin a sound [ts], absent in the Greek language, appeared, for example: Cysta (Latin cysta, from Greek kystis), Cyanosis (Latin cyanosis, from Greek kyanФsis).

The artificial (neoclassicist) nature of a number of terms is indicated by the components of different languages, mainly Greek and Latin; for example: Vagotomy (Latin anat. nervus vagus vagus nerve + Greek tom3 incision), Coronarosclerosis (Latin anat. arteria coronaria coronary artery + Greek skl3rfsis hardening, sclerosis), Rectoscopy (Latin rectum rectum + Greek skopef consider , research). “Hybrids” Appendicitis, Gingivitis, Duodenitis, Conjunctivitis, Retinitis, Tonsillitis, etc. are formed similarly (to the Latin anatomical terms appendix - appendage, gingiva - gum, duodenum - duodenum, conjunctiva - connective membrane of the eye, retina - retina, tonsilla - tonsil, added the Greek suffix -itis, used to denote inflammation). Greek prefixes Hyper-, Hypo-, Peri-, etc. are often connected with Latin basis Key words: hyperfunction, hypotension, perivisceral, perivascular. There are also Greek-Russian "hybrids": Allochryasch, leuco suspension, Speechgram, etc.

Such a "hybridization" is quite natural within the framework of biomedical terminology, where Greek and latin roots and word-formation elements over the course of many centuries have grown into the fabric of national languages ​​and formed an international fund in them. Therefore, the “hybrid” word “acidophilic” (lat. acidus sour + Greek philos loving, prone) is just as legitimate as the monolingual word “thermophilic” (Greek thermos heat, warmth + Greek philos).

Native Western Europeanisms, i.e. there are relatively few words that have arisen from the lexical and word-building material of Western European languages ​​in Russian medical vocabulary. Their active introduction is noted only from the end of the 19th century. and especially in the 20th century. They are presented mainly in the terminology related to medical technology, surgical techniques, genetics, physiology, hygiene, and are much less common in the nomenclature of diseases. So, anglicisms include, for example, Atachman, Blockade, Doping, Inbreeding, Clearance, Crossingover, Pacemaker, Site, shunt (Arteriovenous shunt) and “hybrid” terms Aerotank, dumping syndrome, rant disease (Rant disease), Westing- syndrome. Borrowings from the French language include, for example, Absence, Midwife, Bandage, Bouj, Influenza, Drainage, Probe, Cannula, Whooping Cough, Cretinism, Curette, Patronage, Pipette, Raspator, Tampon, Tic, Yaws, Chancre, the "hybrid" term Culdoscopy . Examples of borrowings from the German language are boron (Dental Boron), Bygel, Klammer, Kornzang, Kurort, Reuters, Spatula, Fur Coat, “hybrid” words Abortsang, Rausch-narcosis, etc.

Some nosological terms of Italian origin have become internationalisms: Influenza, Malaria, Pellagra, Scarlet fever. From the Spanish language comes the term Sigwatera, from the Scottish - Croup.

There are individual words borrowed from Eastern and African languages: Japanese word Tsutsugamushi, African tribal - Kwashiorkor, Sinhalese - Beri-beri. Sexologists use some words of ancient Indian origin, for example, Vikharita, Virghata, Kumbitmaka, Narvasadata. From the tribal languages ​​of the American Indians, the names of some medicinal substances are borrowed: ipecac, curare, quinine.

The traditional feature of biomedical terminology continues to be the use of termini technici - terms graphically and grammatically designed in Latin. The identity of their understanding by different specialists in all countries makes termini technici an indispensable tool for the internationalization of terminology.

Large termini technici groups are combined into modern international nomenclatures and have an officially approved international status. These include the nomenclature of morphological and biological disciplines: anatomical, histological and embryological nomenclature, codes of botanical and zoological nomenclature and a code of nomenclature of bacteria. In the International Pharmacopoeia, the Latin name of the medicinal product is indicated as the main reference.

Termini technici related to the dictionary of clinical medicine, denoting diseases, pathological conditions, symptoms, syndromes, etc., have a different status. In most cases, they actually perform the function of international designations, but their use is optional. The "International Classification of Diseases, Injuries and Causes of Death" does not contain international Latin names as mandatory. In the USSR, most of these termini technici are used only in conjunction with their Russian equivalents, such as hernia (hernia), urticaria (urticaria), herpes zoster (herpes zoster), cholecystitis (cholecystitis). At the same time, some termini technici of this type are used in domestic medical terminology as preferred terms. These include, for example, Caries sicca, Carcinoma in situ, Partus conduplicato corpore, Situs viscerum inversus, Spina bifida, Status typhosus, Tabes dorsalis, coxa vara (Coxa vara).

Latin is the language of Ancient Rome (VI century BC - V century AD). The vast majority of Latin words began to penetrate into Old Russian, and then into Russian, when Latin was already a dead language. They entered through intermediary languages, first through the Old Slavonic language, then through Polish, German, French, etc. Among the words of Latin origin there are many scientific and political terms, in general, words associated with "scientific" occupations: native, abstraction, lawyer, axiom, alibi, audience, affix, vacuum, vein, deduction, dean, dictatorship, inertia, colleague, cone, conference, meridian, perpendicular, proportion, radius, rector, review, formula, constitution, manifesto, memorandum, plenum, revolution, republic, referendum, faction, etc. Words from other thematic groups: intelligentsia, office, cooperation, culture, course, laureate , literature, maximum, minimum, motor, nation, innovator, revision, center, instance, etc. Many proper personal names came from the Latin language: August, Anton, Valentin, Valery, Victor, Ignatius, Innokenty, Claudia, Konstantin, Maxim, Marina, Natalia, Pavel, Roman, Sergei, Felix, Julius, etc. Signs of Latin words - final - e nt, -tor, -um, -ur (a), -yc *, -tion, etc.: document, associate professor, incident, monument, enzyme; author, announcer, doctor, innovator, rector, equator; quorum, consultation, memorandum, opium, plenum, presidium, forum; fittings, dictatorship, censorship, etc.; degree, consensus, cone, corpus, sine, status, tone; diction, intelligentsia, constitution, nation, reaction, section, faction, etc.

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A significant place in the textbook is occupied by material related to culture speech communication and paperwork. The textbook is aimed at presenting modern views regarding Russian language and culture speeches in early XXI in ...

Latin words in Russian.

The Latin language played a significant role in the enrichment of Russian vocabulary (including terminology), associated mainly with the sphere of scientific, technical and socio-political life. The words ascend to the Latin source: author, administrator, audience, student, exam, external, minister, justice, operation, censorship, dictatorship, republic, deputy, delegate, rector, excursion, expedition, revolution, constitution, etc. These Latinisms came to our language, as well as to other European languages, not only through direct contact of the Latin language with some other (which, of course, was not excluded, especially through various educational institutions), but also through other languages. Latin in many European states was the language of literature, science, official papers and religion (Catholicism). Scientific writings up to the XVIII century. often written in Latin; medicine still uses Latin. All this contributed to the creation of an international fund of scientific terminology, which was mastered by many European languages, including Russian.

The compilers of an anthology of medieval Latin literature write: “Latin was not a dead language, and Latin literature was not dead literature. Latin was not only written, but also spoken: it was a spoken language that united a few educated people of that time: when a Swabian boy and a Saxon boy met at a monastery school, and a Spaniard boy and a Pole boy met at the University of Paris, then, to understand each other, they had to speak Latin. And not only treatises and lives were written in Latin, but also accusatory sermons, and meaningful historical writings, and inspired poems.

Most of the Latin words came into the Russian language in the period from the 16th to the 18th centuries, especially through the Polish and Ukrainian languages, for example: school, auditorium, dean, office, holidays, director, dictation, exam, etc. (The role of special educational institutions.) All the current names of the months from the Latin language are borrowed through Greek.

In addition to borrowing foreign vocabulary, the Russian language actively borrowed some foreign word-building elements to create proper Russian words. Among such borrowings, a group of international terms is worth mentioning, for example: dictatorship, constitution, corporation, laboratory, meridian, maximum, minimum, proletariat, process, public, revolution, republic, erudition, etc.

Let us give examples of the use of the Latin language as a single language of science, which helps to avoid confusion and achieve understanding by people of different nationalities.

In astronomy, the most famous constellation in the northern hemisphere is Ursa Major (lat. Ursa Major) - this asterism has been known since ancient times among many peoples under different names: Plow, Elk, Wagon, Seven Wise Men Hearse and Wailers.

In the system of chemical elements, a uniform naming of all elements is applicable. For example, gold has symbol Au and scientific name(lat.) Aurum. Proto-Slavic *zolto (Russian gold, Ukrainian gold, Old Slavic gold, Polish złoto), Lithuanian geltonas "yellow", Latvian zelts "gold, golden"; Gothic gulþ, German Gold, English Gold.

“Golden grass is the head of all herbs” - this folk saying about one of the most poisonous medicinal plants Russia. Popular names: chistoplot, chistec, podtynnik, warthog, prozornik, gladishnik, glechkopar, zhovtilo, yellow euphorbia, nutcracker, zhovtilo, dog soap, swallow grass. It is unlikely that we recognized the well-known celandine. To understand what kind of plant we are talking about, scientists use Latin names (Chelidónium május).

Whereas the Greeks took upon themselves the "duty" of naming poetic and theatrical terms, the Romans took up prose in earnest. Latin connoisseurs will tell us that this short word can be translated into Russian with the phrase "purposeful speech." The Romans generally liked precise and short definitions. It is not for nothing that the word lapidary came to us from the Latin language, i.e. "carved in stone" (short, concise). The word text means “connection”, “connection”, and the illustration means “explanation” (to the text). A legend is “what should be read”, a memorandum is “what should be remembered”, and an opus is “work”, “work”. The word fabula in Latin means "story", "tale", but in Russian it came from German with the meaning "plot". A manuscript is a document “written by hand”, but an editor is a person who must “put everything in order”. Madrigal is also a Latin word, it comes from the root "mother" and means a song in the native, "mother" language.

The Romans developed a unique set of laws for that time (Roman law) and enriched world culture with many legal terms. For example, justice (“justice”, “legality”), alibi (“in another place”), verdict (“truth is spoken”), lawyer (from the Latin “I call”), notary - (“scribe”), protocol (“ first page”), visa (“viewed”), etc. The words version ("turn") and intrigue ("to confuse") are also of Latin origin. The Romans, on the other hand, came up with the word blunder - “fall”, “mistake”, “wrong step”.

The following medical terms are Latin in origin: hospital (“hospitable”), immunity (“liberation from something”), invalid (“powerless”, “weak”), invasion (“attack”), muscle (“mouse”) , obstruction ("blockage"), obliteration ("destruction"), pulse ("push").

At present, Latin is the language of science and serves as a source for the formation of new words and terms that never existed. For example, allergy is “another action” (the term was coined by the Austrian pediatrician K. Pirke).

In our time, scientific terms are often created from Greek and Latin roots, denoting concepts unknown in the era of antiquity: astronaut [gr. cosmos - Universe + gr. nautes - (sea) - swimmer]; futurology (lat. futurum - future + gr. logos - word, doctrine); scuba gear (Latin aqua - water + English lung - light). This is due to the exceptional productivity of Latin and Greek roots included in various scientific terms, as well as their international character, which facilitates the understanding of such foundations in different languages.

The Latin language played a significant role in the enrichment of Russian vocabulary (including terminology), associated mainly with the sphere of scientific, technical and socio-political life. The words ascend to the Latin source: author, administrator, audience, student, exam, external, minister, justice, operation, censorship, dictatorship, republic, deputy, delegate, rector, excursion, expedition, revolution, constitution, etc. These Latinisms came to our language, as well as to other European languages, not only through direct contact of the Latin language with some other (which, of course, was not excluded, especially through various educational institutions), but also through other languages. Latin in many European states was the language of literature, science, official papers and religion (Catholicism). Scientific writings up to the XVIII century. often written in Latin; medicine still uses Latin. All this contributed to the creation of an international fund of scientific terminology, which was mastered by many European languages, including Russian.

The compilers of an anthology of medieval Latin literature write: “Latin was not a dead language, and Latin literature was not dead literature. Latin was not only written, but also spoken: it was a spoken language that united a few educated people of that time: when a Swabian boy and a Saxon boy met at a monastery school, and a Spaniard boy and a Pole boy met at the University of Paris, then, to understand each other, they had to speak Latin. And not only treatises and lives were written in Latin, but also accusatory sermons, and meaningful historical writings, and inspired poems.

Most of the Latin words came into the Russian language in the period from the 16th to the 18th centuries, especially through the Polish and Ukrainian languages, for example: school, auditorium, dean, office, holidays, director, dictation, exam, etc. (This played an important role special educational institutions.) All the current names of the months from the Latin language are borrowed through Greek.

In addition to borrowing foreign vocabulary, the Russian language actively borrowed some foreign word-building elements to create proper Russian words. Among such borrowings, a group of international terms is worth mentioning, for example: dictatorship, constitution, corporation, laboratory, meridian, maximum, minimum, proletariat, process, public, revolution, republic, erudition, etc.

Let us give examples of the use of the Latin language as a single language of science, which helps to avoid confusion and achieve understanding by people of different nationalities.

In astronomy, the most famous constellation of the northern hemisphere is Ursa Major (lat. Ursa Major) - this asterism has been known since ancient times among many peoples under different names: Plow, Elk, Wagon, Seven Wise Men Hearse and Wailers.

· In the system of chemical elements, a uniform naming of all elements is applicable. For example, gold has the symbol Au and the scientific name (lat.) Aurum. Proto-Slavic *zolto (Russian gold, Ukrainian gold, old Slavic gold, Polish złoto), Lithuanian geltonas "yellow", Latvian zelts "gold, golden"; Gothic gulþ, German Gold, English Gold.

· “Golden grass is the head of all herbs” - this is a folk saying about one of the most poisonous medicinal plants in Russia. Popular names: chistoplot, chistec, podtynnik, warthog, prozornik, gladishnik, glechkopar, zhovtilo, yellow euphorbia, nutcracker, zhovtilo, dog soap, swallow grass. It is unlikely that we recognized the well-known celandine. To understand which plant in question, scientists use Latin names (Chelidónium május).

Whereas the Greeks took upon themselves the "duty" of naming poetic and theatrical terms, the Romans took up prose in earnest. Latin connoisseurs will tell us that this short word can be translated into Russian with the phrase "purposeful speech." The Romans generally liked precise and short definitions. No wonder it was from the Latin language that the word lapidary came to us, that is, “carved in stone” (short, concise). The word text means “connection”, “connection”, and the illustration means “explanation” (to the text). A legend is “what should be read”, a memorandum is “what should be remembered”, and an opus is “work”, “work”. The word fabula in Latin means "story", "tale", but in Russian it came from German with the meaning "plot". A manuscript is a document “written by hand”, but an editor is a person who must “put everything in order”. Madrigal is also a Latin word, it comes from the root "mother" and means a song in the native, "mother" language.

The Romans developed a unique set of laws for that time (Roman law) and enriched world culture with many legal terms. For example, justice (“justice”, “legality”), alibi (“in another place”), verdict (“truth is spoken”), lawyer (from the Latin “I call”), notary - (“scribe”), protocol (“ first sheet”), visa (“viewed”), etc. The words version (“turn”) and intrigue (“confuse”) are also of Latin origin. The Romans, on the other hand, came up with the word blunder - “fall”, “mistake”, “wrong step”.

The following medical terms are Latin in origin: hospital (“hospitable”), immunity (“liberation from something”), invalid (“powerless”, “weak”), invasion (“attack”), muscle (“mouse”) , obstruction ("blockage"), obliteration ("destruction"), pulse ("push").

At present, Latin is the language of science and serves as a source for the formation of new words and terms that never existed. For example, allergy is “another action” (the term was coined by the Austrian pediatrician K. Pirke).

In our time, scientific terms are often created from Greek and Latin roots, denoting concepts unknown in the era of antiquity: astronaut [gr. cosmos - Universe + gr. nautes - (sea) - swimmer]; futurology (lat. futurum - future + gr. logos - word, doctrine); scuba gear (Latin aqua - water + English lung - light). This is due to the exceptional productivity of Latin and Greek roots included in various scientific terms, as well as their international character, which facilitates the understanding of such foundations in different languages.