The nervous and endocrine systems are the main regulatory systems of the human body. Regulatory systems of the human body

Year of issue: 2003

Genre: Biology

Format: Djvu

Quality: Scanned pages

Description: Recent years have been characterized by a significant increase in interest in psychology and related sciences. The result of this is the organization a large number universities and faculties that train professional psychologists, including in such specific areas as psychotherapy, pedagogical psychology, clinical psychology, etc. All this creates the prerequisites for the development of textbooks and teaching aids of a new generation, taking into account modern scientific achievements and concepts.
AT study guide"Regulatory systems of the human body" considers natural science (primarily anatomical and physiological) facts relevant to psychological disciplines. It is a holistic course in which data on the higher functions of the brain are presented on the basis of neuromorphological, neurocytological, biochemical and molecular biological concepts. Much attention is paid to information about the mechanisms of action of psychotropic drugs, as well as the origin of the main violations of the activity. nervous system.
The authors hope that the book "Regulatory Systems of the Human Body" will help students obtain reliable basic knowledge in a number of training courses on the anatomy and physiology of the nervous system, the physiology of higher nervous activity(behavior), physiology of the endocrine system.

"Regulatory systems of the human body"

BASICS OF THE CELL STRUCTURE OF LIVING ORGANISMS

1. cell theory
2. Chemical organization of the cell
3. Cell structure
4. Synthesis of proteins in the cell
5. Tissues: structure and functions

STRUCTURE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

1. The reflex principle of the brain
2. Embryonic development nervous system
3. General idea of ​​the structure of the nervous system
4. Shells and cavities of the central nervous system
5. Spinal cord
6. General structure brain
7. Medulla
8. Cerebellum
9. midbrain
10. diencephalon
11. telencephalon
12. Pathways of the brain and spinal cord
13. Localization of functions in the cerebral cortex big brain
14. cranial nerves
15. spinal nerves
16. Autonomic (vegetative) nervous system

GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

1. Synaptic contacts of nerve cells
2. Resting potential of a nerve cell
3. The action potential of a nerve cell
4. postsynaptic potentials. Propagation of an action potential along a neuron
5. Life cycle nervous system mediators
6. Acetylcholine
7. Norepinephrine
8. Dopamine
9. Serotonin
10. Glutamic acid (glutamate)
11. Gamma aminobutyric acid
12. Other non-peptide mediators: histamine, aspartic acid, glycine, purines
13. Mediators-peptides

PHYSIOLOGY OF HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY

1. General ideas about the principles of organization of behavior. Computer analogy of the central nervous system
2. The emergence of the doctrine of higher nervous activity. Basic concepts of the physiology of higher nervous activity
3. Variety of unconditioned reflexes
4. Variety of conditioned reflexes
5. non-associative learning. Mechanisms of short-term and long-term memory
6. Unconditional and conditional inhibition
7. Sleep and wake system
8. Types of higher nervous activity (temperaments)
9. Complex types associative animal learning
10. Features of the higher nervous activity of man. Second signaling system
11. Ontogeny of human higher nervous activity
12. The system of needs, motivations, emotions

ENDOCRINE REGULATION OF PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS

1. general characteristics endocrine system
2. Hypothalamic-pituitary system
3. Thyroid
4. parathyroid glands
5. adrenal glands
6. Pancreas
7. Endocrinology of reproduction
8. Pineal gland or pineal gland
9. thymus
10. Prostaglandins
11. Regulatory peptides

INTRODUCTION

I. GLANDS OF INTERNAL AND MIXED SECRETION

II. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Functions of the endocrine system

glandular endocrine system

Diffuse endocrine system

Composition of the diffuse endocrine system

Gastrointestinal tract

Atria of the heart

Nervous system

Thymus gland (thymus)

Other hormone-producing tissues and scattered endocrine cells

Regulation of the endocrine system

III. HORMONES

Important human hormones

IV. THE ROLE OF HORMONES IN METABOLISM, GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE BODY

Thyroid

parathyroid glands

Pancreas

Diseases of the pancreas

The pancreatic hormone insulin and diabetes mellitus

adrenal glands

ovaries

CONCLUSION

LITERATURE AND INTERNET SOURCES

INTRODUCTION

In the human body, there are external secretion glands that secrete their products into the ducts or out, endocrine glands that secrete hormones directly into the blood, and mixed secretion glands: some of their cells secrete secrets into the ducts or out, the other part secretes hormones directly into the blood. The endocrine system includes endocrine and mixed glands that secrete hormones - biological regulators. They act in negligible doses on cells, tissues and organs that are sensitive to them. At the end of their action, hormones are destroyed, allowing other hormones to act. Endocrine glands in various age periods operate at different intensities. The growth and development of the body is precisely ensured by the work of a number of endocrine glands. Those. the totality of these glands is a kind of regulatory system of the human body.

In my work, I intend to consider the following questions:

What specific glands of internal and mixed secretion regulate the vital activity of the body?

What hormones are produced by these glands?

· What is the regulatory effect and how does this or that gland, this or that hormone?

I. GLANDS OF INTERNAL AND MIXED SECRETION

We know that in the human body there are such (sweat and salivary) glands that bring their products - secrets into the cavity of any organ or out. They are classified as endocrine glands. External secretion glands, in addition to salivary glands, include gastric, liver, sweat, sebaceous and other glands.

The endocrine glands (see Fig. 1), unlike the external secretion glands, do not have ducts. Their secrets go straight into the blood. They contain substances-regulators - hormones with great biological activity. Even with their insignificant concentration in the blood, certain target organs can be turned on or off from work, the activity of these organs can be strengthened or weakened. Having completed its task, the hormone is destroyed, and the kidneys remove it from the body. An organ without hormonal regulation, can't work normally. The endocrine glands function throughout a person's life, but their activity in different age periods is not the same.

The endocrine glands include the pituitary, pineal, thyroid, and adrenal glands.

There are also glands of mixed secretion. Some of their cells secrete hormones directly into the blood, the other part - into the ducts or outward substances characteristic of the external secretion glands.

Glands of internal and mixed secretion belong to the endocrine system.

II. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Endocrine system- activity regulation system internal organs through hormones secreted by endocrine cells directly into the blood, or diffusing through the intercellular space into neighboring cells.

The endocrine system is divided into the glandular endocrine system (or glandular apparatus), in which the endocrine cells are brought together to form the endocrine gland, and the diffuse endocrine system. The endocrine gland produces glandular hormones, which include all steroid hormones, thyroid hormones, and many peptide hormones. The diffuse endocrine system is represented by endocrine cells scattered throughout the body that produce hormones called aglandular - (with the exception of calcitriol) peptides. Almost every tissue in the body contains endocrine cells.

Functions of the endocrine system

• It takes part in the humoral (chemical) regulation of body functions and coordinates the activity of all organs and systems.
• Ensures the maintenance of body homeostasis under changing conditions external environment.
• Together with nervous and immune systems governs
• growth,
• body development,
• its sexual differentiation and reproductive function;
• takes part in the processes of formation, use and conservation of energy.
• Together with the nervous system, hormones are involved in providing
• emotional reactions
• mental activity of a person

glandular endocrine system

The glandular endocrine system is represented by separate glands with concentrated endocrine cells. The endocrine glands include:

• Thyroid
• parathyroid glands
• thymus or thymus gland
• Pancreas
• adrenal glands
• sex glands:
• Ovary
• Testicle

(for more details on the structure and functions of these glands, see below "ROLE OF HORMONES IN METABOLISM, GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE ORGANISM")

Diffuse endocrine system- a department of the endocrine system, represented by endocrine cells scattered in various organs that produce aglandular hormones (peptides, with the exception of calcitriol).

In a diffuse endocrine system, endocrine cells are not concentrated, but scattered. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland have secretory cells, with the hypothalamus considered to be an element of the important "hypothalamic-pituitary system". The pineal gland also belongs to the diffuse endocrine system. Some endocrine functions are performed by the liver (secretion of somatomedin, insulin-like growth factors, etc.), kidneys (secretion of erythropoietin, medullins, etc.), stomach (secretion of gastrin), intestines (secretion of vasoactive intestinal peptide, etc.), spleen (secretion of splenins) and others. Endocrine cells are found throughout the human body.

Regulatory systems of the human body - Dubynin V.A. - 2003.

The manual at the modern level, but in a form accessible to the reader, outlines the basic knowledge of the anatomy of the nervous system, neurophysiology and neurochemistry (with elements of psychopharmacology), the physiology of higher nervous activity and neuroendocrinology.
For students of universities studying in the direction of preparation 510600 Biology, biological, as well as medical, psychological and other specialties.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD - 5s.
INTRODUCTION - 6-8s.
1 BASICS OF THE CELL STRUCTURE OF LIVING ORGANISMS - 9-39s.
1.1 Cell theory - 9s.
1.2 Chemical organization of the cell -10-16s.
1.3 The structure of the cell - 17-26s.
1.4 Synthesis of proteins in the cell - 26-31s.
1.5 Tissues: structure and functions - 31-39s.
2 STRUCTURE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM - 40-96s.
2.1 The reflex principle of the brain - 40-42s.
2.2 Embryonic development of the nervous system - 42-43s.
2.3 General idea of ​​the structure of the nervous system - 43-44s.
2.4 Shells and cavities of the central nervous system - 44-46s.
2.5 Spinal cord - 47-52s.
2.6 General structure of the brain - 52-55s.
2.7 Medulla oblongata - 56-57s.
2.8 Bridge - 57-bos.
2.9 Cerebellum - 60-62s.
2.10 Midbrain - 62-64s.
2.11 Interbrain - 64-68s.
2.12 Telencephalon - 68-74s.
2.13 Pathways of the brain and spinal cord - 74-80s.
2.14 Localization of functions in the cerebral cortex - 80-83s.
2.15 Cranial nerves - 83-88s.
2.16 Spinal nerves - 88-93s.
2.17 Autonomic (vegetative) nervous system - 93-96s.
3 GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM - 97-183s.
3.1 Synaptic contacts of nerve cells - 97-101 p.
3.2 The resting potential of the nerve cell - 102-107s.
3.3 Action potential of a nerve cell -108-115s.
3.4 Postsynaptic potentials. Propagation of the action potential along the neuron - 115-121s.
3.5 Life cycle of mediators of the nervous system -121-130s.
3.6 Acetylcholine - 131-138s.
3.7 Norepinephrine - 138-144s.
3.8 Dopamine-144-153C.
3.9 Serotonin - 153-160s.
3.10 Glutamic acid (glutamate) -160-167s.
3.11 Gamma-aminobutyric acid-167-174c.
3.12 Other non-peptide mediators: histamine, aspartic acid, glycine, purines - 174-177c.
3.13 Mediators-peptides - 177-183s.
4 PHYSIOLOGY OF HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY - 184-313s.
4.1 General ideas about the principles of organization of behavior. Computer analogy of the work of the central nervous system - 184-191s.
4.2 The emergence of the doctrine of higher nervous activity. Basic concepts of the physiology of higher nervous activity -191-200s.
4.3 Variety of unconditioned reflexes - 201-212s.
4.4 Variety of conditioned reflexes - 213-223s.
4.5 Non-associative learning. Mechanisms of short-term and long-term memory - 223-241s.
4.6 Unconditional and conditional braking - 241-251s.
4.7 The system of sleep and wakefulness - 251-259s.
4.8 Types of higher nervous activity (temperaments) - 259-268s.
4.9 Complex types of associative learning in animals - 268-279s.
4.10 Features of higher nervous activity of a person. The second signal system - 279-290s.
4.11 Ontogeny of human higher nervous activity - 290-296s.
4.12 The system of needs, motivations, emotions - 296-313s.
5 ENDOCRINE REGULATION OF PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS -314-365s.
5.1 General characteristics of the endocrine system - 314-325s.
5.2 The hypothalamic-pituitary system - 325-337s.
5.3 Thyroid gland - 337-341s.
5.4 Parathyroid glands - 341-342s.
5.5 Adrenals - 342-347s.
5.6 Pancreas - 347-350s.
5.7 Endocrinology of reproduction - 350-359s.
5.8 Epiphysis, or pineal gland - 359-361s.
5.9 Thymus - 361-362s.
5.10 Prostaglandins - 362-363s.
5.11 Regulatory peptides - 363-365c.
LIST OF RECOMMENDED LITERATURE - 366-367s.

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Basic concepts and key terms: regulatory systems, nervous, endocrine, immune systems.

Remember! What is the regulation of the functions of the human body?

Regulation (from lat. regulation) - put in order, arrange.

Think!

The human body is a complex system. It contains billions of cells, millions of structural units, thousands of organs, hundreds of functional systems, dozens of physiological systems. And why do they all work harmoniously, as a whole?

What are the features of the regulatory systems of the human body?

REGULATORY SYSTEMS

a set of organs that have a leading influence on the activity of physiological systems, organs and cells. These systems have structural features and functions associated with their purpose.

Regulatory systems have central and peripheral departments. Leadership teams are formed in the central bodies, and peripheral organs ensure their distribution and transfer to the working bodies for execution (principle of centralization).

To control the execution of commands, the central bodies of regulatory systems receive response information from the working bodies. This feature of the activity of biological systems is called the principle feedback.

Information from regulatory systems throughout the body is transmitted in the form of signals. Therefore, the cells of such systems have the ability to produce electrical impulses and chemical substances, encode and disseminate information.

Regulatory systems carry out the regulation of functions in accordance with changes in the external or internal environment. Therefore, the governing commands that are sent to the authorities are either stimulating or slowing down (the principle of double action).

Such features in the human body are characteristic of three systems - nervous, endocrine and immune. And they are the regulatory systems of our body.

So, the main features of regulatory systems are:

1) the presence of central and peripheral departments; 2) the ability to produce guiding signals; 3) activity on the principle of feedback; 4) double mode of regulation.

How is the regulatory activity of the nervous system organized?

The nervous system is a set of human organs that perceive, analyze and provide the activity of the physiological systems of organs in a very fast mode. The structure of the nervous system is divided into two parts - central and peripheral. The central one includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral one includes the nerves. The activity of the nervous system is reflex, carried out with the help of nerve impulses that occur in nerve cells. A reflex is a response of the body to irritation that occurs with the participation of the nervous system. Any activity of physiological systems has a reflex character. So, with the help of reflexes, the secretion of saliva for tasty food, pulling the hand away from the thorns of a rose, etc. are regulated.

Reflex signals are transmitted from high speed nerve pathways that form reflex arcs. This is the path along which impulses are transmitted from receptors to the central parts of the nervous system and from them to the working organs. The reflex arc consists of 5 parts: 1 - receptor link (perceives irritation and turns it into impulses); 2 - sensitive (centripetal) link (transmits excitation to the central nervous system); 3 - the central link (it analyzes information with the participation of intercalary neurons); 4 - motor (centrifugal) link (transmits guiding impulses to the working body); 5 - working link (with the participation of a muscle or gland, a certain action occurs) (Fig. 10).

The transmission of excitation from one neuron to another is carried out using synapses. This is a plot of con

cycle of one neuron with another or with a working organ. Excitation in synapses is transmitted by special substances-mediators. They are synthesized by the presynaptic membrane and accumulate in synaptic vesicles. When the nerve impulses reach the synapse, the vesicles burst and the neurotransmitter molecules enter the synaptic cleft. The membrane of the dendrite, called postsynaptic, receives information and converts it into impulses. Excitation is transmitted further by the next neuron.

So, due to the electrical nature of nerve impulses and the presence of special pathways, the nervous system carries out reflex regulation very quickly and provides a specific effect on the organs.

Why are the endocrine and immune systems regulatory?

The endocrine system is a collection of glands that provide humoral regulation of the functions of physiological systems. The highest department of endocrine regulation is the hypothalamus, which, together with the pituitary gland, controls the peripheral glands. The cells of the endocrine glands produce hormones and send them into the internal environment. The blood, and subsequently the tissue fluid, delivers these chemical signals to the cells. Hormones can slow down or increase cell function. For example, the adrenal hormone adrenaline revitalizes the work of the heart, acetylcholine slows it down. The influence of hormones on organs is a slower way of controlling functions than with the help of the nervous system, however this influence can be general and long-term.

The immune system is a collection of organs that form special chemical compounds and cells to provide a protective effect on cells, tissues and organs. The central organs of the immune system include the red bone marrow and thymus, and the peripheral organs include the tonsils, appendix, and lymph nodes. The central place among the cells of the immune system is occupied by various leukocytes, and among chemical compounds- antibodies produced in response to foreign protein compounds. The cells and substances of the immune system are spread by the fluids of the internal environment. And their effect, like hormones, is slow, long and general.

So, the endocrine and immune systems are regulatory systems and carry out humoral and immune regulation in the human body.

ACTIVITY

Learning to know

Independent work with the table

Compare the nervous, endocrine and immune regulatory systems, identify the similarities and differences between them.

Biology + Neurophysiology

Platon Grigoryevich Kostyuk (1924-2010) - an outstanding Ukrainian neurophysiologist. The scientist for the first time designed and used microelectrode technique to study the organization of nerve centers, penetrated into nerve cell by registering its signals. He studied how information is converted from electrical to molecular form in the nervous system. Platon Kostyuk proved that calcium ions play an important role in these processes. And what is the role of calcium ions in the nervous regulation of the functions of the human body?

Biology + Psychology

Each person reacts to colors differently, depending on temperament and health status. Psychologists, based on the attitude to color, determine the character of a person, his inclinations, intellect, type of psyche. So, the red color strengthens memory, gives vigor and vigor, excites the nervous system, and purple enhances creativity, has a calming effect on the nervous system, increases muscle tone. Applying knowledge of regulatory systems, try to explain the mechanism of the effect of color on the human body.

RESULT

	Questions for self-control
	1. What are regulatory systems? 2. Name the regulatory systems of the human body. 3. What is a reflex? 4. What is a reflex arc? 5. Name the components of the reflex arc. 6. What are the endocrine and immune regulatory systems?
	7. What are the features of the regulatory systems of the human body? 8. How is the regulatory activity of the nervous system organized? 9. Why are the endocrine and immune systems regulatory?
	10. Name the similarities and differences between the nervous, endocrine and immune systems of body regulation.

This is textbook material.

As a result of studying this chapter, students should:

know

• types of intercellular communications;
• properties of hormones and hormone-like substances;
• the structure of hormone receptors;
• mechanisms for the implementation of hormonal effects;

be able to

• characterize the main groups of hormones and the main types of metabotropic receptors;
• understand the localization of hormonal receptors and the mechanisms of hormone excretion;

own

Methods for predicting possible physiological effects based on the chemical structure of the hormone and the type of receptor.

regulatory systems of the body. Types of humoral regulation and place of the endocrine system

The human body is made up of approximately 10 13 cells, and all of these cells must work in concert to ensure its survival and, moreover, optimal existence in an ever-changing environment. In order to create a holistic, integrated organism from billions of cells, capable of self-healing, self-reproduction and adaptation, it is necessary to constantly operating system intercellular communications, without which it is impossible reliable system function control.

Control levels in the body can be divided into intracellular(providing control at the cell level) and intercellular(providing the coordinated work of various tissues, organs and organ systems of the whole organism). In each case, control systems can be non-specialized and specialized. For compounds used in non-specialized control systems, the information transfer function is not the main one, and the emphasis is shifted towards their use as sources of plastic or energy material. Such a substance can be, for example, glucose. Connections are involved in specialized management, main function which is the transfer of information, so they are called signal.

During the evolutionary process, three systems, one way or another corresponding to the name "signal": nervous, endocrine and immune. They are very strongly interconnected, which gives grounds to speak of a single neuro-immune-endocrine system, although at first they have to be described separately. All these systems are capable of remote control of life processes, but achieve this in different ways.

Depending on the distance of the signal connection, a distinction is made between local and system control.

To local (regional) government include intracellular (intracrine), autocrine, juxtacrine and paracrine control systems (Fig. 1.1).

Rice. 1.1.

Atintracellular controlthe regulatory substance is produced in the cell and acts on its work through intracellular receptors. Atautocrine, txtacrineandparacrine controlthe regulatory substance leaves the cell and acts on it or on neighboring cells.

System Management It is distinguished by a large distant effect and is subdivided into endocrine, neuroendocrine and neurocrine (Fig. 1.2).

Rice. 1.2.

a- endocrine;b -neurocrine;in- neuroendocrine

Atendocrine form of regulation cells of the gland or some other cell secrete a hormone (from the Greek orraso - I excite), which enters the systemic circulation and is able to act on all body structures that have receptors for this hormone. The form of the hormonal response depends on the type of tissue and the types of receptor that respond to this hormone.

At neuroendocrine form of regulation the neurohormone is segregated by axon terminals into a specialized capillary network and from it enters the systemic circulation. Further, the same phenomena occur as in the case of the endocrine method of systemic regulation.

At neurocrine form of regulation neurons produce neurotransmitters that act on nearby cellular structures through specialized receptors. Consequently, a kind of paracrine regulation takes place, in which the distance of action is achieved by the length of axons and the number of synaptic switches.

Substances that perform specific functions of transmitting information from one cell to another are called informons. Informons usually do not perform energy or plastic functions, but act on cells through special recognizing molecules - receptors. The content of informons in the blood is very low (10 6 -10" 12 mol), and their lifetime is usually very short, although they can trigger long-term regulatory cascades both in individual cells and in the body as a whole.

Among informons, with a certain degree of conventionality, there are group of tissue hormones(histohormones), which are mainly involved in the processes of local regulation. However, histohormones can also be included in the general regulatory system of the body. Histohormones are usually secreted from individual cells various systems organs without forming specialized glands. Examples are prostaglandins and thromboxanes. Histohormones usually act a short time and close to the site of secretion.

The second group of informons - hormones. Hormones are usually formed in special secretory cells, which either form compact organs - glands, or are located singly or in groups within organs. Secretory cells are characterized by some morphological features. Usually, the synthesis and "packaging" of hormones occur in one part of the cells, and their release into the blood - in another. Most often, synthesized hormones accumulate to the Golgi complex - mainly " warehouse» cells. There, as needed, hormones are packed into small secretory vesicles - granules that bud from the Golgi complex and move through the cytoplasm to the outer membrane of the cell, through which the hormone is released into the blood. Some hormones, such as sex hormones, are not packed into granules and exit the secreting cell as separate molecules. The release of the hormone into the blood does not occur constantly, but only when it comes to the secreting cell special signal, under the action of which the vesicles release the hormone into the extracellular environment.

However, in last years it became obvious that hormones could be secreted not only from the cells of specialized endocrine glands, but also from the cells of many other organs and tissues. So, hypothalamus neurons are capable of producing a whole range of hormonal factors, such as liberins, statins and other hormones, heart muscle cells secrete natriuretic peptide into the blood, lymphocytes secrete a number of hormones that stimulate immunity, and finally, many peptide hormones are synthesized in the intestinal mucosa.