Natural climatic conditions of ancient Rome. Natural conditions and their influence on the development of ancient Roman civilization

Geography

Rome is one of the oldest cities in the world. Once it was the capital of the Roman Empire, and now the capital of Italy. It is often said that Rome is the "eternal city" and "all roads lead to it".

This ancient city is located near the western coast of Central Italy, 24 km from the place where the Tiber River flows into the Tyrrhenian Sea. Its territory occupies a hilly area, it is not for nothing that they say that Rome is “a city on seven hills”. Namely, on the hills: Capitoline, Quirinal, Viminal, Esquiline, Caelian, Aventine and Palatine. The Tiber River divides the city into 2 parts.

The capital of Italy is served international airports Fiumicino (Leonardo da Vinci Airport) and Ciampino. From here there are direct flights to Russia, the duration of the flight from Moscow is approximately 4 hours. Fiumicino Airport is located 35 km from the city center. The most convenient way to leave it is by high-speed train, which runs to the central station of the city - Termini. You can also take a taxi. In addition, the capital has a highly developed network of shuttle buses, there is a subway.

Time zone of Rome- GMT+1 (- 2 hours from Moscow).

Climate

Climate of Rome is Mediterranean subtropical. Summer here, as a rule, is long and hot, the average daily air temperature reaches + 27 ... + 30 ° С. Winter in the city is quite mild and rainy, the thermometer fluctuates around +11…+12 °С.

In the summer, the hot dry sirocco wind blows in Rome, at which time the air temperature can reach +35 ° C.

Lesson topic : Ancient Rome.

The purpose of the lesson: assimilation of new knowledge about the origin of Ancient Rome, about the geographical and climatic position of Ancient Rome, about the peoples inhabiting the Apennine Peninsula in antiquity.

Lesson objectives:

Educational:

to form in schoolchildren a bright, figurative, logical idea of ​​​​the Apennine Peninsula and Rome of the VIII - VI centuries. BC.;

based on the studied material, expand students' understanding of Ancient Rome, using the basic skills of students;

to promote students' mastery of the basic conceptual material on this topic.

Developing:

during the lesson, to promote the development of students' cognitive interest and motivation for learning activities on the example of the close connection of the studied material with life;

during the lesson, to promote the development of students' creative abilities, logical thinking, the ability to find causal relationships of events;

to promote the development of skills in working with sources, oral speech, the ability to argue one's point of view.

Educational:

to promote during the lesson the formation of students' emotional and value attitude to the studied past;

cultivate respect for the past of different peoples.

Lesson type: lesson of learning new material (combined)

Lesson form: presentation lesson.

Lesson methods:

Verbal (story, conversation, explanation, description);

Stimulation methods (novelty, entertaining);

Control methods (test check, quiz, frontal survey), etc.

Equipment and visual aids: textbooks, workbooks, presentation material, computer.

New terms and concepts:

Etruscans, Latins, Vestal, Vesta, Mars, lictors, patricians, plebeians, senate.

Lesson structure

Stages

Time

Organizational stage

The stage of preparation for the active assimilation of new educational material

Goal setting stage

4.1.

4.2.

4.3.

Stage of assimilation of new knowledge

Geographical location and natural and climatic conditions of Ancient Rome

The peoples inhabiting the Apennine Peninsula

Legend of the founding of Rome

City on seven hills and its inhabitants

Management in Ancient Rome

28,5

The stage of primary verification of students' understanding of new material ( conducted in the form of questions and problematic tasks after studying each section of the topic of the lesson)

Stage of consolidation of new knowledge

The stage of summing up the lesson

Stage of information and instructions for homework

Lesson equipment

Workbooks

textbooks

Computer and multimedia presentation

DURING THE CLASSES:

1. Organizational stage

Mutual greetings between teacher and students.

Definition of absent.

Checking the external condition of the classroom.

Checking the readiness of students for the lesson.

Organization of attention.

Hello. Sit down. Everyone sat down and prepared for the lesson.

A presentation will appear on the screen.

2. The stage of preparation for the active assimilation of new educational material

Tasks are displayed on the screen.

- Task number 1.

Guys, in order to start studying new material, we need to recall the main events of the periods already studied. So I have prepared a little quiz for you. The work is simple, objects that were invented at different times and in different countries will appear on the screen, you must remember which ones. (see slide1)

- Task number 2.

And these are the words that we will use in today's and future lessons. These words have been studied by you in previous lessons, so your task will be to remember them and remember the country where these words were used. (see slide 2)

3. The stage of setting the goal of the lesson.

Today in the lesson you will have a fascinating journey to a country little known or not known to you before this lesson, but the knowledge gained in this lesson will be necessary for you for a long time - both to study new topics in history in all subsequent classes, and in the lessons literature and fine arts, and just in ordinary life. Many of the words and terms learned in this lesson you have already heard, as they are used in everyday life, in the media, but you will learn the meaning of these words today.

(see slides 3 and 4)

4. The stage of assimilation of new knowledge.

4.1. Geographical location and natural and climatic conditions

ancient rome

(Working with the map on page 203 and on the overhead projector screen.

After demonstrating geographical objects, children find the same objects on the map in the textbook) (see slides 5, 6)

The Apennine peninsula of ancient times is called Italy. This peninsula looks like an old boot, at the toe of which the island of Sicily is located. In the north, the peninsula is separated from the mainland of Europe by the medium-high Alpine mountains. From the south, from the east and west, the Apennine Peninsula is washed by the seas of the Mediterranean Sea: Adriatic, Ionian, Tyrrhenian, Ligurian.

And which peninsula you have already studied is connected with the seas of the Mediterranean Sea?

(Balkan)

Which states on this peninsula are familiar to you?

Greek states (Hellas: Athens, Sparta, Olympia, Boeotia, Thessaly, etc.

A low mountain range of the Apennines stretches across the peninsula. At the foot of the Apennines lie valleys, plains, hilly areas, suitable for human life. Most of Italy has a warm, fertile climate, fertile soils. Therefore, the peoples inhabiting this territory were engaged in viticulture, horticulture and the cultivation of grain crops (wheat, rye).

Do you remember what types of agriculture the inhabitants of Ancient Greece were engaged in?

(Olive cultivation and viticulture)

Why didn't they grow crops there?

(There were no natural opportunities: mountains, little fresh water, few plains)

In the north, there were many minerals in the mountains: building stone, metals.

Output: Try to combine the knowledge gained and draw a conclusion about the conditions of life and management on the Apennine Peninsula. Compare these conditions with the conditions of the Balkan Peninsula.

4.2. The peoples inhabiting the Apennine Peninsula

Work in a notebook: write in a notebook the names of the tribes inhabiting peninsula (Etruscans, Umbrians, Latins, Samnites, Apuls)

Which tribe occupied the largest area?(Etruscans)

Before the Romans, the Etruscans created a highly developed civilization on the Apennine Peninsula. Until now, scientists have not unraveled the mystery of their origin. It is believed that the Etruscans came from Asia Minor at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. The surviving Etruscan inscriptions testify that they used the Greek alphabet. However, their language is not fully deciphered.

The Etruscans were excellent farmers, but they were even more famous as brave and experienced sailors. Their ships plowed the waters of the Mediterranean Sea, they traded with Egypt, Phenicia, Greece, and the cities of the Iberian Peninsula. Etruscan pirates inspired fear throughout the Mediterranean. The Greek myth tells that once the Tyrrhenian (Etruscan) robbers ventured to kidnap even the god Dionysus. The captured people were sold into slavery.

The Etruscans mastered the art of processing iron, bronze, and precious metals. They built many cities surrounded by powerful walls and towers. When laying the city, the Etruscans plowed a plow harnessed by a white cow and a white bull, a furrow around the place that was intended for settlement . (See slide 7)

The Etruscan cities were ruled by kings. Etruscan aristocrats at the head of armed detachments raided neighboring lands. Victories over enemies were celebrated with special celebrations - triumphs. (see slide 8)

But by the 8th century BC. quite a lot of tribes of different peoples lived on the territory of the Apennine Peninsula.

What tribe inhabited the territory near the city of Rome?(Latin)

4.3 Legend of the founding of Rome

Textbook work : Read aloud The Legend of the Foundation of Rome (pp. 204 - 206).

After reading, answer the questions: (see slide 9)

1. What was the name of the tribe located on the left bank of the Tiber River?(Latin)

2. What was the name of the king ruling in one of the Latin cities? (Numitor)

3. What can you say about his younger brother Amulia?(He was angry and envious. Amulius took power from Numitor, and forced his daughter Rhea Sylvia to become a vestal)

4. And who are the vestals?(These are the priestesses of the goddess of fire and the hearth of Vesta)

5. So what was the name of the goddess who patronizes the hearth and family? (Vesta)

6. What were the names of the sons of Rhea Sylvia?(Rem and R about mule).

7. Why do you think Amulius decided to get rid of these tiny children as well?(I was afraid that when they grow up, they will begin to avenge their grandfather and mother and begin to claim power)

8. What was the name of the god of war among the Latins?(Mars)

9. What was the name of the god of war among the ancient Greeks?(Zeus)

10. How did two twin brothers manage to survive?(they were fed by a she-wolf)

11. How did the relationship between the two brothers develop in the future?(they quarreled over the construction of the city and Romulus killed his brother Remus)

12. Have you ever heard of such fratricide in other religions, in other legends?(Yes, in Christianity Cain kills his brother Abel).

13. Which of the brothers is the founder of Rome?(Romulus)

14. What does Rome mean in Latin?(Roma - that's what the name Romulus sounded like)

15. Who were called lictors?(armed guard of the king)

16. Why did the lictors always carry with them a bundle of twigs and an axe?(since the king could at any time order to flog, or even cut off the head of the guilty)

17. Do you think that such power could please the people? Why?

Work in a notebook: Write down the main concepts in a notebook: (see slide 11)

Mars is the god of war.

Vesta is the goddess of the family and the keeper of the hearth.

Vestal is a priestess of the goddess Vesta.

Lictors - guards who accompanied the king.

4.4. City on seven hills and its inhabitants

The legend about the founding of the city of Rome on the left bank of the Tiber refers this event to 753 BC. e.

Work at the board on the timeline:

Guys, we already had elements of a history lesson, literature and letters too, and now let's take a minute of mathematics.

Given a task. The task conditions are: (see slide 12)

It's 2009 now.

Rome was founded in 753 BC. e.

Lukoyanov received the status of a county town in 1779.

Three questions need to be answered on the time line:

How old is Rome now?

How old is the city of Lukoyanov?

How many years is Lukoyanov younger than Rome?

1) 2010 +753 = 2763 (years) Rome;

2) 2010 - 1779 = 231 (years) to Lukoyanov;

3) 2763 - 231 = 2532 (years) the city of Rome is older than the city of Lukoyanov.

PHYSICAL PAUSE(see slide 13,14)

We decided and wrote

Together we quietly stood up.

One, two - stretched,

Three, four - smiled,

Five, six - all shook up,

Seven, eight - turned.

Sit down, get up, get up, sit down

And they didn't hit each other.

Above the hand! Broader shoulders!

One two Three! Breathe evenly!

From charging you will become stronger,

You will become stronger and stronger!

(see slide 15)

The Romans, like other ancient peoples, considered the number seven sacred. The city of Rome is located on seven hills. The main ones were the Palatine, the Aventine and the Capitol. On the Aventina, where, according to legend, Rem was buried, ordinary people settled.

The screen shows a diagram of Rome and the hills on which it is located are written.

Write down the date of the founding of Rome and the names of the hills in a notebook.(see slide 16)

Roman Hills:

Palatine;

Aventine;

Capitol;

Caelius;

Viminal;

Quirinal;

Esquiline.

Textbook work: read the text on page 207 up to point 3 and say what did the Romans do, what did they grow and where did they live? (see slide 17, 18,19)

4.5 Management in Ancient Rome(see slide 20)

The Roman people were also divided into patricians and plebeians. Tradition connects the emergence of the patricians with Romulus. The first Roman king, wishing to rely on the most worthy representatives of the Roman community, singled out one hundred people who had a more noble origin and personal merit. Of these, he formed a council of elders - the senate. The Senate became an important governing body, and its members began to be called senators. Sometimes senators were also called fathers - in Latin "patres", hence the name "patricians", that is, "descendants of the fathers." Patricians made up the Roman aristocracy. They occupied a high position in society, possessed extensive land holdings and wealth.

Write the word in your notebook: patricians are the descendants of the native inhabitants of Rome. (see slide 21)

The plebeians were incorporated into the Roman people later than the patricians. Previously, it was believed that the plebeians are ordinary people, for the most part poor. A deeper study of Roman history showed that among the plebeians there were very wealthy families, there were noble plebeian families. The plebeians were deprived of many rights. They could not participate in the popular assembly, in the senate, hold leadership positions, depended on the patrician court. The desire of the plebeians to acquire civil rights, to gain access to power, to assert their property led to their centuries-old struggle with the patricians.

Write the word in your notebook: plebeians - immigrants from different parts of Italy. (see slide 21)

Only the patricians could govern Rome. The oldest representatives of the clans sat in the Senate.

The supreme power belongs to the National Assembly, which consisted of male patricians. The People's Assembly was also sometimes called the Assembly of the Patricians.

The National Assembly performed the most important functions in the state:

Chose the king, who ruled for life;

Declared war;

made peace;

Managed the state treasury and tax collection.

According to legend, seven kings ruled Rome. The first was Romulus, and the last king was named Tarquinius, nicknamed the Proud. This king was not elected, he himself seized power by killing the sixth king Servius Tullius (he is called the Roman Solon, since he carried out reforms in Rome similar to those of Solon in Athens).

Having seized power in Rome, Tarquinius the Proud got rid of prominent patricians by seizing their property.

Many did not like the power of the tyrant king, so the Romans rebelled and expelled Tarquinius from the city along with his family. They decided not to choose more kings. It happened in 509 BC. But you will learn about this event in the next lesson.

5. The stage of consolidating the knowledge of students.

Chainword (see presentation) (see slides 22,23)

Chainword questions:

1. God of war among the Romans (Mars);

2. Council, in which the elders of the clans (senate) sat;

3. The river on the banks of which Rome arose (Tiber);

4.Legendary founder of Rome (Romulus);

5. Warrior from the protection of the king (lictor).

Quiz (see presentation) (see slides 25, 26)

6. Lesson conclusion.

Grading.

Reflection of students (method "traffic light").

7. The stage of informing students about homework.

Homework: (see slide 24)

Study the material of paragraph 44.

To learn new words.

Answer the questions after the paragraph.

Each of the illustrations below refers to one of the topics listed in the list. Establish a correspondence between themes and illustrations: select one illustration for each topic.

Write down the numbers in response, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

A	B	IN	G

Explanation.

A) Phenicia - dishes (illustration 3).

B) Ancient Rome - the assassination of Caesar (illustration 1).

C) Assyrian state - a winged bull (illustration 2).

D) Ancient Egypt - extraction of the heart in the afterlife Anubis (illustration 4).

Thus, A - 3, B - 1, C - 2, D - 4.

Answer: A - 3, B - 1, C - 2, D - 4.

Answer: 3&1&2&4

Read the passage from the legend and determine which of the given topics it refers to. In your answer, write the letter that represents this topic.

From that part of the original matter that was still floating between heaven and earth, Ment, the creative spirit, and Ptah, the primeval fire, little by little formed two large world bodies - the sun, the god Ra, and the moon, the god Eag.

When the sun and moon came into existence, there could also be talk of a division of time; for with the god and through the god Ra, two goddesses occurred simultaneously: Sate, the day, the bright half of the world, and Gattar, the night, the dark half of the world.

Explanation.

God Ra - Egypt.

Answer: G.

Answer: G

Choose one topic from the list, and then complete tasks 3-6, only on the topic you have chosen.

Read the list of words and write a word related to your chosen topic.

Plebeians, Poseidon, Nineveh, building cedar, Tao, Thoth.

Explain the meaning of this word.

Explanation.

1. Correspondence of topics and words: for topic A - building cedar, B - plebeians, C - Nineveh, D - Thoth.

2. Explanation of the meaning of words:

building cedar- valuable wood supplied by the Phoenicians to neighboring countries;

plebeians- originally inferior (ignorant) inhabitants of Ancient Rome (early Roman Republic);

Nineveh- the capital of the Assyrian state;

That- the god of wisdom in ancient Egypt.

Choose one topic from the list, and then complete tasks 3-6, only on the topic you have chosen.

Read the list of events (phenomena, processes) and write an event (phenomenon, process) that relates to the topic you have chosen.

The floods of the Nile, the invention of porcelain, piracy, the strengthening of the army by King Tiglath-Pileser III, the rise of Gaius Julius Caesar, the activities of the "father of history" Herodotus.

Using knowledge of history, tell about this event (phenomenon, process). Your story must contain at least two historical facts.

Explanation.

The correct answer must contain the following elements:

1) compliance with topics and events (processes, phenomena): for topic A - piracy; B - the rise of Gaius Julius Caesar; B - strengthening of the army by King Tiglath-Pileser III; D - floods of the Nile;

2) a story about the specified event (process, phenomenon)

Choose one topic from the list, and then complete tasks 3-6, only on the topic you have chosen.

Shade on the contour map one quadrangle formed by a degree grid (parallels and meridians), in which the country indicated in the topic of your choice was completely or partially located.

Explanation.

A) Phoenicia - red.

B) Ancient Rome - black.

C) Assyrian state - green.

D) Ancient Egypt - blue.

Explanation.

The influence of the geographic environment on the occupations and life of people in ancient class societies

TYPES OF GEOGRAPHICAL ENVIRONMENT
	ancient oriental (valleys of large rivers)	ancient greek	Old Italic
Agriculture	Agriculture (grain farming, vegetable growing, viticulture) has become the main occupation under the influence of favorable factors: 1) hot climate; 2) soft and fertile soils; 3) full-flowing rivers (spills that restore soil fertility; opportunities for irrigation). Factors unfavorable for agriculture: 1) lack of rain during the ripening of cereals; 2) oversaturation of some areas with moisture and insufficient saturation of others as a result of a spill.	The hot climate favored viticulture and olive growing. Factors unfavorable for grain farming: 1) infertile soils; 2) lack of land, 3) drought during the period of grain ripening; 4) lack of rivers suitable for irrigation.	The hot climate, the abundance (compared with Greece) of land suitable for cultivation, evenly falling rainfall favored the cultivation of cereals, grapes, olives, vegetables and fruits.
		The development of agriculture was greatly influenced by the appearance of iron tools.
Cattle breeding	The development of cattle breeding was favored by the abundance of wild plants that were fed to animals.
	Food (including wild) was in abundance. This contributed to the breeding of various animals: bulls, donkeys, buffaloes, sheep, goats, pigs, etc.	There was not enough feed for cattle. Small cattle grazed on the slopes of the mountains, eating bushes and stunted trees.	Feed was in abundance (cattle grazed on pasture all year round).
crafts	The presence of minerals (clay, stone, ores) contributed to the development of pottery, construction, metal processing
Exchange	Navigable rivers contributed to the development of exchange between different regions of the country. In the Southern Mesopotamia, natural conditions contributed to the creation of an economy in which some products (grain, dates, woolen fabrics) were produced in excess and were partially intended for exchange for others exported from foreign countries (metals, timber, stone).	The mountainous terrain hindered inter-regional exchange by land. Maritime position, bays and islands favored the development of exchange between different regions and with other countries. Natural conditions contributed to the creation of an economy in which wine, oil and handicrafts were produced for exchange for grain, slaves, etc.	Maritime position favored the development of trade. However, a small number of islands off the coast of Italy made navigation difficult. For the Romans, the provision of fertile lands and raw materials did not cause an urgent need for exchange with neighboring peoples. Therefore, the Romans were not originally navigators (until the 3rd century BC)
Life	Clothing, compared with the northern countries, was lighter, leaving a significant part of the body exposed. The windows in the dwellings were small (sometimes absent), which created coolness and darkness inside the house. People spent a lot of time in the courtyard, in the garden near the house, on its roof. Get up early, in hot weather the hours of the day rested

The climate of ancient Rome varied throughout the existence of this civilization. In the first half of the 1st millennium BC Italy's climate was wetter and cooler than it is now, and the currently arid south has seen more rainfall. The northern regions were located in the temperate zone, while the rest of Italy was in the subtropics, having a warm and mild climate. During the annual mountain snow melt, even small rivers will overflow, swamping the area (Tuscany and the Pontic Marshes were considered impassable in antiquity). The existence of Roman civilization (including the Eastern Roman Empire) spanned three climatological periods: Early Sub-Atlantic (900 BC-175 AD), Mid-Sub-Atlantic (175-750) and Late Sub-Atlantic (from 750) .

Written, archaeological and natural-scientific evidence evidence alone but consistently shows that during the period of the Roman Empire's maximum expansion and final crisis, the climate underwent a change. The greatest extent of the Empire under Trajan coincided with the Roman climatic optimum. Climate change occurred at varying rates, from seemingly near stasis during the early Empire to sharp fluctuations during the late Empire. However, there are some inconsistencies in the concept of a usually period in the wetter eastern Mediterranean in c. 1 AD-600 AD due to conflicting publications.

stable climate

In the winter of 69/70 AD was arid, as Tacitus is known, when he wrote his histories about 100 AD; at exactly the same time, the dry season continued in the Americas. Dry conditions returned during the reign of Hadrian. In Timgad - on the visit of Hadrian to this city in 133 rain fell for the first time in five years. Some parts of the empire, however, saw better rainfall. A meteorological diary, compiled by Ptolemy in Alexandria in about 120, mentions rain in every month except August and thunder throughout the summer. This helps to explain the agricultural prosperity of Roman Africa (Rome's breadbasket) as well as the prosperity of southern Spain during the Roman era. According to Rhoads Murphey, the total annual supply of grain from North Africa to Rome, "estimated as sufficient to feed about 350,000 people, should by no means be produced for export under modern conditions." Columella's weather calendar suggests that summer rainfall in southern Italy, especially in Rome and Campania, occurred more frequently than now. Unusually high levels of precipitation were experienced in Roman Spain during the so-called Iberian-Roman Humid Period.

Roman Spain went through three main phases: the wettest interval in 550-190 BC, the dry interval in 190 BC-150 AD. and still wet period in 150-350. In 134 BC. Scipio Aemilian's army in Spain had to march at night due to intense heat, when some of his horses and mules died of thirst (even if earlier, in 181 BC, heavy spring rains prevented the Celtiberians from lifting the Roman siege from Contrebia). Through the 2nd century AD warm temperatures prevail especially in the Austrian Alps, punctuated further by cool spells from c. 155 to 180. After about 200 temperatures fluctuated, the trend towards steep.

Environmental issues and climate change

According to Sheldon Judson, in the 2nd century B.C. the rate of soil erosion in Latium increased tenfold, due to the increase in the number of settlements in southern Etruria. Also, from the founding of Rome BC, perhaps 165, the Romans cut down vast areas for arable land. In 61 AD, Seneca the Younger described the high levels of air pollution in Rome, which was associated with burning extensive woods for fuel.

Tyumen State University and climate scientists from Finland have agreed to jointly build a climate change monitoring station in the Arctic. In fact, observations of the weather began in Ancient Rome, and the climate of Ancient Rome itself changed several times during the existence of civilization. From the formation of the empire and throughout the years of its existence, it was in the conditions of the so-called sub-Atlantic period, which was characterized by cool weather in summer and mild, rainy winters. The period of the highest prosperity under Emperor Trajan (1st century) coincided with the beginning of the Roman climatic optimum, after which, in the 4th century, a cooling set in.

During the sub-Atlantic period, several particularly cold winters were recorded, in particular, in Rome, the Tiber completely froze in 398, 396, 271 and 177 BC. In subsequent centuries, during rainy winters, the Tiber did not freeze, but overflowed. Confirmation that the climate in the period from 600 to 100 BC. was cooler, are the ruins of ancient harbors in Naples and the Adriatic, which are one meter below the current water level.

During the reign of Emperor Augustus (63 BC - 14 AD), the climate warmed up, the average air temperature rose and became one degree higher than today. Pliny the Younger wrote that grapes and olives began to be grown at this time in the more northern parts of Italy.

The wind rose in the Roman Empire of the 1st century was somewhat different from the modern one: in those days, the invasion of wind from the north was quite rare in winter, while the northwest winds, which blew regularly in July, are now practically absent. Interestingly, the sea breeze began to blow a month earlier than now, that is, in April.

The geographical position contributed to the fact that the ancient Romans actively explored the sea. During the Second Punic War there were such severe storms on the Mediterranean coast that the Roman fleet was destroyed twice, in 249 and 225 BC. In 226 BC. Italy had a six-month drought. In December 170 B.C. in Rome there was a so-called "bloody rain". Written sources from 75 BC to 175 AD Particular attention was paid to the frequent floods of the Tiber in Rome, in particular, serious floods occurred in 5, 15, 36, 51, 69, 79 and 97. Judging by the records of Lucius Columella (1st century), in his time in the summer in southern Italy, that is, in Rome and Campania, it rained more often than now.

In the year 30, Egypt was annexed to the Roman Empire, in which, judging by Ptolemy's weather diary, it rained every month. Egypt even began to be called the "barn of Rome", because they collected incredible grain harvests for modern conditions.

In short, in the I millennium BC. the climate in Italy (and in Rome in particular) was colder and wetter than today, then warmed up in the 1st century, and began to cool by the 4th century.

www.historicus.ru

Natural and climatic conditions of Ancient Rome Natural conditions

The natural conditions of the Apennine Peninsula are more favorable for the development of human society than many of the neighboring regions of the Mediterranean. Even in ancient times, the Greeks began to call it Italy. Initially, Italy meant only the south of the peninsula, replete with rich pastures. This name arose from the word "Vitulus" - a calf, a bull. Hence the name Vitalia, or Italia, - literally "Country of calves". In the III century. BC e. this early name was extended to the entire Apennine Peninsula, and in the 1st century. BC e. the concept of "Italy" included the northern part of modern Italy up to the Alps.

The natural northern border of Italy is the Alpine mountains. From the east, Italy is washed by the Adriatic, from the south - by the Ionian, and from the west - by the Tyrrhenian and Ligurian seas.

In the first half of the 1st millennium BC. e. Italy's climate was wetter and cooler than it is today. The northern regions were in the temperate zone. The rest of Italy, lying in the subtropics, was dominated by a warm, mild climate. Precipitation fell in the now arid south. Bad weather was rare, the sky was almost always blue and clear, and the sea was warm.

Vegetation in ancient Italy was diverse and richly represented. The steep Alpine mountains at an altitude of up to 1700 m were covered with coniferous trees - pine, fir, spruce. Below them were replaced by broad-leaved species - beech, oak, noble chestnut. In Central Italy, they mixed with evergreen cypresses, pines, oleanders, and myrtle and laurel grew on the slopes of the Apennines.

Southern Italy is characterized by evergreen vegetation. Since ancient times, apple trees, pear trees, and grapes have grown in Italy; in the middle and southern parts of the peninsula, olive and pomegranate trees, almonds generously bore fruit. Barley, wheat, spelt, and millet were cultivated from cereals. The ancient Romans sowed flax, grew legumes and garden crops.

Rome (Italian Roma [ˈroːma]) is the capital of Italy, the administrative center of the province of Rome and the region of Lazio. Situated on the Tiber River.

Rome is one of the oldest cities in the world, the ancient capital of the Roman Empire. Even in antiquity (3rd century AD), Rome was often called the Eternal (lat. Roma Aeterna). One of the first to call Rome so was the Roman poet Albius Tibull (1st century BC) in his second elegy. Ideas about the “eternity” of Rome were largely preserved after the fall of the ancient Roman civilization, bringing the corresponding epithet to modern languages. Rome is also called "the city on seven hills". Initially, the settlements were located on the Palatine hill, later the neighboring hills were settled: the Capitol and the Quirinal. Somewhat later, settlements appeared on the last four hills (Caelius, Aventine, Esquiline and Viminal).

The climate of Rome is subtropical Mediterranean. The maximum precipitation is observed in winter, in summer precipitation is relatively rare. Climatic winter (that is, the period when the average daily temperature is steadily below zero) is absent; during the winter months, the temperature usually stays between 5 and 10 degrees. In general, the climate is characterized by very long and hot summers and mild rainy winters. In winter, frosts and snowfalls are rare, and in summer the temperature can exceed 40 degrees.

Rome climate Indicator Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Absolute maximum, °C 20, 8 21, 6 26, 6 27, 2 33, 1 37, 8 39, 4 40, 6 38, 4 30, 7 26, 5 20, 3 40, 6 Average maximum, °C 12, 0 12, 8 15, 4 18, 1 23, 1 27, 0 30, 2 30, 4 26, 4 21, 9 16, 5 12, 8 20, 6 Average temperature, °C 8, 1 8, 5 10, 8 13, 6 17, 7 21, 4 24, 2 24, 5 21, 1 17, 4 12, 7 9, 3 15, 8 Average minimum , °C 3, 3 3, 4 5, 5 8, 0 12, 0 15, 8 18, 5 18, 8 15, 7 12, 2 7, 8 4, 9 10, 5 Absolute minimum, °C - 11 - 6, 9 - 6, 5 - 2, 4 1, 8 5, 6 9, 1 9, 3 4, 3 0, 8 - 5, 2 - 5, 6 - 11 Precipitation rate, mm 55 59 53 63 32 20 13 18 63 105 94 89 663

The climate of peninsular and insular Italy is Mediterranean, which means that for 2/3 of the year there is a clear blue sky, and summers are hot and dry (+26 C in July), and warm mild winters (from +8 C to +10 C in January) . In the south of the peninsula, from March to October, dry hot winds blow from the Sahara - sirocco. During this period, the temperature rises to about +35 C. The sea breeze softens the summer heat (increasing near the coast of the Tyrrhenian Sea and weaker near the Adriatic). The greatest number of sunny days per year is recorded on the southeast coast of Sardinia. Table of average monthly temperatures in Rome Month January February March April May June July August September October. November December Day +11 +13 +15 +19 +23 +28 +30 +27 +22 +16 +13 Night +5 +5 +7 +10 +13 +17 +20 +19 +17 +13 +9 + 6

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4 seasons in Rome: spring, winter, summer, autumn

The Italian capital is amazing at any time of the year. The climate of Rome is characterized as typical Mediterranean in areas located in close proximity to the sea.

With hot, dry and long summers and rainy winters. In the interior, the climate is more temperate without sudden temperature changes.

Rome enjoys warm weather throughout the year, except for a few weeks during the winter months, but temperatures rarely drop below 8°C.

Snow does not fall often and melts almost immediately.

In areas close to the sea, it is usually cooler in summer and warmer in winter. In summer, the thermometer rises to +40? C, precipitation is possible, but quite rare.

The city received 2538 hours of sunshine per year. Spring and early autumn are the best times to visit Rome.

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There is no summer heat, thunderstorms are possible, the weather is comfortable for walking. The temperature fluctuates from +15 to 23?С.

The weather in Rome is determined by the winds.

In the spring they are predominantly western, in the summer the hot and dry sirroco wind comes to the city, bringing heat.

In autumn, southerly winds mix with cold Atlantic winds, contributing to frequent rains.

In winter, there comes a time of strong cold winds called "trimontana".

The warm Mediterranean climate of Ancient Rome, caused by the winds blowing from the Tyrrhenian Sea and the Apennine mountain range, contributed to the active settlement of the territories.

People were attracted by the fertile soils of the coast, mild winters and dry hot summers.

Rome in winter

The climate during the winter months can be very humid, with occasional snowfall, but turns to water within a few hours.

The city turns gray from prolonged rains, but its charm still does not leave it.

The Roman population puts on coats and scarves at the beginning of September, when the temperature drops at night, but not significantly.

Although the true winter in Rome comes in mid-November and continues until March, in rare cases until early April.

The weather in Rome in winter can be very humid, with the rainiest months being November and December.

But it is possible that drizzling rain will continue until March.

On days when the sky is not overcast, the city comes alive and the colors become fresher and brighter.

The coldest month of the Roman winter is January, with averages from +1?C to +12?C. Snow is an exceptional phenomenon, but once every few years, and sometimes decades, it falls in a fairly thick layer and lasts for several days.

This is an unheard of phenomenon, leading to the closure of major historical monuments.

The weather in Rome in January is cold and windy with frequent fogs, bright sunshine lasts no more than 4 hours a day if the sky is not covered with clouds.

The daily temperature is kept at around +7?C.

The second half of the month is warmer and drier, the air warms up to +12?С, the sun shines intermittently for snow and rain. At night it gets very cold up to +1.9?С, the length of the day gradually increases.

February in Rome is no less cold than January, and only at the end of the month it becomes warmer and sunnier.

Rome in spring

The most unpredictable weather in Rome falls on March, when the bright sun shines more and more, but rains and cold winds continue to spoil the mood.

But it tends to be more at the beginning of the month.

The second half fills the city with warm air, the heyday begins, indicating that the dull winter days are over.

This is the best period to visit Rome.

The weather in Rome in March is favorable for walking with the right equipment.

During the day it's about 15?C, but it happens that it can warm up to 20?C.

Spring gradually comes to the city, the sun warms the air during the day, although the evenings are still cold and the mercury thermometer drops to +5?C.

The Roman spring is almost always accompanied by a light, short rain, refreshing the blooming vegetation.

April pleases with the arrival of real spring with a large number of sunny days, a pleasant warm breeze, the thermometer is growing rapidly upwards, fluctuating between + 10? С ... + 18? С.

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Sometimes the sky is covered with clouds and intermittent rain and cold gusts of air remind of a recent winter. Every day it gets hotter and drier, but at night it is still cool + 8?C.

For the past few years, the weather in Rome in May has become more and more like summer.

Only cold evenings + 13 ... + 15? C remind of the end of spring. May is a fantastic month to visit the Italian capital.

Warm and dry weather is occasionally overshadowed by a short rain quickly replaced by a bright sun.

In its second half, 12 hours a day are filled with sunlight, delighting with almost summer weather and air warmed up to + 20 ° C.

Weather in Rome in summer

June announces the onset of summer in Rome, the pleasant daytime coolness is replaced by suffocating heat, and the entire population rushes closer to the coast. The night breeze cools the red-hot city to + 20?C, while during the day it stably keeps +27 ... + 30?C.

June weather does not spoil Rome with rain, but those infrequent rains pleasantly cool the streets.

The sun rises as early as half past six in the morning and illuminates Rome for 13 hours.

The closer the end of the month, the less often the sky is covered with clouds.

Thunderstorms with short-term warm rain are typical for the beginning of June; they are almost not observed at the end of the month. The wind blows from the sea, rarely rising more than 5 m/s.

The hottest and driest month of the Roman summer is July, the temperature exceeds +40?C, the city is hot and stuffy, accompanied by high humidity.

Even at night it is not possible to rest, but +25? C and the absence of the sun make it possible to take a breath.

Rome, whose climate reaches its peak in July in terms of heat and exceptional rainfall, makes visitors and the indigenous population leave the city.

August is not much different from July, and does not even allow thoughts that the end of summer is just around the corner. The city is hot, sunny and dry, but at night comes a life-giving coolness, which was not there in July up to + 16?C ... + 19?C. Rains happen no more than 2 days a month.

Autumn Rome

Autumn in Rome does not come until the end of October, September is still warm, but the heat is gradually leaving the city.

The thermometer gradually drops to + 26? C, the evenings become a little cooler and more windy.

Short rains occur more and more often, especially towards the end of the month, reminding of the end of summer and the imminent approach of autumn.

October is a velvet season for visiting Rome, the situation is overshadowed only by frequent rains.

The city breathes with autumn freshness, during the day it is still warm + 22? C ... + 25? C, it gradually becomes colder.

The very high humidity of October makes it a sweltering month despite the cold snap. At night, you can not do without a warm sweater.

Italy is the most favorite holiday destination due to its characteristic hot summers and warm winters.

Rome, which has the most diverse weather due to its long longitude, is beautiful at any time of the year.

Each season is distinguished by its unique features. A long summer, smoothly turning into a short autumn and a moderate spring will find their fans.

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Climate: Rome - Climate graph, Temperature graph, Climate table

The climate in Rome is warm and temperate. In winter, there is much more rainfall in Rome than in summer. There is little rainfall throughout the year in Rome. According to Köppen and Geiger, this climate is classified as Csa. The average temperature in Rome is 15.7 °C. About 798 mm of precipitation falls annually.

climate graph

The driest month is July, with 17 mm of precipitation. Most of the precipitation falls in November, with an average of 114 mm.

temperature graph

July is the warmest month of the year. The temperature in July averages 24.4 °C. The average temperature in January is 7.7 °C. This is the lowest average temperature during the year

climate graph

en.climate-data.org

Rome City Guide (Italy)

Rome is one of the most ancient cities in the world, in the past the center of the great and powerful Roman Empire, and now Rome is the capital of Italy and an incredibly popular tourist city. Guests from all countries of our vast world come here in droves to see the famous "city on seven hills" with their own eyes, visit the Vatican, wander through the ruins of the ancient Forum, where the political and social life of ancient Rome was once in full swing, and of course visit the famous Colosseum, one of the most recognizable architectural structures in the world.

Modern Rome opens wide its imaginative gates for tourists, providing them with all the best for a pleasant pastime in the city. Visitors to the capital will find excellent hotels, fascinating excursions to countless sights, the best restaurants with traditional Italian cuisine and great shopping opportunities.

According to the official version of historians, Rome was founded in 753 BC. The first ruler of the city was King Romulus. Over time, the Roman state began to expand rapidly, and an extensive network of roads was built around Rome, linking the city with the provinces. Roman paved roads at that time were the best and highest quality roads in the world.

During the reign of Emperor Nero, part of Rome was almost completely destroyed by the Great Fire. Shortly after the fire, the city was rebuilt again, but with some changes in the architectural style. While the heyday of the Roman Empire lasted, Rome prospered. However, since 476, after its collapse, hard times have come for the city.

In the 5th century AD Rome, being under the rule of the Byzantine Empire, was repeatedly subjected to siege and often passed under the rule of the Ostrogothic kings. At this time, the popes managed to get huge power in Rome, who, in fact, ruled the city, although they were formally subordinate to the Byzantine Empire. In 1798, Napoleon's army captured Rome and proclaimed the Roman Republic. In 1870, royal troops entered Rome and the city became the capital of the Italian kingdom. From 1943 to 1944, Rome was occupied by fascist troops.

Rome is located on the banks of the Tiber River, near the Tyrrhenian Sea. The area of ​​the city is about 1287 sq. km, the population is 2.8 million people.

How to get to Rome

By plane

Rome's main international airport, Leonardo da Vinci Airport, also known as Fiumicino, is located 30 kilometers southwest of the city center. It serves flights of such companies as Alitalia, Aeroflot, Transaero and others. You can get from da Vinci airport to the center of Rome in about half an hour by the high-speed express train "Leonardo Express" or by a simple train, but a little longer. Also in the Lazio region there is an airport named after Giovanni Battista Pastine, or simply Ciampino Airport. It serves international flights of EasyJet, Wizz Air and Ryanair.

Tickets to Rome

By train

Termini railway station, located on the Esquiline hill, is the largest railway station in Europe. Flights depart from it to the cities of most European countries.

By bus

The main bus station in Rome receives regional and international bus services. It is located in Piazza dei Cinquecento.

Climate of Rome

The climate of Rome is Mediterranean subtropical. It has low rainfall, especially in summer. In winter, snow cover is extremely rare, the average temperature in the coldest month of the year is 3-5 degrees Celsius. Summer in Rome is very hot, in July the air usually warms up to 25-30 degrees Celsius, but there are also days when the thermometer shows up to 40 degrees.

Roman transport

Roman transport is represented by metro, trams, buses and fixed-route taxis. The metro in Rome has two lines: A and B, which intersect at the Termini interchange station. The stations have platforms on both sides of the train, so you need to be careful when transferring. There are not very many tram lines in Rome, and it is most convenient to get to most places in the capital of Italy by bus or minibus. Buses do not always stop at stops, so in order for the bus to pick you up, you need to actively signal the driver with your hand. Universal tickets for travel in public transport are sold in special machines at metro stations, as well as in newsstands. For a tourist who came to see Rome, a good option is to buy a Roma Pass card, which gives the right to travel in public transport.

Excursions and tours in Rome

Culture of Rome

In Rome, there are many interesting museums dedicated to the history of the Roman Empire, as well as various types of art. Of particular interest are the Capitoline Museums. It is a museum complex consisting of the Palazzo Nuovo Museum and the Palazzo dei Conservatori Museum. In these museums you can see a collection of bronze statues, a collection of Italian paintings and a collection of ancient sculpture. The Vatican Museums are also worth a visit - they contain collections dedicated to various eras, ranging from exhibits from ancient Egypt to modern art objects, such as paintings by Salvador Dali.

Things to Do in Rome

In their free time from excursions to sights and Roman museums (if there is such a thing, given the number of them), tourists, as a rule, go shopping. The quality of branded Italian goods is beyond praise; shoes from Italian designers are especially popular. The highest concentration of shops and boutiques in Rome is found on Via del Tritone and Via del Corso.

When is the best time to visit Rome?

The best times to visit Rome are from May to June and from September to October. At this time, there is no sweltering summer heat, and it rains relatively rarely. You can also come in the winter months, there are practically no frosts in Rome, and hotels in winter provide rooms with good discounts.

en.advisor.travel

§ 44. Natural conditions of Italy and the emergence of the city of Rome

Topic 9. Ancient Rome in the VIII-IX centuries. BC.

§ 44. Natural conditions of Italy and the emergence of the city of Rome

1. Nature and population of the Apennine Peninsula

Italy is located on the Apennine Peninsula. The Apennine mountains stretch from north to south. The peninsula is washed by five seas: from the south - the Ionian and Mediterranean, from the west - the Tyrrhenian and Ligurian, and from the east - the Adriatic. Nearby are large islands - Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia. The climate of Italy is milder than in Greece. High mountains in Europe - the Alps - protect from cold northern winds. The amount of precipitation in Central and Northern Italy is sufficient. Fewer occur in Southern Italy. Quite large rivers flow through the territory of the country - Po, Arno and Tiber. Unlike Greece, Italy has many territories suitable for agriculture and cattle breeding. The ancient Greeks called this country "Italy" - the country of calves. In the Apennine mountains there are deposits of copper, tin, iron, gold and silver. Rich Italy and building stone and clay.

The oldest population of the Apennine Peninsula is considered to be the tribes of the Ligures, Sikulivs, Sikans, etc. Other tribes came here later. Among the alien peoples, italics are distinguished, who may have given the name to the country. Over time, nine tribes were formed on the basis of local and alien tribes. Among them are Latins, umbers. Sabina and others. All these are agricultural tribes that had developed metallurgy, pottery and other crafts. The island of Sicily was inhabited by settlers from the city of Carthage.

ancient italy

2. Etruscan civilization

In the X century. BC. the Etruscans (Rasenians) appeared in Italy. They arrived in the Apennines by sea and gradually captured the territory from the Tiber to the Alps. The lands inhabited by them were called "Etruria".

The Etruscans developed agriculture, cattle breeding and handicrafts. They skillfully dry swamps, build irrigation canals. On their fields they grow linseed, oats, barley, flax, pomegranate and other crops. The Etruscan artisans were also famous. Weavers skillfully made linen fabrics for clothes, sails, etc. Potters produced beautiful dishes and exquisite sculptures. The real masterpieces were the works of Etruscan jewelers. From the finest silver and gold elements, amber and precious stones, they made jewelry.

The Etruscans were skilled navigators, their ships crossed the expanses of the Mediterranean Sea, reaching the shores of Greece, Carthage, and Phoenicia.

The ancient people founded many cities. All of them had solid stone walls and towers. The Etruscan cities were clearly planned. Stone houses and temples were located on straight paved streets. The Etruscans had their own written language. More than 9,000 inscriptions have been found on the territory of the former Etruria, and today it has not been possible to decipher. One can only guess what the writings about the life of this mysterious people could tell.

It is known that Etruria for a long time fought with the Latins for the preservation of theirlands. And even after their conquest by the Latins in the III century. BC. they tried to free themselves from their power. The last uprising of the Etruscans was suppressed by the Latins in the 1st century. BC.

The Etruscans are considered the founders of the city of Rome, which gave the name to the future powerful empire. Archaeologists have found in Rome the remains of a stone fortress built by the Etruscans in the 8th century. BC.

3. The emergence of the city of Rome

The legend connects the origin of the city with the names of two twin brothers Romulus and Remus. Their grandfather was a king, who was deprived of power by his own brother. And he ordered the twins to be thrown into the Tiber in a basket. And the kids didn't die. They were raised by a she-wolf and raised by a shepherd. When the brothers grew up, they, having learned about their royal origin, regained the throne.

Capitoline Wolf

The brothers did not manage to rule together. Romulus, chosen by the gods, became king. The brothers decided to build a city where their she-wolf fed them. But they quarreled, and Romulus killed Remus. Founded in 753 BC. he gave his name to the city, Rome.

Document

Dionysius of Halicarnassus on the power of the king

“... Romulus gave the king such rights: to lead the priesthood and sacrifices, to keep the laws and customs of his parents, to sort out serious crimes himself, and entrust light ones to the senate; gathered the senate and convened the people and had the highest power during the war ... "

Question to the document

What duties did the king have to society?

4. Ancient Roman society

Members of the ancient Roman community were divided into patricians, plebeians and slaves. Patricians belonging to the Latin clans had the right to own land and take part in the popular assembly. The plebeians belonged to the peoples conquered by the Latins(In particular, the Etruscans) or settlers. They, unlike the patricians, did not have the right to own land and participate in popular assemblies. Marriages between plebeians and patricians were forbidden.

In ancient Roman society, even then there was a rather complex system of governance. From the 8th century BC. the Roman community was headed by the king - Rex, who was elected at the popular assembly. He was also a military leader and priest. The throne, decorated with ivory and 12 guards - lictors, were symbols of the king's power. The great pontiff was the custodian of customs and traditions, the compiler of a special calendar, which reflected favorable and unfavorable days for Rome.

Lictors, honorific stands of officials of Rome

Another body of power was the Senate. The Senate - the Council of Elders, which included the heads of clans - patricians. Whose composition included 300 patricians from 300 ancient clans. Since it was believed that it was these 300 clans that founded the Roman state, the senators were called "fathers." Their main duty was to protect the law from the king and the citizens of Rome themselves. The Senate could refuse to make a decision to the people's assembly or the king if it was contrary to customs. The positions of senators were for life. At the head of the Senate was the princeps - the oldest senator in age. The Senate declared war or made peace, discussed bills, was in charge of the treasury. When the tsar died, until the election of a new ruler, the senate determined the "acting" by lot every day. He was given the keys to the treasury, the seal of Rome, the symbols of royal power.

But all the fullness of power in Rome was concentrated not in the rex or the senate, but in the popular assemblies. They passed laws and carried out legal proceedings. Here they chose the king, rejoiced the condemnation to death. Each curia belonged to 38 genera. The meeting took place in the center of the city. More than half of the votes were needed to make a decision.

Concepts and terms

Proletarians - The poorest citizens of Rome, whose wealth were only their descendants.

Ace - Ancient Roman copper coin.

ancient roman coin

5. Reforms of Servius Tulia

From 753 to 509 BC Rome has six kings. The penultimate of them, Servius Tullius (578-534 pp. BC), carried out reforms aimed at improving the administration of the state. Creformia, the Roman state was divided into 30 curia according to tribal affiliation. This was not always convenient for management, since the genera could be located territorially far from each other. Servius Tullius defined four territorial districts (tribes). An assembly of hundreds (centuries - military-territorial sergeants) was added to the national assembly. Now the Romans voted in centurial comitia - an assembly of soldiers. had one vote in the popular assembly.Servius Tullius divided all Roman citizens into classes.Depending on property and income, cavalry, proletarians, and five more classes were allocated.The duty of each class was to provide a certain number of centuries for the army, i.e. hundreds of soldiers.More were provided by riders - 80 centuries, I class - 18, II class - 22, III class - 20, IV class - 22, V class - 30, proletarians - 1 century Soon after the completion of the reforms, Servius Tullius was killed by Tarquinius Proud of the Tarquinian family.He became the last Roman Tarquinius tried to deprive the Romans of the right to participate in government. With him, the role of the people's assembly fell. wounds, he sought sole power. In 509 BC, when the rebellious people expelled Tarquinius the Proud, the royal era in the history of Rome ended.

Interesting to know

The classes of Roman society according to the reforms of Servius Tullius

Riders:

1st class - 100,000 aces

2nd class - 75,000 asses

C class - 50,000 asses

4th grade - 25,000 asses

5th grade - 11,000 asses

Questions and tasks

1. Describe the geographical location of Italy.

2. Why Etruscan civilization is considered highly developed?

3. What rights did the king, the senate, the people's assembly have?

4. What were the reforms of Servius Tullius?

5. What was the difference in social status between plebeians and patricians?

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Climate. Greece and Rome, an encyclopedia of military history

Before embarking on the study of Hannibal's route through southern Gaul and through the Alps, the climate of the time should be considered. It is now taken for granted that Hannibal went through a very high pass, those who claim that the climate then was practically the same as it is now. But is this assertion supported by anything? In 1966, selected works of the eminent meteorologist X. X. Lamb, entitled "The Changing Climate", were published. The description given there of climatic conditions in Hannibal's time is very different from the present, and is of particular value due to the fact that the scientist was not at all interested in Hannibal's crossing of the Alps. Here is what, in brief, according to Lamb, prehistoric and ancient Europe looked like. Dry and warm period between 4000 and 2000 BC, which came after the departure of the ice of the last ice age, is known as the "post-glacial climatic optimum." At that time, the temperature in the world was 2-3 degrees Celsius higher than the current one. However, in the following millennium, the climate worsened. Between 900 and 500 BC. temperatures quickly dropped to about 3 degrees Celsius below today's mark. The drop in temperature was followed by heavy rains. Rainfall then reached unprecedented levels, and the arid lands of the southern Mediterranean flourished. But what was a blessing for Greece, Italy and Spain turned out to be a curse for the rest of Europe. By about 400 B.C. rainfall peaked. All the lowlands first turned into swamps, and then simply flooded. The paths known since prehistoric times turned out to be closed, and water became the main mode of transport. Due to the drop in temperature, not only did the level of evaporation in the lowlands drop significantly, but the level of re-glaciation of the highlands also increased significantly. This means that along with the growth of swamps in the valleys, the size of glaciers also increased. Incredible rains have led to the overflow of lakes in Switzerland - the water level in Lake Baden has risen by ten meters, an amount almost impossible, given that the Rhine flows from this lake. The lake dwellers had to leave their trees

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