Alexander's foreign policy 3 film. Domestic policy of Alexander III (briefly)

Accession to the throne. After the death of Alexander II on March 1, 1881 from a terrorist bomb, his son Alexander III Alexandrovich ascended the throne. He was the second son of Alexander II and was originally intended for military service. At the age of 18, he already had the rank of colonel.
Initially, the eldest son of Alexander II, Nikolai Alexandrovich, was the heir to the throne. But in 1865 in Nice he died of kidney disease. The second son, twenty-year-old Alexander, was urgently prepared for the throne. The upbringing of Alexander Alexandrovich took place under the general supervision of Adjutant General B.A. Perovsky, education was headed by Professor of Moscow University A.I. Chivilev, a specialist in political economy. Russian and German and, history and geography, he was taught by the famous academician Ya.P. Grotto. He was the first to instill in Alexander a love for his native history and culture. Then the famous scientist S.M. taught history. Solovyov. After that, the Tsarevich's love for his native history was finally formed. None of the predecessors Alexander III did not study his native history and culture as much as Alexander III. Jurisprudence was taught to the Grand Duke by a famous scientist, professor of civil law K.P. Pobedonostsev . After finishing teaching the course K.P. Pobedonostsev was appointed Chief Procurator of the Synod. tactics and military history Alexander Alexandrovich was taught by Captain M.I. Dragomirov, later a general and one of the founders of the national military theory. In general, Alexander Alexandrovich received a fundamental education.
In 1866, the crown prince married Dagmar, the daughter of the Danish king, who was named Maria Feodorovna in Orthodoxy. It was originally intended for the first son of Alexander II, Nikolai Alexandrovich. The death of the heir shocked his fiancee Dagmar and his brother Alexander. But at the deathbed of Nicholas, both met their fate. Both will carry the admiration for the memory of Nikolai through their whole lives and they will name their eldest son after him.
Alexander III was well educated, hardworking, intelligent. Great growth and good health allowed him to break horseshoes. His favorite food was Guryev porridge, his favorite pastime was fishing. "Europe can wait while the Russian emperor fishes," he once said, wanting to emphasize Russia's weight and importance in world politics.
On March 1, 1881, he ascended the throne. He inherited a heavy legacy. After the comprehensive reforms of the 60-70s. and the Russian-Turkish war of 1877 - 1878. the country's finances were upset, economic development slowed down, and stagnation was observed in agriculture. The peasantry everywhere showed dissatisfaction with the reform carried out, tension grew in society, murders and attempts on the lives of statesmen were constantly taking place.
But Alexander III immediately took matters into his own hands. a firm hand.
On March 2, 1881, he swore allegiance to the Council of State and declared that in politics he would follow his father's precepts. In 1881, under Alexander II, the Minister of the Interior M.T. Loris-Melikov developed a project for the introduction of representatives of zemstvo and city institutions into government commissions for the development of bills. This project immediately began to be called the "constitution" at the court. On the morning of his death, Alexander II generally approved this project, and a discussion of this project was scheduled for March 4 at a meeting of the Council of Ministers. Due to the assassination of the emperor, the meeting of the Council of Ministers was postponed to March 8. Immediately after the death of his father, Alexander III told M.T. Loris-Melikov: "Do not change anything in the orders of the father. They will be his testament." But on March 6, the emperor received a letter from the chief prosecutor of the Synod, K.P. Pobedonostsev, in which he called for abandoning the liberal course of Alexander II. "It will be the death of both Russia and yours," K.P. Pobedonostsev. The chief prosecutor of the Synod by this time had become the main adviser to Alexander III. The king valued his opinion.
On March 8, 1881, a meeting of the Council of Ministers was held under the chairmanship of Alexander III, at which the question of the further direction of domestic policy was discussed. M.T. Loris-Melikov insisted on the approval of his project. He was supported by the Minister of War D.A. Milyutin and Minister of Finance A.A. Abaza. Their main opponent was K.P. Pobedonostsev. He called for an end to politics liberal reforms, arguing that Russia will perish, as great Poland once perished. Save Russia only unlimited autocracy. Reforms and concessions only undermine the state. The project of the Minister of Internal Affairs is an attempt to "arrange an all-Russian supreme talking shop." MPs will not express the opinion of the country. It is necessary not to carry out reforms, but to repent, since the body of a liberal-minded sovereign has not yet been buried.
The chief prosecutor's speech made a strong impression on those present. Alexander III began to hesitate. Project M.T. Loris-Melikova was referred to the Special Commission for consideration, but it never met. Alexander III hesitated for about a month, then sided with K.P. Pobedonostsev. All prominent terrorists of the "Narodnaya Volya" who participated in the assassination of Alexander II were arrested. And then, by a court verdict in April 1881, they were hanged.
On April 29, 1881, Alexander III issued a manifesto "On the inviolability of autocracy", prepared by K.P. Pobedonostsev. (See Supplementary Textbook) The manifesto spoke of the new emperor's commitment to the principles of unlimited autocracy, and formulated the basic principles of the government's domestic and foreign policy. In the field of domestic policy, "Russia for the Russians" became the main slogan; in foreign policy, the emperor was guided by the principle of maintaining peace with all states.
The next day, liberal-minded M.T. Loris-Melikov, A.A. Abaza, D.A. Milyutin submitted a letter of resignation to the tsar. The resignation was accepted. Soon, the composition of government officials was updated by the tsar's manifesto. Conservative-minded D.A. came to the government. Tolstoy, V.P. Meshchersky, G.S. Stroganov and others. The priority measures of the government were aimed at preventing the revolution.
N.P. was appointed Minister of the Interior. Ignatiev, former ambassador to Turkey. New Minister tried to combine police and administrative measures to eradicate "sedition" with the liberal course of M.T. Loris-Melikova. On August 14, 1881, he issued the "Regulations on Measures for the Preservation of State Order and Public Peace." Initially, the provision extended to the territory of 10 provinces in full and 2 in part. According to this decree, any locality could be declared in a state of emergency. The governors received the right to arrest under administrative procedure for up to 3 months, to fine from 500 to 5000 rubles, to refer the case to a military court, to confiscate property. Censorship was activated. The local administration could close educational institutions, trade and industrial enterprises, suspend the activities of zemstvos and city dumas, and close the press. In 1882, an interdepartmental commission was created to work out measures to strengthen supervision of the youth. At the same time, measures were taken to improve the economic situation of the peasants. In 1881 N.P. Ignatiev instructed his assistant M.S. Kakhanov to develop a local government reform aimed at expanding the powers of local governments. An important step in the political transformation of Russia N.P. Ignatiev considered the convocation of the deliberative Zemsky Sobor as a form of interaction between the emperor and the people, historically inherent in Russia. Secret from K.P. Pobedonostseva N.P. Ignatiev developed a project for convening a Zemsky Sobor and presented it to the emperor. On May 27, 1882, the Zemsky Sobor was supposed to open for the coronation of Alexander III and demonstrate the unity of the people with the emperor. However, the project of N.P. Ignatiev received a sharp assessment from K.P. Pobedonostsev, and N.P. Ignatiev on May 30, 1882 received his resignation.
After that, the domestic policy of Alexander III became more and more conservative and protective. In the 80s - early 90s. in the field of education, the press, local government, courts and confessional politics, a series of legislative acts followed, which earlier in the scientific research and educational literature were not quite successfully defined as "counter-reforms". In fact, the government took a number of measures aimed at limiting the nature and effect of the reforms of the 60s and 70s. There was an adjustment of the liberal course of Alexander II, taking into account Russian realities.

Censorship policy. After the resignation of N.P. Ignatiev, D.A. became the Minister of Internal Affairs. Tolstoy. At the same time, he was appointed chief of the gendarmes. On August 27, 1882, new "Provisional Rules on the Press" were approved. The government created a Special Conference of four ministers - internal affairs, justice, public education and the chief prosecutor of the Synod, which established strict administrative supervision over newspapers and magazines. From now on, editors, at the request of the Minister of the Interior, had to report the names of the authors of articles published under pseudonyms. Any printed organ after a three-fold warning could be closed by the decision of the Special Meeting. In 1883 - 1884. all radical and many liberal-minded publications were closed. In particular, "Domestic notes" by M.E. were closed. Saltykov - Shchedrin. Magazine "Delo" N.V. Shelgunov, the newspapers "Voice", "Moscow Telegraph", "Zemstvo", "Strana" themselves stopped their publications. The government provided support and subsidized "right" publications, in particular, the newspaper "Moskovskie Vedomosti" M.N. Katkova, "Citizen" V.P. Meshchersky.

Government policy in the field of education. In 1884, the liberal university charter was abolished, which allowed the election of rectors, deans, professors and granted autonomy to universities. The appointment of rectors and professors by the Minister of Education was introduced. When appointing to a position, more attention was paid to the political reliability of applicants. Supervision of the behavior of students was organized, uniforms were reintroduced. For admission to the university, a characteristic of the school was required, as well as a certificate from the police about the reliability of the university applicant. Tuition fees at universities increased from 10 rubles. up to 50 rubles in year. In case of disobedience, the student was expelled from the university, and he found himself under the law on universal military service in the army as a private. A number of professors who promoted revolutionary ideas were fired from universities: lawyer S.A. Muromtsev, sociologist M.M. Kovalevsky, philologist F.G. Mishchenko, historian V.I. Semevsky and others. In 1882 - 1883. Women's higher education was practically eliminated: higher women's courses were closed in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kyiv, and Kazan. Activity was resumed only in 1889. Bestuzhev women's courses in St. Petersburg. Parish schools were transferred to the jurisdiction of the Synod. In 1887, a circular was issued, called the decree "on the cook's children." The circular ordered not to accept in the gymnasium "the children of coachmen, lackeys, laundresses, small shopkeepers and the like, whose children, with the exception of perhaps gifted with extraordinary abilities, should not at all be taken out of the environment to which they belong." Gymnasium tuition fees increased sharply. Real schools were transformed into technical schools, the completion of which did not give the right to enter the university.

Introduction of the institute of zemstvo chiefs. The government has taken steps to strengthen state power in the field. In 1889, the "Regulations on zemstvo district chiefs" were published, according to which 2,200 zemstvo sections were created in 40 provinces of Russia, headed by zemstvo chiefs. Zemsky chiefs were appointed by the Minister of the Interior on the proposal of the governors and provincial marshals of the nobility from local hereditary nobles - landowners. The Zemstvo chief was endowed with the broadest rights and completely controlled the life of the village entrusted to him. He could cancel any decision of the gathering, received the right to trial the peasants, at his own discretion he could subject the peasant to corporal punishment, arrest him without any trial for up to 3 days and fine him up to 6 rubles, gave permission for the division of the family, for the redistribution of land. The zemstvo chief also appointed members of the volost court from the candidates proposed by the peasants, could cancel any decision of the volost court, and arrest the judges themselves, subject them to corporal punishment, and fine them. Decrees and decisions of zemstvo chiefs were considered final and not subject to appeal. The position of zemstvo chiefs was introduced in order to bring government power closer to the people.

Changes in the field of local government and courts. In the zemstvo and city local governments created as a result of the reforms of Alexander II, soon - at the turn of the 70s - 80s - liberal sentiments prevailed. Zemstvos basically stood in opposition to the government. Increasingly, zemstvo leaders came forward with constitutional claims. The government began to take measures to limit the effect of the urban and zemstvo reforms of Alexander II.
The government tried to strengthen the role of the nobility in the zemstvos and limit the representation of non-noble elements in them, limit the competence of the zemstvos and put the zemstvos under strict government control. In 1890, a new "Regulations on provincial and zemstvo institutions" was approved. It retained the principle of estates and electiveness of zemstvos. Landowning curia , on which all landowners previously ran, now became only the curia of the nobles - landowners. For the nobles, the electoral qualification was halved, the number of vowels in the landowning curia increased even more, and accordingly the number of vowels in other curia - urban and rural - decreased. Peasants were actually deprived of zemstvo representation. Now they could only choose candidates for zemstvo vowels, and this list was considered by the district congress of zemstvo chiefs. According to the approval of this congress, the governor approved the vowels. The electoral qualification for the city curia increased sharply, as a result of which more than half of the city residents were deprived of the right to participate in elections to the zemstvos. At the same time, the government went to limit the rights of zemstvos. Now the activities of the zemstvos were placed under the strict control of the local administration. From now on, the governor could cancel any resolution of the zemstvo and submit any issue for consideration by the zemstvo, based on the principle of expediency.
In 1892, a new "City Regulation" was issued, which limited the electoral rights of the urban population. The electoral qualification was significantly increased, as a result of which the petty bourgeoisie, small merchants, clerks, etc., were deprived of their voting rights. As a result, the number of voters in city dumas has sharply decreased. For example, in St. Petersburg the number of voters decreased from 21,000 to 6,000, in Moscow from 23,000 to 7,000. In other cities, the number of voters decreased by 5-10 times. City dumas were also placed under the control of the local governor. Mayors and members of city councils henceforth began to be considered state officials.
The judiciary has also undergone some changes. Already in 1881, publicity in legal proceedings in political cases was significantly limited, publication of reports on political trials ceased. In 1887, a decree was issued, according to which the Minister of Justice was given the right to prohibit the public hearing of any case in court. In 1889, a decree was issued that limited the role of jurors. A number of cases were withdrawn from their jurisdiction, and the qualification for jurors was increased.

national question. The government's national policy was aimed at strengthening official Orthodoxy, at Russification of the outskirts, and at restricting the rights of some nationalities. The slogan "Russia for the Russians and the Orthodox" appeared. On the territory of Russia, the intensive construction of Orthodox churches began. During the 11 years of the reign of Alexander III, 5,000 churches were built, the most famous of them are the Church of the Resurrection of Christ on the site of the death of Alexander II, the Church of St. Vladimir Equal-to-the-Apostles in Kyiv. During the reign of Alexander III, the construction of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior was completed in memory of the deliverance of Russia from the Napoleonic invasion. In religious policy, the government began to persecute the followers of Christian non-Orthodox sects, Old Believers, and Catholics. The Buryats and Kalmyks were forbidden to build Buddhist temples. In the east of the empire, the government strongly encouraged the transition local population to Orthodoxy.
The rights of Jews and Poles - Catholics were significantly constrained in their rights. Back in the 18th century for the Jews was introduced "Pale of Settlement" within which they were allowed to live. The Pale of Settlement included Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Right-bank Ukraine, Bessarabia, Chernihiv and Poltava regions. This restriction did not apply to Jewish merchants of the 1st guild, persons with higher education, artisans and soldiers. In 1882, "Provisional Rules" were issued, according to which Jews were deprived of the right to settle outside the cities and towns defined by the "Pale of Settlement", they were also prohibited from acquiring and renting real estate. In 1887, for Jews, the percentage rate for admission to higher educational institutions was determined - 3% in the capitals, 5% - outside the Pale of Settlement. Since 1889, the admission of Jews to the positions of sworn attorneys (lawyers) was suspended.
The government pursued an active policy of "russification" of Poland. Russians were appointed to all important posts in Poland, the Russian language was strongly planted in schools and in the office work of Polish administrative institutions. A number of measures were taken to further integrate the Polish economy into the Russian economy. So, in 1885, the Polish Bank was transformed into the Warsaw office of the St. Petersburg Bank. The Polish coin stopped its circulation. Support for Russian landowners began to be carried out in the Western Territory. The Noble Land Bank in the Western Territory provided loans only to Russian landowners.
Russification was carried out in the territories where the population related to the Russians lived. Thus, in Ukraine in 1881 the restriction of 1875 was confirmed, which forbade the publication of books in Ukrainian in Ukraine. As a result, the center of the Ukrainianophile movement moved to Galicia, which was part of Austria-Hungary. This led to an increase in anti-Russian sentiment in Ukraine.
In the Baltic States, the government waged a "fight against Germanization." Three Baltic provinces - Estland, Livonia, Courland - lived a life isolated from the rest of the empire. The land here mainly belonged to the "Ostsee Germans" - the descendants of noble German and Swedish-Danish families. They occupied all important positions in the local administration, the German language dominated in educational institutions, courts. The Orthodox paid fees in favor of the Lutheran churches and the Lutheran clergy. Historically, in the Baltics there was a confrontation between the "Ostsee Germans" and the rest of the Latvian and Estonian population. Not only the Russians, but also the local population suffered from this "German" dominance. The government began to translate educational institutions, the judicial system, and local governments into Russian. In 1887, teaching in Russian was introduced in all higher educational institutions. This met with the approval of the local population.
At the same time, Finland's autonomy was significantly expanded. The Grand Duchy of Finland became part of the Russian Empire in 1809. By tradition, it had the widest autonomy: it had its own diet, its own troops, and its own monetary system. Under Alexander III, the Finnish Diet received the right to initiate legislation, which it had been seeking for two decades. State language, as before, there was Swedish, although only 5% of the population spoke it, and Finnish. Since 1890, the government began to take measures to bring Finland closer to Russia. In 1890, a manifesto was issued, according to which Russian coins were introduced at post offices and railways. Under Nicholas II, the Finnish army was abolished.

The economic policy of the government. In the 80s. 19th century Russia began a decline in economic growth. Therefore, from the very beginning of his reign, Alexander III set the task for the government - to bring the Russian economy out of crisis.
To stimulate economic growth, it was decided to attract the scientific forces of the country. Outstanding financiers, economists, lawyers, historians, lawyers, mathematicians, and statisticians were appointed to key positions in the government.

Finance. In May 1881, an outstanding scientist and economist, rector of Kiev University, was appointed to the post of Minister of Finance N.Kh. Bunge . The country's finances were in disarray. On January 1, 1881, the state debt was 6 billion rubles. N.Kh. Bunge decided to improve the country's finances by reforming the tax collection system. In 1887, the poll tax (direct tax) was abolished in Russia. Instead, in 1881 - 1886. indirect taxes are introduced: excise taxes on vodka, sugar, tobacco, oil. The land tax was increased, from real estate in cities, from the gold mining industry, layout fees from commercial and industrial enterprises, from income from money capital, taxes were introduced on inheritance and on foreign passports. From 1882 to 1885 customs duties were increased by 30%. This automatically reduced the import of goods into Russia, but increased the import of capital. The government has refused direct financing of the majority of enterprises, the number of patronized enterprises has sharply decreased. The government continued to support strategically important productions- mining and weapons factories, locomotive building. The government strengthened state control over the turnover of railways to stop large-scale speculation, bought out the least profitable private railways. At the initiative of N.Kh. Bunge began publishing the Bulletin of Finance, Industry and Trade, where publications began for the first time state budget. N.Kh. Bunge opposed benefits to the local nobility, was a supporter of private capital, and advocated the reduction of the armed forces. His activities as Minister of Finance met with opposition from K.P. Pobedonostsev, was sharply criticized on the pages of conservative publications - Moskovskie Vedomosti and Grazhdanin. Measures N.H. Bunge did not eliminate the state budget deficit and inflation. On January 1, 1887, N.Kh. Bunge was fired.
The largest scientist - mathematician, entrepreneur became the Minister of Finance I.A. Vyshnegradsky. He vigorously began to eliminate the budget deficit, but going for tough measures in relation to the masses. Direct taxes were sharply increased: state land taxes, from urban real estate, trade and fishing. Indirect taxes on basic necessities were also sharply increased: on matches and lighting oils, and on drinking excise. The protectionist direction of customs policy intensified: in 1891 a new customs tariff was issued, which was already 1/3 more than the previous one. The export of bread and other foodstuffs was significantly increased. The government has established even tighter control over the activities of private railway companies. The state was even more active in buying up private railways. By 1894, the state already owned 52% of all railways. Thanks to these measures, the country's railways began to represent a single organism. I.A. Vyshnegradsky managed to increase the revenue side of the budget from 958 million to 1167 million rubles. The budget deficit was eliminated, and revenues even slightly exceeded expenditures. I.A. Vyshnegradsky created a gold reserve of more than 500 million rubles, began the preparation of a wine and tobacco monopoly. As Minister of Finance, he doubled his personal fortune and brought it up to 25 million rubles. In 1892 he was appointed Minister of Finance S.Yu. Witte .

Development of Russian industry. The government has taken important steps to attract domestic capital to the industry. In the 90s. a noticeable revival of all sectors of the economy begins, especially metallurgical, machine-building, chemical, textile, food. Industries associated with new types of fuel - coal and oil - developed rapidly. In the Donets Basin, where until 1887 there were 2 metallurgical plants, in 1887 there were already 17 of them. The oil industry in the Caucasus experienced rapid growth. In 1900, Russia ranked first in the world in oil production - 600 million poods. New methods of extraction, storage, processing of oil and oil products, which are in increasing demand all over the world, were successfully introduced here. The mining industry also successfully developed in Transcaucasia. At the enterprises created in the 1990s, large-scale production forms, advanced equipment, and the latest technologies were introduced.
During the reign of Alexander III, great attention was paid to the development of transport, especially railway. From 1880 to 1888 was built Transcaspian railway linking Central Asia with the shores of the Caspian Sea. Construction began in 1891 Siberian railway linking the center of Russia with the Far East. The laying of the Ussuri section of this route in 1891 in Vladivostok was made by the heir to the throne, Nikolai Alexandrovich. In the 90s. was put into operation Transcaucasian Railway linking Baku, Tiflis, Erivan with the cities of Central Russia. If in the 60s. 19th century the length of railways in Russia was 2 thousand miles, then by the end of the 19th century. - 53 thousand miles.
A new issue in economic policy is the labor issue. In the reign of Alexander III, the beginning of labor legislation was laid. So, the working day of young children from 12 to 15 years old was limited to 8 hours, the work of children under 12 years old was generally prohibited. A law was passed on fines, on factory inspection. Fines were regulated and could not exceed 1/3 of the salary, and the fine money had to be spent on the needs of the workers. Russian labor legislation soon outstripped that of Western Europe.

Agriculture. Agriculture continued to be a backward branch of the economy. The evolution of capitalist relations in agriculture proceeded very slowly.
After the reform of 1861, the situation of many landlord households worsened. Part of the landlords could not adapt to the new conditions and went bankrupt. The other ran the household the old fashioned way. The government was concerned about this situation and began to take measures to support the landowners' farms. In 1885, the Noble Bank was established. He issued loans to landlords for a period of 11 to 66.5 years at the rate of 4.5% per annum. In order to provide the landowners' farms with labor force, in 1886 severe penalties were established for the departure of farm laborers from the landowner ahead of schedule.
The condition of a significant number worsened farms. Before the reform, the peasants were in the care of the landowner, after the reform they were left to their own devices. The bulk of the peasantry had neither money to purchase land nor agronomic knowledge to develop their farms. The debts of the peasants on redemption payments grew. The peasants went bankrupt, sold their land and left for the cities.
The government took measures to reduce the taxation of the peasantry. In 1881, redemption payments for land were lowered and arrears accumulated on redemption payments were forgiven for the peasants. In the same year, all temporarily liable peasants were transferred to compulsory redemption. In the village main problem for the government, the peasant community became more and more. It held back the development of capitalism in agriculture. The government had both supporters and opponents of the further preservation of the community. In 1893, a law was passed to suppress the permanent redistribution of land in the communities, as this led to an increase in tension in the countryside. In 1882, the Peasants' Bank was established. He provided the peasants on favorable terms with credits and loans for transactions with land.

Thanks to these and other measures, new features appeared in agriculture. In the 80s. the specialization of agriculture in certain regions has noticeably increased:

farms in the Polish and Baltic provinces switched to the production of industrial crops and milk production;
the center of grain farming moved to the steppe regions of Ukraine, the South-East and the Lower Volga region;
animal husbandry was developed in the Tula, Ryazan, Oryol and Nizhny Novgorod provinces.

Grain farming dominated the country. From 1861 to 1891 sown area increased by 25%. But Agriculture developed mainly by extensive methods - due to the plowing of new lands. Yields increased very slowly, the vast majority of peasants cultivated the fields using old methods, without using advanced technologies: improved varieties, fertilizers, modern equipment. Natural disasters - drought, prolonged rains, frosts - continued to lead to dire consequences. So, due to the famine of 1891-1892. over 600 thousand people died.

Development of science. During the reign of Alexander III, further development of Russian science is observed. The personal merit of the emperor was very significant in this. Local history developed actively. In the natural, technical, and mathematical sciences, original schools are being formed. The geological, geographical, mineralogical, and soil science school of V.V. Dokuchaev. In 1882, Alexander III issued a decree on the opening of the first university in Siberia in the city of Tomsk. None of the Russian rulers attached as much importance to the development of historical science as Alexander III. He was one of the initiators of the creation of the Russian Historical Society and its chairman. The emperor was an expert in Russian archeology. He encouraged the publication of the Russian Biographical Dictionary, works on the study of monuments of national history, and scientific research by individual researchers.

Foreign policy. Head of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs N.K. Gears . Experienced diplomats of the Gorchakov school remained at the head of many departments of the ministry and in the Russian embassies of the leading countries of the world.

The main directions of the foreign policy of Alexander III:

strengthening influence in the Balkans;
search for allies;
establishment of borders in the south of Central Asia;
consolidation of Russia in the new territories of the Far East.

1. Russian policy in the Balkans. After the Berlin Congress, Austria-Hungary significantly strengthened its influence in the Balkans. Having occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina, she began to seek to extend her influence to other Balkan countries. Germany supported Austria-Hungary in its aspirations. Austria-Hungary began to try to weaken Russia's influence in the Balkans. Bulgaria became the center of the struggle between Austria-Hungary and Russia.
As a result of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. after five centuries of Turkish yoke, in 1879 Bulgaria gained its statehood. Petersburg, a constitution was drawn up for Bulgaria. In the spirit of the times, Bulgaria became constitutional monarchy. According to the constitution, the power of the ruler of Bulgaria was somewhat limited, but the head of government was endowed with broader powers. But the Bulgarian throne was vacant. According to the Berlin Treaty of 1878, the pretender to the Bulgarian throne had to receive the approval of the Russian Tsar. On the recommendation of Alexander II, the 22-year-old Hessian prince A. Battenberg, the nephew of Empress Maria Alexandrovna, became the Prince of Bulgaria in 1879. Russia hoped that Bulgaria would become its ally. At first, the Bulgarian prince pursued a policy friendly to Russia. He put L.N. at the head of the Bulgarian government. Sobolev, appointed Russian military men to all important ministerial posts. Russian officers and generals began to actively create the Bulgarian army. Then the Bulgarian prince came under Austrian influence. In May 1881 A. Battenberg committed coup d'état: abolished the constitution and became an unlimited ruler. The Bulgarian prince did not take into account the Russophile sentiments of the masses of Bulgaria and began to pursue a pro-Austrian policy. In order to keep Bulgaria under his influence, Alexander III forced A. Battenberg to restore the constitution. A. Battenberg after that became an implacable enemy of Russia.
Austria-Hungary did not leave its intention to withdraw Bulgaria from the influence of Russia and began to incite the Serbian king Milan Obrenovic to start a war against Bulgaria. In 1885, Serbia declared war on Bulgaria, but the Bulgarian army defeated the Serbs and entered the territory of Serbia.
By this time, an uprising broke out in Eastern Rumelia (Southern Bulgaria as part of Turkey) against Turkish rule. Turkish officials were expelled from Eastern Rumelia. The accession of Eastern Rumelia to Bulgaria was announced.
The unification of Bulgaria caused an acute Balkan crisis . The war between Bulgaria and Turkey, with the involvement of Russia and other countries in it, could break out at any moment. Alexander III was angry. The unification of Bulgaria took place without the knowledge of Russia, this led to the complication of Russia's relations with Turkey and Austria-Hungary. Russia suffered the heaviest human losses in the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. and was not ready for a new war. And Alexander III for the first time retreated from the traditions of solidarity with the Balkan peoples: he advocated strict observance of the articles of the Berlin Treaty. Alexander III invited Bulgaria to solve its own foreign policy problems, recalled Russian officers and generals, and did not interfere in Bulgarian-Turkish affairs. Nevertheless, the Russian ambassador to Turkey announced to the Sultan that Russia would not allow a Turkish invasion of Eastern Rumelia.
In the Balkans, Russia has turned from an opponent of Turkey into its de facto ally. Russia's positions were undermined in Bulgaria, as well as in Serbia and Romania. In 1886 diplomatic relations between Russia and Bulgaria were severed. Alexander Battenberg was forced to abdicate. In 1887, Ferdinand I, Prince of Coburg, who had previously been an officer in the Austrian service, became the new Bulgarian prince. The new Bulgarian prince understood that he was the ruler of an Orthodox country. He tried to reckon with the deep Russophile sentiments of the broad masses of the people, and even in 1894 he elected the Russian Tsar Nicholas II as godfather to his heir, son Boris. But the former officer of the Austrian army was never able to overcome "a feeling of insurmountable antipathy and a certain fear" towards Russia. Russia's relations with Bulgaria remained strained.
2. Search for allies. In the 80s. complicated relations between Russia and England. clash of interests between two European states takes place in the Balkans, Turkey, Central Asia. At the same time, relations between Germany and France are becoming more complicated. Both states were on the brink of war with each other. In this situation, both Germany and France began to seek an alliance with Russia in case of war with each other. In 1881, German Chancellor O. Bismarck proposed that Russia and Austria-Hungary renew the "Union of Three Emperors" for six years. The essence of this alliance was that the three states pledged to comply with the decisions of the Berlin Congress, not to change the situation in the Balkans without the consent of each other and to remain neutral in relation to each other in case of war. It should be noted that the effectiveness of this union for Russia was insignificant. At the same time, O. Bismarck, secretly from Russia, in 1882 concluded the Tripartite Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) against Russia and France, which provided for the provision of military assistance by the participating countries to each other in case of hostilities with Russia or France. The conclusion of the Triple Alliance did not remain a secret for Alexander III. The Russian Tsar began to look for other allies.
In 1887, relations between Germany and France escalated to the limit. But Alexander III did not support the aggressive aspirations of Germany against France. Using family ties, he directly appealed to the German emperor Wilhelm I and kept him from attacking France. But the war between Germany and France with the aim of completely defeating the latter was in the plans of Chancellor O. Bismarck. Because of the Russians, his plans were thwarted. Then O. Bismarck decided to punish Russia and took economic measures against her. The deterioration of relations was reflected in the "customs war". In 1887, Germany did not grant a loan to Russia and increased duties on Russian bread, while at the same time it created favorable conditions for the import of American grain into Germany. In Russia, duties were increased on imported German goods: iron, coal, ammonia, steel.
In this situation, the rapprochement between Russia and France began, which was the only way for France to avoid war with Germany. In 1887, the French government provided large loans to Russia. In the summer of 1891, the French squadron arrived in Kronstadt on a "visit of friendship." French sailors were met by Alexander III himself. In 1893, the French received Russian sailors in Toulon. In 1891, the actions of Russia and France were agreed upon in case of a military threat to one of the parties, and a year later a secret military convention was signed. The Russian-French alliance became a counterbalance to the Triple Alliance concluded by Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy.

Central Asian politics. In Central Asia, after the annexation of Kazakhstan, the Kokand Khanate, the Emirate of Bukhara, the Khanate of Khiva, the annexation of the Turkmen tribes continued. During the reign of Alexander III, the territory of the Russian Empire increased by 430 thousand square meters. km. This was the end of the expansion of the borders of the Russian Empire. Russia managed to avoid a military clash with England. In 1885, an agreement was signed on the creation of Russian-English military commissions to determine the final borders of Russia and Afghanistan.

Far East direction. At the end of the XIX century. Japan expanded rapidly in the Far East. Japan before the 60s 19th century was a feudal country, but in 1867 - 1868. a bourgeois revolution took place there, and the Japanese economy began to develop dynamically. With the help of Germany, Japan created a modern army, with the help of England and the United States, it actively built its fleet. At the same time, Japan pursued an aggressive policy in the Far East. In 1876, the Japanese began to take over Korea. In 1894, a war broke out between Japan and China over Korea, in which China was defeated. Korea became dependent on Japan, the Liaodong Peninsula retreated to Japan. Japan then captured Taiwan (a Chinese island) and the Penghuledao Islands. China paid a huge indemnity, the Japanese received the right to free navigation on the main Chinese Yangtze River. But Russia, Germany and France made an official protest and forced Japan to abandon the Liaodong Peninsula. Under an agreement with Russia, Japan received the right to keep troops in Korea. Japan's rival in the Far East was Russia. The war between Russia and Japan was becoming inevitable. Due to the lack of roads, the weakness of the military forces in the Far East, Russia was not ready for military clashes and tried to avoid them.
In the 80-90s of the XIX century, despite the weakening of influence in the Balkans, Russia managed to maintain the status of a great power. During the reign of Alexander III, Russia did not wage a single war. For the maintenance of European peace, Alexander III was named peacemaker.

On March 1, 1881, Emperor Alexander II Nikolaevich died at the hands of the Narodnaya Volya, and his second son Alexander ascended the throne. At first he was preparing for a military career, because. the heir to power was his elder brother Nikolai, but in 1865 he died.

In 1868, during a severe crop failure, Alexander Alexandrovich was appointed chairman of the committee for the collection and distribution of benefits to the starving. When he was before accession to the throne, he was the ataman of the Cossack troops, chancellor of the University of Helsingfors. In 1877 he took part in the Russian-Turkish war as a detachment commander.

The historical portrait of Alexander III was more like a mighty Russian peasant than the sovereign of the empire. He possessed heroic strength, but did not differ in mental abilities. Despite this characteristic, Alexander III was very fond of theater, music, painting, and studied Russian history.

In 1866 he married the Danish princess Dagmar, in Orthodoxy Maria Feodorovna. She was smart, educated, and in many ways complemented her husband. Alexander and Maria Feodorovna had 5 children.

Domestic policy of Alexander III

The beginning of the reign of Alexander III fell on the period of the struggle of two parties: the liberal (desiring the reforms initiated by Alexander II) and the monarchist. Alexander III abolished the idea of the constitutionality of Russia and set a course for strengthening the autocracy.

On August 14, 1881, the government adopted a special law "Regulations on Measures to Protect State Order and Public Peace." To combat unrest and terror, states of emergency were introduced, punitive measures were used, and in 1882 the secret police appeared.

Alexander III believed that all the troubles in the country come from the freethinking of subjects and the excessive education of the lower class, which was caused by his father's reforms. Therefore, he began a policy of counter-reforms.

Universities were considered the main center of terror. The new university charter of 1884 sharply limited their autonomy, student associations and student courts were banned, access to education for representatives of the lower classes and Jews was limited, and strict censorship was introduced in the country.

changes in the Zemstvo reform under Alexander III:

In April 1881, the Manifesto on the independence of the autocracy was published, compiled by K.M. Pobedonostsev. The rights of the zemstvos were severely curtailed, and their work was taken under the strict control of the governors. Merchants and officials sat in the city dumas, and only wealthy local nobles sat in the zemstvos. Peasants lost the right to participate in elections.

Changes in judicial reform under Alexander III:

In 1890, a new regulation on zemstvos was adopted. Judges became dependent on the authorities, the competence of the jury was reduced, the world courts were practically eliminated.

Changes in the peasant reform under Alexander III:

The poll tax and communal land tenure were abolished, and compulsory redemption of land was introduced, but redemption payments were reduced. In 1882, the Peasants' Bank was established, designed to issue loans to peasants for the purchase of land and private property.

Changes in the military reform under Alexander III:

The defense capability of border districts and fortresses was strengthened.

Alexander III knew the importance of army reserves, so infantry battalions were created, reserve regiments were formed. A cavalry division was created, capable of fighting both on horseback and on foot.

To conduct combat in mountainous areas, batteries of mountain artillery were created, mortar regiments, siege artillery battalions were formed. A special railway brigade was created to deliver troops and army reserves.

In 1892, mine river companies, serf telegraphs, aeronautic detachments, and military pigeon houses appeared.

Military gymnasiums have been transformed into cadet corps, for the first time, training non-commissioned officer battalions were created, which trained junior commanders.

A new three-line rifle was adopted, a smokeless type of gunpowder was invented. The military uniform has been changed to a more comfortable one. The order of appointment to command positions in the army was changed: only by seniority.

Social policy of Alexander III

"Russia for the Russians" is the emperor's favorite slogan. Only the Orthodox Church is considered truly Russian, all other religions were officially defined as "non-denominational confessions."

The policy of anti-Semitism was officially proclaimed, and the persecution of Jews began.

Foreign policy of Alexander III

The reign of Emperor Alexander III was the most peaceful. Only once did Russian troops clash with Afghan troops on the Kushka River. Alexander III protected his country from wars, and also helped to extinguish hostility between other countries, for which he received the nickname "Peacemaker".

Economic policy of Alexander III

Under Alexander III, cities, factories and plants grew, domestic and foreign trade grew, the length of railways increased, and the construction of the great Siberian Railway began. Resettlement was carried out in order to develop new lands peasant families to Siberia and Central Asia.

In the late 1980s, the state budget deficit was overcome, and revenues exceeded expenditures.

The results of the reign of Alexander III

Emperor Alexander III was called "the most Russian Tsar." He defended the Russian population with all his might, especially on the outskirts, which contributed to the strengthening of state unity.

As a result of the measures taken in Russia, a rapid industrial boom took place, the exchange rate of the Russian ruble grew and strengthened, and the well-being of the population improved.

Alexander III and his counter-reforms provided Russia with a peaceful and calm era without wars and internal unrest, but also engendered in the Russians a revolutionary spirit that would break out under his son Nicholas II.

Main Directions of Foreign Policy

Having ascended the throne, Alexander III announced in a dispatch to the ambassadors of Russia that he wanted to maintain peace with all powers. During his 13-year reign, he adhered to a very cautious foreign policy, believing that "Russia has no friends," because "they are afraid of our immensity." An exception was made only for Montenegro. The real "allies" of the state, Alexander III considered his army and navy. At the same time, in contrast to the offensive and purposeful foreign policy of Alexander II - Gorchakov, the policy of Alexander III was expectant, its directions and preferences often changed, depending on the personal sympathies and moods of the emperor.

Target:

Maintaining good neighborly and peaceful relations with all countries
Search for reliable allies

Strengthening Russia's Influence in the Balkans

Establishment of peace and borders in the south of Central Asia

Consolidation of Russia in the new territories of the Far East

Weakening of Russian influence in the Balkans.

After the Berlin Congress, the alignment of forces in the Balkans changed dramatically. The role of Germany has increased. With the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Austria-Hungary strengthened its position. The rulers of Romania and Serbia fell under her influence.

At the same time, Russia, which made the main contribution to the liberation of the Balkan peoples, counted not without reason on the benevolent attitude of the governments of the newly independent states towards it, especially Bulgaria. By liberating Bulgaria, Russia hoped that, in close proximity to the Black Sea straits, it would receive a strong ally in the person of a grateful country. Petersburg drafted a constitution for Bulgaria, quite liberal for those times. It limited the omnipotence of the head of state, but gave greater rights to the chairman of the government.

A participant in the Russian-Turkish war, the German prince Alexander Battenberg, who enjoyed the support of Russia, was elected head of Bulgaria. Russian generals and officers were sent to Bulgaria, who in a short time created a modern army from the Bulgarian people's militia, the strongest in the Balkans. But in May 1881, Prince Alexander carried out a coup d'état, abolished the constitution, establishing de facto autocratic rule.

Alexander III, an ardent opponent of all constitutions, initially reacted to these events quite calmly. But the prince was not popular in Bulgaria, he was supported only by a part of the bourgeoisie, closely connected with Austrian and German capital. Fearing that Bulgaria might fall completely under the influence of Austria-Hungary and Germany, Alexander III was forced to put pressure on Battenberg and force him to restore the constitution. This, as well as the excessive and not entirely skillful interference of Russian officials in the internal affairs of Bulgaria, made the prince an implacable enemy of Russia.

By that time, a popular uprising had broken out in Eastern Rumelia. Turkish officials were expelled from this province, and it was announced that it was annexed to Bulgaria. These events occurred spontaneously and were not agreed with the Russian government, which caused the wrath of Alexander Sh.

The unification of Bulgaria, contrary to the articles of the Berlin Treaty, caused acute crisis in the Balkans. A war was brewing between Bulgaria and Turkey, with the inevitable involvement of Russia and other great powers in it. But Russia was not ready for a big war, besides, Alexander III was not going to defend the "ungrateful" Bulgaria. At the same time, on behalf of the emperor, the Russian ambassador to Turkey resolutely declared to the sultan that Russia would not allow the invasion of Turkish troops into Eastern Rumelia.

· Alexander III departed from the traditional foundations of Russian foreign policy, which demanded the protection of the Balkan Orthodox peoples.

· He invited Bulgaria to decide its own affairs,

· Withdrew Russian officers from the Bulgarian army, did not interfere in Bulgarian-Turkish relations.

· The emperor advocated strict observance of the decisions of the Berlin Congress. Thus, Russia from an adversary of Turkey and a defender of the southern Slavs turned into a de facto ally of Turkey.

The sharp turn in Russian policy caused a broad wave of anti-Russian sentiment in the Balkans. Austria-Hungary took advantage of this, placing its protege on the throne of Bulgaria after the expulsion of Battenberg. In November 1886 diplomatic relations between Russia and Bulgaria were severed. Russian influence was also undermined in Serbia and Romania.

Europe

Russian foreign policy towards Germany and France also changed dramatically. Both states were interested in an alliance with Russia in case of war with each other, which could break out at any moment.

Germany considered Russia to be the only conservative force, in alliance with which it would be possible to stop the growing democratic movement in Europe.

In 1881, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck proposed to renew the "Union of Three Emperors" for six years.

But at the same time, the German government, secretly from the Russian side, concluded an agreement with Austria-Hungary, directed against Russia and France. Using Franco-Italian contradictions, Germany persuaded Italy to join this Austro-German alliance. On May 20, 1882, the agreement between them was formalized. And if in the "Union of the Three Emperors" the parties agreed only on neutrality in case of hostilities against each of them, then the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy provided for direct military assistance to each other.

The "Union of Three Emperors" did not bring benefits to Russia. Moreover, hiding behind the "Union", Austria-Hungary significantly strengthened its position in the Balkans and especially in Bulgaria. Germany established close relations with Turkey and tried with all her might to provoke a war between Russia and England.

In 1887, relations between France and Germany escalated to the limit. Alexander III, using family ties, personally turned to the German emperor and kept him from attacking France. Frustrated by the failure of his plans to defeat France, Bismarck took tough economic measures: he banned the provision of loans to Russia, increased duties on the import of Russian goods to Germany. The discord between Russia and Germany caused a positive reaction in France.

Rapprochement between Russia and France began. It was marked by the provision of large French loans to Russia. In August 1891, the actions of both powers were agreed in the event of a military threat to one of the parties, and a year later a secret military convention was signed.

The Russian-French alliance became a counterbalance to the previously concluded Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy.

Relative calm set in in Europe. Thanks to the personal efforts of Alexander III, a war between Russia and Austria-Hungary was avoided and another war between Germany and France was prevented.

Asia.

The main task: the establishment of firm borders with Afghanistan, which was then dependent on England, as well as securing the newly acquired lands of the Far East.

1. In Central Asia, the lands of the semi-nomadic Turkmen tribes remained unconquered. Russian troops continued their advance to the Afghan border, which ended in 1885 with the capture of the Merv oasis and the city of Kushka.

2. In 1885, an agreement was signed on the creation of Anglo-Russian military commissions to determine the Russian-Afghan border. The work of the commissions was completed in 1895 with the establishment of the final borders between Russia and Afghanistan. This was the end of the expansion of the borders of the Russian Empire and the inclusion of new lands in Central Asia into its composition.

3. Alexander III, having settled matters in Europe and Central Asia, was forced, albeit very late, pay attention to the Far East. The isolation of this territory from the center of the country, the lack of good roads, the weakness of the military forces available there forced Russia to avoid international complications in the area. At the same time, Japanese and American industrialists, taking advantage of the insecurity of the maritime borders, predatory plundered the natural resources of this region.

4. Rapidly strengthening Japan, having defeated China in 1894, began to rapidly prepare for war with Russia. With the help of Germany, a modern army was created, many times greater in number than the Russian troops in the Far East. Britain and the United States helped build the Japanese navy. Not only economic, but also military reasons forced the Russian government to start building the Great Siberian Route. - Trans-Siberian Railway.

Despite the major failures of Russian diplomacy in the Balkans, Russia retained its role as a great power and maintained peace on its borders until the end of the 19th century. However, acute foreign policy contradictions Alexander III managed only temporarily to extinguish, but not completely eliminated.

After the death of Emperor Alexander II in March 1881, his second son became the ruler of Russia. Initially, he was supposed to make a career in the military sphere, but after the death of the heir (older brother) Nikolai, he had to forget about a military career and take a place on the throne.

Historians paint this ruler as a typical Russian powerful man who was more inclined towards war than to subtle and careful planning of the state course. The features of his reign are the preservation of autocracy and the signing of peace agreements.

In contact with

Main events

The reign of Alexander 3 was remembered as one of the most peaceful, because the emperor sought to preserve friendly relations with all neighbors and, if possible, act as a peacemaker in conflicts. Although not without military victories. The main events of the emperor's reign by years are briefly as follows:

1881: the capture of Ashgabat, the resumption of the "Union of the Three Emperors";
1882: A.F. Mozhaisky designed and launched an airplane on its first flight, factory legislation is being developed;
1883: Creation by Plekhanov of the Emancipation of Labor group in Geneva;
1884: introduction of a new charter for universities and the opening of parochial schools in the villages;
1885: annexation of Central Asia and the Russo-Afghan conflict;
1887: Russo-German peace treaty concluded;
1888: University in Tomsk was opened;
1889: positions of judges in rural districts were abolished, the position of zemstvo chief was introduced;
1891: beginning construction of the Great Siberian Route;
1891-1892: Volga famine;
1892: a new Customs Charter was adopted, a new "City Regulation" was approved, a secret Russian-French military convention was concluded;
1893: the law "On the customs tariff" is adopted, the beginning of the Russian-German "customs war".

The main events show that the activities of the king were mainly aimed at the counter-reforms of his father.

The years of the reign of Alexander III

Domestic politics

Russia under Alexander 3 was divided into supporters of two parties: the liberal, advocating reforms, and the monarchist, opposing democracy. Unlike his father, the son took a course on strengthening of autocracy and rejected the very model of constitutional Russia.

Main directions

Russia maintains administrative regulation social sphere. All enemies of the monarchy were persecuted, arrested and expelled. Despite the counter-reforms, the state developed dynamically, and its social and economic indicators grew. The main directions of the domestic policy of Alexander 3 were:

Taxation - new increased duties on imported goods, direct taxes were introduced, and the rates of the old ones increased. An inheritance tax was introduced and the tax on industrial enterprises, land and real estate was increased, which affected the wealthy in the first place. In turn, serious concessions were introduced for the peasants: the size of the annual redemption was reduced, the poll tax was abolished, and the Peasant Land Bank was established.
Social sphere - the promotion of the industrial industry increased the number of workers in factories, the number of hired workers increased.
Labor legislation - in 1882, the Factory Inspectorate was created, a law on child labor was adopted (it became prohibited until the age of 12), a reduction in the working day for adolescents was introduced, ban on night work for minors. Acts were approved on the rules for hiring and on the relations of workers in the team. Relations between the employer and the worker were settled by mandatory signing of a work contract and paybook payments.
Local self-government - zemstvos and cities were endowed with great rights, the zemstvo chief became at the same time a justice of the peace.
Judicial proceedings - juveniles and students were not allowed to attend court hearings. It was forbidden to publish transcripts and reports, as well as to let the public into trials in which religious and moral feelings could be offended. Serious crimes were sent to the judicial chambers for consideration.
Education - universities were deprived of the right to be autonomous due to the frequent revolutionary views and movements that originated here. A new edition of the University Charter began to operate.

Thus, the main directions of Alexander's domestic policy were reduced to the settlement of social issues, taxation and education.

Tasks

Many progressive citizens of Russia saw in the tsar someone who would continue the reforms and lead Russia to a constitution. However, the reforms of Alexander 3 destroyed these hopes. His first speech was marked by the fact that the tsar declared the senselessness of constitutional plans, which clearly indicated the course of autocracy.

He set himself the task of development prevention revolutionary movement in Russia. The emperor did not recognize the reforms, dismissed some officials who advocated reforms, and adopted the Manifesto on autocratic power. At the same time, Russian governors were endowed with special rights in the struggle for imperial power. An equally important task was the introduction of counter-reforms of the zemstvo persuasion and refereeing.

The policy of autocracy and reactionary reforms also touched the educational sphere. According to the adopted circular, the children of lackeys and other servants were forbidden to attend gymnasiums, and schools in the villages were replaced by parochial institutions. Was conducted strict censorship of all printed publications.

Important! The harsh reforms of the domestic policy of Alexander III became the main cause of deep discontent in Russian society, which created excellent ground for the growth and aggravation of social contradictions.

Counter-reforms

All the reforms of the previous emperor were aimed at constitutional politics and gave greater rights to peasants and other ordinary people. His son was categorically against such changes in society, and as soon as he took the throne, he began to carry out counter-reforms, including:

Zemskaya - the position of Zemstvo chief is introduced, they are appointed by the Minister of Internal Affairs. Only people of noble origin had the right to take such a position, and their job was to control the peasants in the administrative part.
City - the number of voters is reduced due to an increase in property qualifications, and any law in the Duma must be approved by the governor. The number of Duma meetings was limited, which in fact led to the management of the city by the government.
Judicial - jurors had to have sufficient educational qualifications to occupy such a position, which increased the number of nobles among them.
Printed and educational – introduced tight control over educational institutions, the autonomy of universities is prohibited, the academic staff was controlled by the government. A special police force was created to supervise schoolchildren and students.

In this way, economic reforms, adopted laws, acts and manifestos brought the Russian Empire to the level of 1861, which could not favorably affect the mood in society.

Monument to Alexander III in St. Petersburg near the Marble Palace

Foreign policy

The peaceful foreign policy of Alexander 3, despite the short period of his reign, led to the assignment of the unofficial title of "Peacemaker" to him.

He set the main external task maintaining peace with neighbors and other states, as well as finding and strengthening relationships with prospective allies. Despite the peaceful course, the emperor planned to strengthen Russia's influence in all areas.

Main directions

The main directions of the foreign policy of Alexander 3 concentrated on several directions, which is clearly seen in the table.

Directions	Actions
Europe	A peace treaty was concluded with Germany in 1887 and a customs war with Germany began in 1890. Peace treaty with France in 1891. The Russo-French Convention in 1892 and the formation of an official union in 1893.
Balkans	Support for Bulgaria after the declaration of its independence in 1879. Secret relations between Romania and Bulgaria led to the severance of all diplomatic relations with the latter. Restoration of an alliance with Turkey. The signing of a peace treaty with Austria and Germany, which in a year will turn into the Triple Alliance. The beginning of a rapprochement with France to prevent war with Germany in the late 1880s.
Asia	The area of the state was increased by more than 400,000 sq. km.
East	Due to the upcoming treaties and the unification of a number of countries against Japan, the Russian Empire is turning into its enemy in the Far East. In order to increase its power and, in case of danger, to resist aggressive Japan, Russia begins to build the Siberian Railway.

Russia's peaceful actions have not always ended successfully, but not because of wrong actions, but because of hostile neighbors. The main directions of the foreign policy of Alexander 3 led to increase the area of the state peacefully and 13 peaceful years of the country.