The constituent parts of the geographic envelope are called. The structure of the geographic envelope

Geographic envelope- the shell of the Earth, within which the lower layers of the atmosphere, the upper parts of the lithosphere, the entire hydrosphere and biosphere mutually penetrate each other and are in close interaction (Fig. 1).

The concept of the geographic shell as the "outer sphere of the earth" was introduced by the Russian meteorologist and geographer P. I. Brounov (1852-1927) as early as 1910, and the modern concept was developed by the famous geographer, Academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences A. A. Grigoriev.

The troposphere, the earth's crust, the hydrosphere, the biosphere are the structural parts geographical envelope, and the substance contained in them is its Components.

Rice. 1. Scheme of the structure of the geographic shell

Despite the significant differences in the structural parts of the geographic envelope, they have one common, very significant feature - the continuous process of movement of matter. However, the rate of intracomponent movement of matter in different structural parts of the geographic envelope is not the same. The highest rate is noted in the troposphere. Even when there is no wind, absolutely motionless surface air does not exist. Conditionally as average speed the displacement of matter in the troposphere can be taken as 500-700 cm/s.

In the hydrosphere, due to the greater density of water, the rate of movement of matter is lower, and here, in contrast to the troposphere, there is a general regular decrease in the rate of movement of water with depth. In general, the average water transfer rates in the World Ocean are (cm / s): on the surface - 1.38, at a depth of 100 m - 0.62, 200 m - 0.54, 500 m - 0.44, 1000 m - 0 .37, 2000 m - 0.30, 5000 m -0.25.

In the earth's crust, the process of matter transfer is so slow that special studies are required to establish it. The speed of movement of matter in the earth's crust is measured by several centimeters or even millimeters per year. Thus, the rate of expansion of the mid-ocean ridge varies from 1 cm/year in the Arctic Ocean to 6 cm/year in the equatorial part. Pacific Ocean. The average speed of expansion of the oceanic earth's crust is approximately 1.3 cm/year. Installed vertical speed of modern tectonic movements on land of the same order.

In all structural parts of the geographic envelope, the intracomponent movement of matter proceeds in two directions: horizontal and vertical. These two directions do not oppose each other, but represent different sides of the same process.

An active and continuous exchange of matter and energy takes place between the structural parts of the geographic envelope (Fig. 2). For example, water enters the atmosphere as a result of evaporation from the surface of the ocean and land, solid particles enter the air shell during volcanic eruptions or with the help of wind. Air and water, penetrating through cracks and pores deep into the rock pores, enter the lithosphere. Gases from the atmosphere constantly enter the reservoirs, as well as various solid particles that are carried away by water flows. The upper layers of the atmosphere are heated from the Earth's surface. Plants absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and release oxygen into it, which is necessary for the respiration of all living beings. Living organisms, dying, form the soil.

Rice. 2. Scheme of connections in the system of geographic envelope

The vertical boundaries of the geographic shell are not clearly expressed, so scientists define them in different ways. A. A. Grigoriev, like most scientists, drew the upper boundary of the geographic shell in the stratosphere at an altitude of 20-25 km, below the layer of maximum ozone concentration, which delays ultraviolet radiation Sun. Below this layer, air movements are observed associated with the interaction of the atmosphere with land and the ocean; above, atmospheric movements of this nature come to naught. The greatest controversy among scientists is the lower boundary of the geographic shell.

Most often, it is carried out along the sole of the earth's crust, i.e., at a depth of 8-10 km under the oceans and 40-70 km under the continents. Thus, the total thickness of the geographical envelope is about 30 km. Compared to the size of the Earth, this is a thin film.

), the lower part of the atmosphere (troposphere, stratosphere), the entire hydrosphere and biosphere, as well as the anthroposphere - penetrate each other and are in close interaction. Between them there is a continuous exchange of matter and energy.

The upper boundary of the geographic shell is drawn in the stratosphere, slightly below the layer of maximum ozone concentration at an altitude of about 25 km. This boundary part of the atmosphere is characterized by the main property of GO - the interpenetration of components, and also the main law of the shell is expressed - the law of geographical zoning. This law reflects the division of land and oceans into natural areas, regularly repeating in both hemispheres, the change of zones is mainly due to the nature of the distribution of solar energy over latitudes and uneven moistening. The lower boundary of the geographic shell in the upper part of the lithosphere (500-800 m.)

GO has a number of regularities. In addition to zoning, there is integrity (unity), due to the close relationship of the constituent components. Changing one component changes the others. Rhythm - repeatability natural phenomena, daily annual. Altitudinal zonality - a natural change natural conditions with a climb up the mountains. Caused by climate change with height, decrease in air temperature, its density, pressure, increase in solar radiation, as well as cloudiness and annual precipitation. The geographical shell is the object of study of geography and its branch sciences.

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✪ Geographical shell. Geography Grade 6

✪ Geographical shell - Makazhanova Elena Fedorovna

✪ Structure and properties of the geographic envelope. geography grade 7

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Terminology

Despite the criticism of the term geographic shell and the complexity of its definition, it is actively used in geography. [ where?]

The idea of the geographic shell as the "outer sphere of the earth" was introduced by the Russian meteorologist and geographer P. I. Brounov (). The modern concept was developed and introduced into the system of geographical sciences by A. A. Grigoriev (). The most successful history of the concept and contentious issues considered in the works of I. M. Zabelin.

Concepts similar to the concept of a geographical shell exist in foreign geographical literature ( earthly shell A. Getner and R. Hartshorne, geosphere G. Karol and others). However, there the geographical envelope is usually considered not as a natural system, but as a combination of natural and social phenomena.

There are other terrestrial shells at the boundaries of the connection of various geospheres.

Geographic Shell Components

Earth's crust

The earth's crust is top part solid earth. It is separated from the mantle by a boundary with a sharp increase in seismic wave velocities - the Mohorovichic boundary. The thickness of the crust ranges from 6 km under the ocean to 30-50 km on the continents. There are two types of crust - continental and oceanic. Three geological layers are distinguished in the structure of the continental crust: sedimentary cover, granite and basalt. oceanic crust It is composed mainly of rocks of the main composition, plus a sedimentary cover. The earth's crust is divided into different sizes lithospheric plates moving relative to each other. The kinematics of these movements is described by plate tectonics.

Troposphere

Its upper limit is at an altitude of 8-10 km in polar, 10-12 km in temperate and 16-18 km in tropical latitudes; lower in winter than in summer. The lower, main layer of the atmosphere. Contains more than 80% of the total mass atmospheric air and about 90% of all water vapor in the atmosphere. Turbulence and convection are strongly developed in the troposphere, clouds appear, cyclones and anticyclones develop. Temperature decreases with altitude with an average vertical gradient of 1°/152 m

For "normal conditions" at the Earth's surface are taken: density 1.2 kg/m3, barometric pressure 101.34 kPa, temperature plus 20 °C and relative humidity 50%. These conditional indicators have a purely engineering value.

Stratosphere

The upper limit is at an altitude of 50-55 km. The temperature rises with altitude up to a level of about 0 °C. Low turbulence, negligible water vapor content, increased ozone content compared to the lower and upper layers (maximum ozone concentration at altitudes of 20-25 km).

The composition of the geographical envelope of our planet includes four components: the hydrosphere and biosphere completely, and the atmosphere and lithosphere - partially. At the same time, they do not function purely autonomously, but constantly interact. Parts of these systems are the components of the geographic envelope: soil, plants, water, minerals, animals, etc.

Natural complexes

All components that are parts of the geographic envelope are divided into certain complexes in the horizontal direction. These are territories that are homogeneous not only in terms of the modern composition of natural components, but also in terms of the historical component. They have the same composition of waters (both above and below ground), the geological part, and the biocenosis.

Rice. 1. Components of the geographic envelope.

Natural complexes are formed due to the interaction of their constituent parts in the same way as a geographic shell - due to the mutual influence of its components.

Natural complexes are not the same in size and today have already been significantly changed due to
due to the strong influence of the anthropogenic factor.

Relationship of geographic shell components

Thanks to the cycles of matter and energy, which are described in the textbook for grade 7, the individual components of the geographic shell are connected enough to form integrity. There are many different cycles (atmospheric, earth's crust, etc.), but the most important is water. Due to the fact that such an amazing substance as water is able to pass into different states, it conforms with each other all the components of the natural shell and ensures their existence.

Figure 2. The water cycle.

The biological cycle is also important, when mineral substances become part of living organisms, then again returning to the mineral state. This is a iterative process.

The tropospheric circulation of air ensures the survival of the living components of the geographic envelope; the hydrosphere also participates in it.

The speed of its flow depends on the region: it occurs most quickly at the equator, slower in the polar regions.

Rice. 3. Air cycle.

Living and non-living components of the geographic envelope

Living Components- These are the components of the biosphere, that is, flora and fauna, as well as bacteria and fungi. They are involved in the biological cycle.

Water, air, minerals- these are non-living components that are included in the litho-, atmosphere and hydrospheres of the Earth.

What have we learned?

That the components that make up the geographical envelope of our planet can be living and non-living, but they are all part of the earthly spheres and, accordingly, certain cycles that ensure universal interaction. These components are combined into historically formed natural complexes changing under the influence of man. Such complexes exist due to the interaction of their parts.

GEOGRAPHICAL SHELL, a genetically and functionally integral shell of the Earth, covering the lower layers of the atmosphere, the upper layers of the earth's crust, the hydrosphere and the biosphere. All these geospheres, penetrating into each other, are in close interaction. The geographic envelope differs from other shells in the presence of life, various kinds energy, as well as increasing and transforming anthropogenic impacts. In this regard, the composition of the geographic shell includes the sociosphere, technosphere, and also the noosphere. The geographic shell has its spatio-temporal structure as a result of natural historical development. The main sources of all the processes occurring in the geographic envelope are: the energy of the Sun, which determines the presence of the solar thermal zone, the internal heat of the Earth and gravitational energy. Within the solar thermal zone (with a thickness of several tens of meters), daily and annual temperature fluctuations are determined by the flow of solar energy. The earth at the upper boundary of the atmosphere receives 10760 MJ / m 2 per year, is reflected from the earth's surface 3160 MJ / m per year, which is several thousand times more heat flow from the depths of the earth to the surface. Uneven receipt and distribution of solar energy over the spherical surface of the Earth leads to a global spatial differentiation of natural conditions (see Geographical zones). The internal heat of the Earth has a significant influence on the formation of the geographic envelope; the influence of endogenous factors is associated with the heterogeneity of the macrostructure of the lithosphere (the emergence and development of continents, mountain systems, vast plains, ocean trenches, etc.). The boundaries of the geographic envelope are not clearly defined. A number of Russian geographers (A. A. Grigoriev, S. V. Kalesnik, M. M. Ermolaev, K. K. Markov, A. M. Ryabchikov) draw the upper boundary in the stratosphere (at an altitude of 25-30 km, at the level of maximum concentration of the ozone layer), where hard ultraviolet radiation is absorbed, the thermal effect of the earth's surface affects, and living organisms can still exist. Other Russian scientists (D. L. Armand, A. G. Isachenko, F. N. Milkov, Yu. processes in the troposphere with the properties of the underlying surface of the Earth. The lower boundary is often combined (A. G. Isachenko, S. V. Kalesnik, I. M. Zabelin) with the lower limit of the hypergenesis zone (a depth of several hundred meters or more) in the upper part of the lithosphere. A significant part of Russian scientists (D. L. Armand, A. A. Grigoriev, F. N. Milkov, A. M. Ryabchikov, Yu. P. Seliverstov, etc.) take average depth seismic or volcanic sources, the sole of the earth's crust (the border of Mohorovichich). The two types of the earth's crust (continental and oceanic) correspond to different limits of the lower boundary - from 70-80 to 6-10 km. The geographic envelope was formed as a result of a long (4.6 billion years) evolution of the Earth, when varying degrees intensity and significance revealed the main "mechanisms" of planetary processes: volcanism; the formation of mobile belts; buildup and expansion (spreading) of the lithosphere; geomorphological cycle; development of the hydrosphere, atmosphere, vegetation and wildlife; economic activity man, etc. Integral processes are the geological circulation of matter, the biological cycle and moisture circulation. The geographic shell is characterized by a tiered structure with an increase in the density of the substance downwards. The geographical shell is in constant change, and its development and complication proceed unevenly in time and space. The geographical envelope is characterized by the following features:

1. Integrity due to the continuous exchange of matter and energy between constituent parts, since the interaction of all components binds them into a single material system, in which a change in even one link entails an associated change in all the others.

2. The presence of a number of cycles of matter (and the energy associated with it), which ensure the repetition of the same processes and phenomena. The complexity of the cycles is different, among them mechanical movements(circulation of the atmosphere, the system of sea surface currents), a change in the state of aggregation of matter (moisture circulation) and biochemical transformation (biological circulation).

3. Cyclical (rhythmic) manifestations of many natural processes and phenomena. There is a daily rhythm (change of day and night), annual (change of seasons), intra-secular (cycles of 25-50 years, observed in climate fluctuations, glaciers, lake levels, river flow, etc.), super-secular (change every 1800-1900 years of the cool-humid climate phase, the dry and warm phase) and the like.

4. The continuity of the development of the geographical envelope and its geographical focus - the landscape sphere of the Earth - occurs under the influence of the interaction of exogenous and endogenous forces. The consequences of this development are:

a) territorial differentiation of the surface of the land, ocean and seabed into areas that differ in internal features And appearance(landscapes, geocomplexes); special forms of territorial differentiation - geographical zonality and altitudinal zonality of landscapes;

b) significant differences in nature in the Northern and Southern hemispheres, in the distribution of land and sea (the predominant part of the land is in the Northern Hemisphere), climate, animal composition and flora, in character landscape zones etc.;

c) the heterochrony of the development of the geographic envelope, due to the spatial heterogeneity of the nature of the Earth, as a result of which at the same moment different territories are either in different phases of an equally directed evolutionary process, or differ from each other in the direction of development (examples: ancient glaciation in different regions of the Earth began and ended non-simultaneously; in some geographical areas the climate becomes drier, in others at the same time it becomes wetter, etc.).

The idea of a geographic envelope was first approached by the Russian scientists P. I. Brounov (1910) and R. I. Abolin (1914). The term was introduced and substantiated by A. A. Grigoriev (1932). Concepts similar to the geographic shell exist in foreign geography (the “earth shell” by the German scientist A. Getner and the American scientist R. Hartshorne; the “geosphere” by the Austrian geographer G. Karol, etc.), in which it is usually considered not as a natural system, but as a combination of natural and social phenomena.

Lit .: Abolin R.I. Experience of epigenological classification of swamps // Bolotovedenie. 1914. No. 3; Brounov P.I. Course of physical geography. P., 1917; Grigoriev A. A. Experience of analytical characterization of the composition and structure of the physical-geographical shell the globe. L.; M., 1937; he is. Patterns of structure and development geographical environment. M., 1966; Markov, K.K., Polar asymmetry of the geographic envelope, Izv. All-Union Geographical Society. 1963. T. 95. Issue. one; he is. Space and time in geography // Nature. 1965. No. 5; Carol H. Zur Theorie der Geographie // Mitteilungen der Osterreichischen Geographischen Gessellschaft. 1963. Bd 105. N. 1-2; Kalesnik S. V. General geographical patterns of the Earth. M., 1970; Isachenko, A.G., Systems and rhythms of zoning, Izv. All-Union Geographical Society. 1971. T. 103. Issue. one.

K. N. Dyakonov.

The structure of the geographical shell

The geographic envelope is an integral continuous near-surface part of the Earth, within which there is an intense interaction of four components: the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere (living matter). This is the most complex and diverse material system of our planet, which includes the entire hydrosphere, the lower layer of the atmosphere (troposphere), the upper part of the lithosphere and the living organisms inhabiting them. The spatial structure of the geographic envelope is three-dimensional and spherical. This is a zone of active interaction of natural components, in which the greatest manifestation of physical and geographical processes and phenomena is observed.

Geographic envelope boundaries fuzzy. Up and down from the earth's surface, the interaction of the components gradually weakens, and then completely disappears. Therefore, scientists draw the boundaries of the geographical shell in different ways. The upper boundary is often taken to be the ozone layer located at an altitude of 25 km, where most of the ultraviolet rays that are detrimental to living organisms. However, some researchers conduct it along the upper boundary of the troposphere, which most actively interacts with the earth's surface. The base of the weathering crust up to 1 km thick is usually taken as the lower boundary on land, and the ocean floor in the ocean.

The geographical envelope consists of structural parts - components. This rocks, water, air, plants, animals and soils.

Section VI geographical envelope and physical-geographical zoning

They differ in physical state (solid, liquid, gaseous), level of organization (inanimate, living, bio-inert), chemical composition, activity (inert - rocks, soil, mobile - water, air, active - living matter).

I call natural complexes formed on land territorial, and in the ocean or other body of water - aquatic. The geographic envelope is a natural complex of the highest, planetary rank. On land, it includes smaller natural complexes: continents and oceans, natural zones and such natural formations, as the East European Plain, the Sahara Desert, the Amazonian Lowland, etc. The smallest natural-territorial complex, in the structure of which all the main components participate, is considered a physical-geographical region. It is a block of the earth's crust, connected with all other components of the complex, that is, with water, air, vegetation and wildlife. This block should be sufficiently isolated from neighboring blocks and have its own morphological structure, that is, include parts of the landscape, which are facies, tracts and areas.

The geographical envelope has a peculiar spatial structure. It is three-dimensional and spherical. This is the zone of the most active interaction of natural components, in which the greatest intensity of various physical and geographical processes and phenomena is observed. At some distance up and down from the earth's surface, the interaction of the components weakens, and then completely disappears. This happens gradually and the boundaries of the geographical shell - fuzzy. Therefore, researchers draw its upper and lower boundaries in different ways. The upper boundary is often taken to be the ozone layer, which lies at a height of 25-. This layer absorbs ultraviolet rays, so life is possible below it. However, some researchers draw the boundary of the shell below - along the upper boundary of the troposphere, taking into account that the troposphere most actively interacts with the earth's surface. Therefore, it manifests geographical zonality and zonality.

The lower boundary of the eographic shell is often drawn along the Mohorovichich section, that is, along the asthenosphere, which is the sole of the earth's crust. In more contemporary works this boundary is drawn above and limits from below only a part of the earth's crust, which is directly involved in interaction with water, air and living organisms. As a result, a weathering crust is created, in the upper part of which there is soil.

Active Conversion Zone mineral matter on land it has a thickness of up to several hundred meters, and under the ocean only tens of meters. Sometimes the entire sedimentary layer of the lithosphere is referred to the eographic shell.

Geographer N.A. Solntsev believes that the space of the Earth, where the substance is in liquid, gas and solid, can be attributed to the eographic shell. atomic states, or in the form living matter. Outside this space, matter is in subatomic state, forming an ionized gas of the atmosphere or compacted packages of atoms of the lithosphere.

This corresponds to the boundaries, which have already been mentioned above: the upper boundary of the troposphere, the ozone screen - up, the lower limit of weathering and the lower boundary of the granite layer of the earth's crust - down.

More articles about geographic shell

Lecture: Geographical shell its structure and boundaries.

Geographical shell of the Earth

The spatial structure of the geographic envelope is three-dimensional and spherical. This is a zone of active interaction of natural components, in which the greatest manifestation of physical and geographical processes and phenomena is observed.

The boundaries of the geographic envelope are indistinct. Up and down from the earth's surface, the interaction of the components gradually weakens, and then completely disappears. Therefore, scientists draw the boundaries of the geographical shell in different ways. The upper boundary is often taken to be the ozone layer, located at an altitude of 25 km, where most of the ultraviolet rays that have a detrimental effect on living organisms are retained. However, some researchers conduct it along the upper boundary of the troposphere, which most actively interacts with the earth's surface. The base of the weathering crust up to 1 km thick is usually taken as the lower boundary on land, and the ocean floor in the ocean.

The idea of a geographical shell as a special natural formation was formulated at the beginning of the 20th century. A.A. Grigoriev and S.V. Kalesnik. They revealed the main features of the geographic envelope: 1) the complexity of the composition and the diversity of the state of matter; 2) the flow of all physical and geographical processes due to solar (cosmic) and internal (telluric) energy; 3) transformation and partial conservation of all types of energy entering it; 4) the concentration of life and the presence of human society; 5) the presence of a substance in three states of aggregation.

The geographical envelope consists of structural parts - components. These are rocks, water, air, plants, animals and soils. They differ in physical state (solid, liquid, gaseous), level of organization (non-living, living, bio-inert), chemical composition, activity (inert - rocks, soil, mobile - water, air, active - living matter).

The geographic envelope has a vertical structure consisting of individual areas. The lower tier is composed of dense matter of the lithosphere, while the upper ones are represented by lighter matter of the hydrosphere and atmosphere. Such a structure is the result of matter differentiation with the release of dense matter in the center of the Earth, and lighter matter along the periphery. The vertical differentiation of the geographic shell served as the basis for F.N. Milkov to single out a landscape sphere inside it - a thin layer (up to 300 m), where active interaction the earth's crust, atmosphere and hydrosphere.

The geographical envelope in the horizontal direction is divided into separate natural complexes, which is determined by the uneven distribution of heat in different parts of the earth's surface and its heterogeneity. I call natural complexes formed on land territorial, and in the ocean or other body of water - aquatic. The geographic envelope is a natural complex of the highest, planetary rank. On land, it includes smaller natural complexes: continents and oceans, natural zones and natural formations such as the East European Plain, the Sahara Desert, the Amazonian Lowland, etc. The smallest natural territorial complex, in the structure of which all the main components participate, is considered physical-geographical region. It is a block of the earth's crust, connected with all other components of the complex, that is, with water, air, vegetation and wildlife. This block should be sufficiently isolated from neighboring blocks and have its own morphological structure, that is, include parts of the landscape, which are facies, tracts and areas.

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Abstract on the topic:

Geographic envelope

Plan:

1Terminology
2Geographic shell components
- 2.1 Earth's crust
- 2.2 Troposphere
- 2.3Stratosphere
- 2.4Hydrosphere
- 2.5 Biosphere
- 2.6 Stratisphere

Notes
Literature

Introduction

Geographical shell- in Russian geographical science, this is understood as an integral and continuous shell of the Earth, where its constituent parts (the earth's crust, troposphere, stratosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere) penetrate each other and are in close interaction. Between them there is a continuous exchange of matter and energy.

The upper boundary of the geographic shell is drawn along the stratopause, since before this boundary the thermal effect of the earth's surface affects atmospheric processes; the boundary of the geographic shell in the lithosphere is often combined with the lower limit of the hypergenesis region (sometimes the foot of the stratisphere, the average depth of seismic or volcanic sources, the sole of the earth's crust, and the level of zero annual temperature amplitudes are taken as the lower boundary of the geographic shell). The geographic envelope completely covers the hydrosphere, descending in the ocean 10-11 km below sea level, the upper zone of the earth's crust and the lower part of the atmosphere (a layer 25-30 km thick). The greatest thickness of the geographical envelope is close to 40 km. In addition, there was a book "Geographical shell" Geographical shell is the object of study of geography and its sciences.

1. Terminology

Despite the criticism of the term "geographical envelope" and the difficulty in defining it, it is actively used in geography and is one of the main concepts in Russian geography.

The concept of the geographic envelope as the "outer sphere of the earth" was introduced by the Russian meteorologist and geographer P. I. Brounov (1910). The modern concept was developed and introduced into the system of geographical sciences by A. A. Grigoriev (1932). The history of the concept and controversial issues are most successfully considered in the works of I. M. Zabelin.

Concepts similar to the concept of a geographical shell exist in foreign geographical literature ( earthly shell A. Getner and R. Hartshorne, geosphere G.

Geographical envelope, its properties and integrity

Karol and others). However, there the geographical envelope is usually considered not as a natural system, but as a combination of natural and social phenomena.

There are other terrestrial shells at the boundaries of the connection of various geospheres.

2. Components of the geographical envelope

2.1. Earth's crust

The earth's crust is the upper part of the solid earth. It is separated from the mantle by a boundary with a sharp increase in the velocities of seismic waves - the Mohorovichich boundary. The thickness of the crust ranges from 6 km under the ocean to 30-50 km on the continents. There are two types of crust - continental and oceanic. Three geological layers are distinguished in the structure of the continental crust: sedimentary cover, granite and basalt. The oceanic crust is composed mainly of mafic rocks, plus a sedimentary cover. The earth's crust is divided into lithospheric plates of different sizes, moving relative to each other. The kinematics of these movements is described by plate tectonics.

2.2. Troposphere

Its upper limit is at an altitude of 8-10 km in polar, 10-12 km in temperate and 16-18 km in tropical latitudes; lower in winter than in summer. The lower, main layer of the atmosphere. It contains more than 80% of the total mass of atmospheric air and about 90% of all water vapor present in the atmosphere. In the troposphere, turbulence and convection are highly developed, clouds appear, cyclones and anticyclones develop. Temperature decreases with altitude with an average vertical gradient of 0.65°/100 m

2.3. Stratosphere

2.4. Hydrosphere

The hydrosphere is the totality of all the water reserves of the Earth. Most of the water is concentrated in the ocean, much less - in the continental river network and groundwater. There are also large reserves of water in the atmosphere, in the form of clouds and water vapor.

Part of the water is in a solid state in the form of glaciers, snow cover, and in permafrost, making up the cryosphere.

2.5. Biosphere

The biosphere is a set of parts of the earth's shells (litho-, hydro- and atmosphere), which is inhabited by living organisms, is under their influence and is occupied by the products of their vital activity.

2.6. Stratisphere

Stratisphere - the upper shell of the Earth up to 20 km thick, which has a layered structure and consists of sedimentary and sedimentary-volcanic rocks.

Notes

Tanimoto Toshiro Crustal Structure of the Earth - www.agu.org/books/rf/v001/RF001p0214/RF001p0214.pdf / Thomas J. Ahrens. - Washington, DC: American Geophysical Union, 1995. - ISBN ISBN 0-87590-851-9

Literature

Brounov P. I. Course of physical geography, St. Petersburg, 1917.
Grigoriev A. A. Experience of the analytical characteristics of the composition and structure of the physical-geographical shell of the globe, L.-M., 1937.
Grigoriev A. A. Patterns of the structure and development of the geographical environment, M., 1966.

Geographic envelope and its properties. The globe consists of several shells: atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere. In addition, a biosphere inhabited by living organisms is distinguished on Earth. All shells are in close contact and interact with each other.

Geographic envelope (GO)- a single material system within which the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere interact. The geographic envelope includes the upper part of the lithosphere, the lower part of the atmosphere, the entire biosphere, and the entire hydrosphere. As a result of such close interpenetration, processes develop in the geographic envelope that distinguish it from other areas:

1) only in GO is it possible to have a variety of types of energy, the conversion of solar energy in plants (photosynthesis);

2) only in GO is it possible for a substance to exist in three states of aggregation;

3) only GO is characterized by the presence of organic matter and life, and human society is developing.

The main source of energy in the geographic shell is the Sun. Solar radiation on Earth provides all the processes occurring in GO, participates in all cycles of matter. The development of GO has its own patterns and character traits: integrity, rhythm and zoning, cycles of matter and energy.

Cycles of matter and energy: all GO substances are in constant circulation. Water evaporated from the oceans is transported by air currents to land, falls as precipitation and returns to the ocean again by rivers and groundwater This is how the water cycle closes in nature. The biological cycle consists in the transformation of plants inorganic substances into organic, which, after the death of the biomass, again turn into inorganic. Often the cycles of matter are accompanied by cycles of energy (for example, the release of heat during the condensation of water vapor and the absorption of heat during evaporation). Circulations determine the continuous development of the geographic envelope.

Civil defense integrity It manifests itself in the fact that a change in one component of nature inevitably causes a change in all the others. These changes can evenly cover the entire geographic envelope and appear in some of its separate parts, influencing other parts.

Rhythm natural phenomena is the repetition of similar phenomena in time. Examples of rhythm: daily and annual periods of the Earth's rotation; long periods of mountain building and climate change on Earth; periods of change in solar activity. The study of rhythms is important for forecasting the processes and phenomena occurring in the geographic envelope.

Zoning– regular change of all GO components from the equator to the poles.

What is a geographic envelope, and what are its properties?

It is caused by the rotation of the spherical Earth with a certain inclination of the axis of rotation around the Sun. Depending on the geographical latitude solar radiation is distributed zonally and causes a change in climates, soils, vegetation and other components of the geographic envelope. The world law of zonality of the geographical shell is manifested in its division into geographical zones and natural zones. On its basis, the physical-geographical zoning of the Earth and its individual sections is carried out.

Simultaneously with the zonal, there are also azonal factors, connected with internal energy Earth (relief, height, configuration of the continents). They violate the zonal distribution of GO components. In any part of the world, zonal and azonal factors act simultaneously.

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The geographic shell of the earth or the landscape shell, the sphere of interpenetration and interaction of the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. It is characterized by a complex composition and structure. The vertical thickness of the geographical envelope is tens of kilometers. The integrity of the geographic envelope is determined by the continuous energy and mass exchange between the land and the atmosphere, the World Ocean and organisms. natural processes in the geographical envelope are carried out due to the radiant energy of the Sun and the internal energy of the Earth. Within the geographic shell, mankind arose and is developing, drawing resources from the shell for its existence and influencing it.

The upper boundary of the Geographical envelope should be drawn along the stratopause, because up to this point, the thermal effect of the earth's surface on atmospheric processes affects. The boundary of the geographic shell in the lithosphere is combined with the lower limit of the hypergenesis region. Sometimes the foot of the stratisphere, the average depth of seismic or volcanic sources, the base of the earth's crust, and the level of zero annual temperature amplitudes are sometimes taken as the lower boundary of the geographic envelope. Thus, the geographical envelope completely covers the hydrosphere, descending in the ocean 10-11 km below the Earth's surface, the upper zone of the earth's crust and the lower part of the atmosphere (a layer 25-30 km thick). The greatest thickness of the geographical envelope is close to 40 km.

The qualitative differences between the geographic shell and other shells of the Earth are as follows. The geographical envelope is formed under the influence of both terrestrial and cosmic processes; it is exceptionally rich in various types of free energy; the substance is present in all states of aggregation; the degree of aggregation of a substance is extremely diverse - from free elementary particles- from atoms, ions, molecules to chemical compounds and the most complex biological bodies; the concentration of heat coming from the sun; presence of human society.

The main material components of the geographic envelope are the rocks that form the earth's crust in form - relief), air masses, water accumulations, soil cover and biocenoses; in the polar latitudes and high mountains, the role of ice accumulations is essential.

The main energy components are gravitational energy, the internal heat of the Earth, the radiant energy of the Sun and the energy of cosmic rays. Despite the limited set of components, their combinations can be very diverse; it also depends on the number of terms included in the combination and on their internal variations, since each component is also a very complex natural combination and, most importantly, on the nature of their interaction and relationships, i.e., on the geographical structure.

The geographic envelope has the following important features:

1) the integrity of the geographic envelope, due to the continuous exchange of matter and energy between its constituent parts, since the interaction of all components binds them into a single material system, in which a change in even one link entails a conjugate change in all the others.

2) The presence of the circulation of substances and the energy associated with it, which ensures the repetition of the same processes and phenomena and their high overall efficiency with a limited volume of the initial substance involved in these processes. The complexity of the cycles is different: some of them are mechanical movements (atmospheric circulation, a system of sea surface currents), others are accompanied by a change in the aggregate state of matter (water circulation on Earth), thirdly, its chemical transformation also occurs (biological circulation). The cycles, however, are not closed, and the differences between their initial and final stages testify to the development of the system.

3) Rhythm, i.e., the repetition in time of various processes and phenomena. It is due mainly to astronomical and geological reasons. There is a daily rhythm (change of day and night), annual (change of seasons), intra-secular (for example, cycles of 25-50 years, observed in fluctuations in climate, glaciers, lake levels, river flow, etc.), super-secular (for example , change for every 1800-1900 years of a phase of a cool-humid climate with a phase of dry and warm), geological (caledonian, hercynian, alpine cycles of 200-240 million years each), etc. Rhythms, like cycles, are not closed: the state that was at the beginning of the rhythm is not repeated at the end.

4). The continuity of the development of the geographical shell, as some complete system under the influence of the contradictory interaction of exogenous and endogenous forces. The consequences and features of this development are: a) territorial differentiation of the surface of the land, ocean and seabed into areas that differ in internal features and external appearance (landscapes, geocomplexes); determined by spatial changes in geographic structure; special forms of territorial differentiation—geographical zonality; b) polar asymmetry, that is, significant differences in the nature of the geographical envelope in the northern and southern hemispheres; manifests itself in the distribution of land and sea (the vast majority of land in the Northern Hemisphere), climate, composition of flora and fauna, in the nature of landscape zones, etc.; c) heterochrony or metachronism of the development of the geographic envelope, due to the spatial heterogeneity of the nature of the Earth, as a result of which at the same moment different territories are either in different phases of an equally directed evolutionary process, or differ from each other in the direction of development (examples: ancient glaciation in different regions Earth began and ended at the same time, in some geographical areas the climate becomes drier, in others at the same time - wetter, etc.).

The geographical shell is the subject of study of physical geography.

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