Born December 23, 1777 early childhood he began to live with his grandmother, who wanted to raise a good sovereign out of him. After the death of Catherine, Paul ascended the throne. The future emperor had many positive character traits. Alexander was dissatisfied with his father's rule and entered into a conspiracy against Paul. On March 11, 1801, the king was killed, Alexander began to rule. Upon accession to the throne, Alexander the 1st promised to follow the political course of Catherine the 2nd.

1st stage of transformation

The beginning of the reign of Alexander the 1st was marked by reforms, he wanted to change the political system of Russia, create a constitution that guaranteed rights and freedom to everyone. But Alexander had many opponents. On April 5, 1801, the Permanent Council was created, whose members could challenge the king's decrees. Alexander wanted to free the peasants, but many opposed this. Nevertheless, on February 20, 1803, a decree on free cultivators was issued. So in Russia for the first time there was a category of free peasants.

Alexander carried out a reform of education, the essence of which was to create state system headed by the Ministry of Public Education. In addition, an administrative reform was carried out (the reform of the highest governing bodies) - 8 ministries were established: foreign affairs, internal affairs, finance, military ground forces, naval forces, justice, commerce and public education. The new governing bodies had sole power. Each separate department was controlled by a minister, each minister was subordinate to the senate.

2nd stage of reforms

Alexander introduced M.M. Speransky, who was entrusted with the development of a new state reform. According to Speransky's project, it is necessary to create a constitutional monarchy in Russia, in which the sovereign's power would be limited by a bicameral body of a parliamentary type. The implementation of this plan began in 1809. By the summer of 1811, the transformation of the ministries was completed. But in connection with foreign policy Russia (tensioned relations with France) Speransky's reforms were perceived as anti-state, and in March 1812 he was dismissed.

There was a threat from France. June 12, 1812 began. After the expulsion of Napoleon's troops, the authority of Alexander the 1st increased.

Post-war reforms

In 1817-1818. people close to the emperor were engaged in the phased elimination of serfdom. By the end of 1820, a draft State charter was prepared Russian Empire, approved by Alexander, but it was not possible to enter it.

A feature of the domestic policy of Alexander the 1st was the introduction of a police regime, the creation of military settlements, which later became known as "Arakcheevshchina". Such measures caused dissatisfaction among the broad masses of the population. In 1817, the Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Public Education was created, headed by A.N. Golitsyn. In 1822, Emperor Alexander the 1st banned secret societies in Russia, including Freemasonry.

The reign of Alexander 1 (1801-1825)

By 1801, dissatisfaction with Paul 1 began to go wild. Moreover, it was not ordinary citizens who were dissatisfied with him, but his sons, in particular Alexander, some generals and the elite. The reason for non-solicitation is the rejection of the policy of Catherine 2 and the deprivation of the nobility of the leading role and some privileges. The English ambassador supported them in this, since Paul 1 severed all diplomatic relations with the British after their betrayal. On the night of March 11-12, 1801, the conspirators, led by General Palen, broke into Paul's chambers and killed him.

Emperor's First Steps

The reign of Alexander 1 actually began on March 12, 1801 on the basis of a coup carried out by the elite. In the early years, the emperor was an adherent of liberal reforms, as well as the ideas of the Republic. Therefore, from the first years of his reign, he had to face difficulties. He had like-minded people who supported the views of liberal reforms, but the main part of the nobility spoke from a position of conservatism, so 2 camps formed in Russia. In the future, the conservatives won, and Alexander himself, by the end of his reign, changed liberal views to the conservative ones.

In order to implement his vision, Alexander created a "secret committee", which included his associates. It was an unofficial body, but it was he who dealt initial projects refrm.

Internal government of the country

Alexander's domestic policy differed little from that of his predecessors. He also believed that serfs should not have any rights. The dissatisfaction of the peasants was very strong, so Emperor Alexander 1 was forced to sign a decree banning the sale of serfs (this decree was easily managed by the landlords) and in the same year the decree “On Sculptural Plowmen” was signed. According to this decree, the landowner was allowed to provide the peasants with freedom and land if they could redeem themselves. This decree was more formal, since the peasants were poor and could not redeem themselves from the landowner. During the reign of Alexander 1, 0.5% of peasants throughout the country received freedom.

The emperor changed the system of government of the country. He dissolved the colleges that had been appointed by Peter the Great and organized ministries in their place. Each ministry was headed by a minister who reported directly to the emperor. During the reign of Alexander, the judicial system of Russia was also changed. The Senate was declared the highest judicial authority. In 1810, Emperor Alexander 1 announced the creation of the State Council, which became the country's supreme governing body. System political system, which was proposed by Emperor Alexander 1, with minor changes, lasted until the very moment of the fall of the Russian Empire in 1917.

Population of Russia

During the reign of Alexander the First in Russia there were 3 large estates of inhabitants:

• Privileged. Nobles, clergy, merchants, honorary citizens.
• Semi-privileged. Odnodvortsy and Cossacks.
• Taxable. Petty bourgeois and peasants.

At the same time, the population of Russia increased and by the beginning of the reign of Alexander (early 19th century), it amounted to 40 million people. For comparison, at the start of the 18th century, the population of Russia was 15.5 million people.

Relations with other countries

Alexander's foreign policy was not distinguished by prudence. The emperor believed in the need for an alliance against Napoleon, and as a result, in 1805, a campaign was made against France, in alliance with England and Austria, and in 1806-1807. in alliance with England and Prussia. The British did not fight. These campaigns did not bring success, and in 1807 the Treaty of Tilsit was signed. Napoleon did not demand any concessions from Russia, he was looking for an alliance with Alexander, but Emperor Alexander 1, devoted to the British, did not want to move closer. As a result, this peace has become only a truce. And in June 1812, the Patriotic War began between Russia and France. Thanks to the genius of Kutuzov and the fact that the entire Russian people rose up against the invaders, already in 1812 the French were defeated and expelled from Russia. Fulfilling the allied duty, Emperor Alexander 1 gave the order to pursue Napoleon's troops. The foreign campaign of the Russian army continued until 1814. This campaign did not bring much success for Russia.

Emperor Alexander 1 lost his vigilance after the war. He absolutely did not control foreign organizations, which began to supply Russian revolutionaries with money in large volumes. As a result, a boom of revolutionary movements began in the country aimed at overthrowing the emperor. All this resulted in the Decembrist uprising on December 14, 1825. The uprising was subsequently suppressed, but a dangerous precedent was set in the country, and most of the participants in the uprising fled from justice.

results

The reign of Alexander 1 was not glorious for Russia. The emperor bowed before England and did almost everything he was asked to do in London. He got involved in the anti-French coalition, pursuing the interests of the British, Napoleon at that time did not think about a campaign against Russia. The result of such a policy was terrible: the devastating war of 1812 and the powerful uprising of 1825.

Emperor Alexander 1 died in 1825, ceding the throne to his brother, Nicholas 1.

Domestic policy. In March 1801, as a result palace coup Paul I was killed. His son Alexander I (1801–1825) ascended the throne. Like his grandmother Catherine II, Alexander sought to be guided in his activities by the ideas of "enlightened absolutism." He canceled many decrees of Paul I, returned to the nobles the privileges of the Charter to the nobility. From the closest associates of the young emperor, an Unspoken Committee was created, which included P. A. Stroganov, N. N. Novosiltsev, V. P. Kochubey, A. A. Czartorysky. With them, Alexander shared his plans for the future structure of Russia. M. M. Speransky was also involved in the affairs of the committee. Under Alexander I, the Permanent (Permanent) Council, established in 1801, officially acted as the highest advisory body.

Reforms of Alexander I. The Committee developed the foundations for reforms in various spheres of public life. In 1802 the colleges were replaced by ministries. The Committee of Ministers under the leadership of the tsar, and later A. A. Arakcheev, coordinated the affairs of the ministries and acted as an advisory body. The ministers reported directly to the emperor and received orders from him on the most important issues. Initially, 8 ministries were formed: military, maritime, internal affairs, foreign affairs, justice, finance, commerce and public education. The Senate, which existed since the time of Peter I, became the highest control and judicial institution. In 1810, at the suggestion of Speransky, the State Council was approved - a body consisting of top dignitaries, whose functions included making legislative proposals. Speransky also proposed the creation of the State Duma and local dumas as representative bodies, but these proposals were opposed by the nobility. Speransky's project was not implemented, and he himself was sent into exile and returned to St. Petersburg only in 1821.

Alexander I in 1801 allowed non-nobles to buy land to cultivate it by hired labor. In 1803, a decree was issued on "free cultivators", allowing the landowners to free their serfs and allocate them with land. The results of this decree were insignificant. In 1808–1809 it was forbidden to sell peasants and exile them at the will of the landowner, which was not actually carried out.

The reforms affected the education sector. The Ministry of Public Education was created, the country was divided into educational districts.

Continuity was introduced between schools of various levels - parish, district schools, gymnasiums, universities. According to the charter of 1804, the universities received significant autonomy: the right to choose rectors and professors, to independently decide their own affairs. In 1804, a fairly liberal censorship charter was also issued.

The reign of Alexander I was characterized by the widest religious tolerance.

Foreign policy. Its main directions are European and Middle Eastern. The war with France (1805–1807) was waged by Russia as part of the III anti-French coalition (allies Great Britain, Austria, Sweden), which broke up in 1805, and the IV anti-Napoleonic coalition in alliance with England, Prussia and Sweden. During the war, battles took place at Austerlitz (1805), at Preussisch-Eylau, and at Friedland (1807). As a result of the war, the Treaty of Tilsit was signed, according to which Russia was forced to join the continental blockade (trade blockade) of England, which did not meet the economic interests of Russia.

The war with Persia (Iran) (1804–1813) ended in the defeat of Persia. According to the Gulistan peace treaty, Russia received the lands of Northern Azerbaijan and part of Dagestan.

The war between Russia and Turkey (1806-1812), caused by the closing of the Black Sea straits by the Turks for Russian ships, ended in the defeat of the Ottoman Empire. M. I. Kutuzov forced Turkey to sign the Treaty of Bucharest, according to which Russia received the territory of Bessarabia ( East End Moldova).

As a result of the war with Sweden (1808–1809), Russia received the territory of Finland. Alexander I introduced a constitution in Finland, giving it autonomy.

In 1801 Eastern Georgia voluntarily became part of Russia. In 1803 Mingrelia was conquered. In 1804, Imereti, Guria and Ganja became Russian possessions. During the Russian-Iranian war of 1805, Karabakh and Shirvan were conquered. In 1806, Ossetia was voluntarily annexed.

Patriotic War of 1812

The peace that came after the conclusion of the Treaty of Tilsit turned out to be fragile. Napoleon sought to undermine the power of Russia, which stood in his way to world domination. On June 12 (24), 1812, almost 420,000-strong French army, which included representatives of the conquered countries of Europe, crossed the Neman River and invaded Russia. The Patriotic War began. Russia could oppose an approximately 210,000-strong army, divided into three unrelated armies: M. B. Barclay de Tolly, P. I. Bagration and A. P. Tormasov. Napoleon's plan was to crush the Russian armies piecemeal with a powerful concentrated blow. Russian forces did not accept the border battle and retreated. In early August, the Russian armies united near Smolensk, but continued to retreat.

Due to the failures of the first weeks of the war and under pressure public opinion M. I. Kutuzov was appointed commander in chief. In the Battle of Borodino on August 26 (September 7), 1812, the Russian troops were tasked with weakening the enemy, and Napoleon expected to defeat the Russian army and end the war. Losses on both sides were heavy. Russian troops retreated to Moscow. In order to save the army, Kutuzov at the military council in Fili decided to surrender the city to the enemy in early September. Russian troops withdrew to Tarutino, having made the famous Tarutino maneuver, where they received rest and prepared for the continuation of the war. At the same time, the French army in burning Moscow was losing its combat effectiveness, turning into a horde of marauders.

From the first days of the war, the people rose up against the invaders. Partisan detachments were created from regular army units and from the people. Army detachments were led by D. Davydov, A. Seslavin, A. Figner, I. Dorokhov and other officers. Gerasim Kurin, Yermolai Chetvertakov, Vasilisa Kozhina and others advanced from the people. The partisans acted on all roads leading to Moscow, intercepting French food and fodder expeditions.

In early October, after staying in Moscow for 35 days, Napoleon left the city, heading south. On October 12, 1812, a battle took place near Maloyaroslavets, and the enemy withdrew to the old Smolensk road. Kutuzov used the tactics of parallel pursuit, combining the actions of the army and partisans, preventing the French from moving away from the Smolensk road they had plundered. November 16 during the battle on the river. Berezina, the Napoleonic army was finally destroyed. Napoleon abandoned the remnants of the army and fled to Paris to gain new strength. On December 25, the war ended.

Foreign campaign of the Russian army in 1813–1814. At the beginning of 1813, Russian troops crossed the Neman and entered the territory of Europe. The anti-Napoleonic coalition was restored, consisting of Russia, Prussia, Austria, England and Sweden. In October 1813, in the "Battle of the Nations" near Leipzig, Napoleon was defeated. In March 1814 Russian troops entered Paris.

According to the results Napoleonic Wars The Vienna Congress of Representatives of European Countries (1814–1815) took place. By his decisions, France was returned to its former borders. Russia received part of the Duchy of Warsaw with its capital. In 1815, at the suggestion of Alexander I, the Holy Alliance was created to suppress revolutionary movements in Europe.

Last years reign of Alexander I and the uprising of the Decembrists

This period in the history of Russia was called "Arakcheevshchina". After the war, the leadership of the country actually passed into the hands of the Minister of War, General A. A. Arakcheev. One of the main results of his activities is the introduction of military settlements. Part of the army was settled in villages, and the peasants of these villages were turned into soldiers and forced to combine military service with agricultural labor. In addition to the creation of military settlements, other activities were carried out. For example, the best professors were expelled from universities, some were put on trial for freethinking. At the same time, the tsar granted a constitution to Poland and abolished serfdom in the Baltics. Projects for the liberation of the peasants were developed - one of the projects was prepared by Arakcheev, but its implementation in practice would have dragged on for 200 years. On behalf of the tsar, N.N. Novosiltsev developed a draft constitution for Russia in deep secrecy, but the emperor did not consider it possible to implement it.

The transition to reaction caused discontent among the most advanced people in the country. In 1816, a secret organization "Union of Salvation" was created in St. Petersburg, consisting of 30 officers. The main goal of the society was the establishment of a constitution in Russia and the abolition of serfdom. The "Union of Salvation" was a deeply conspiratorial secret society, an active role in which was played by A. N. Muravyov, P. I. Pestel, brothers M. I. and S. I. Muravyov-Apostles, I. D. Yakushkin, M. S. Lunin. In 1818, on the basis of the Union of Salvation, a broader organization arose - the Union of Welfare, which had branches in different cities, created to form public opinion literary society"Green lamp". The young A. S. Pushkin took part in it. In 1821, at a secret congress, a decision was made to dissolve the Union of Welfare. In 1821–1822 two separate organizations have been established. The "Northern Society" arose in St. Petersburg, headed by N. M. Muravyov. Since 1823, the leadership passed to K. F. Ryleev. In Ukraine, P. I. Pestel headed the "Southern Society" and compiled the program "Russian Truth". According to it, after the overthrow of tsarism, a republican form of government should be introduced in Russia, the peasants became free and received land free of charge, and the equality of all before the law was declared. N. M. Muravyov in the "Northern Society" came up with the "Constitution" program, according to which a constitutional monarchy should be established in Russia, the peasants were freed without land.

The performance was scheduled for 1826, but in November 1825 Alexander I died suddenly. The throne was to go to his brother Konstantin, who secretly abdicated back in 1823. Due to the ambiguity of the question of the heir to the throne, an interregnum began. Members of the "Northern Society" decided to take advantage of this. The conspirators hoped to seize the Winter Palace, arrest royal family, destroy the former government, abolish serfdom, establish civil liberties. The speech was scheduled for December 14, 1825, but it was too late. On this day, Tsar Nicholas I took the oath of the Senate and guard units early in the morning. The rebels, coming out on Senate Square Petersburg, were confused and remained inactive. By evening, Nikolai decided to use artillery. After a few shots, the rebels dispersed. December 29, 1825 - January 3, 1826, under the leadership of the "Southern Society", the performance of the Chernigov regiment in Ukraine was organized, which also ended in defeat. After the investigation, five of the Decembrists (P. I. Pestel, K. F. Ryleev, S. I. Muravyov-Apostol, M. P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, P. G. Kakhovsky) were hanged, more than 120 people were exiled to hard labor to Siberia, many officers were demoted and sent to active army to the Caucasus.

Domestic policy of Nicholas I

Nicholas I ruled in Russia in 1825–1855. He considered his main task to be the strengthening of the power of the nobles, relying on the army and the bureaucracy. The Second Department of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery is being created. By order of the tsar, a systematization of all existing laws in Russia was undertaken. This work was entrusted to M. M. Speransky. In 1832, the Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire was published; in 1833, the Code of Acting Laws of the Russian Empire was issued. In 1826, the III department of the office was established, headed by Count A. Kh. Benckendorff. In addition to the police, a corps of gendarmes was introduced - in fact, the political police.

In 1837–1842 A number of reforms were carried out in the field of the peasant question. Minister's project state property P. D. Kiselev, the reform of the state peasants was carried out. Partial self-government was given to this category of peasants, the procedure for allocating land to peasants and taxing taxes was revised. Schools and hospitals were opened. According to the decree about obligated peasants”(1842), the landowners could give the peasants personal freedom, and for the use of the land, the latter were obliged to fulfill the obligations specified by the contract.

Minister of Finance E.F. Kankrin in 1839–1841 carried out a financial reform, introducing the silver ruble as the basis of monetary circulation and establishing a mandatory exchange rate for banknotes, which strengthened the country's financial position.

In the 30s. nineteenth century in Russia, the industrial revolution begins, i.e., the transition from manual labor to machine labor, from manufactory to factory. The specialization of the regions increased, the urban population increased, and transport developed.

In 1837, the first railway St. Petersburg - Tsarskoe Selo was laid, in 1851 the Nikolaevskaya railway Moscow - St. Petersburg was opened.

feudal system turned into a brake on economic development. The corvée system of agriculture did not meet the requirements of the time, hired labor was increasingly introduced. Further development countries demanded the abolition of serfdom.

Social thought in the 1830s - 1850s.

After the defeat of the Decembrist movement, progressive social thought concentrated in circles. There were circles of the "Society of Philosophy", the brothers Kritsky, Stankevich, Granovsky and others, in which questions about the state of the country and its future were discussed.

Minister of Education S. S. Uvarov formulated the “theory official nationality”, the main principles of which were proclaimed “autocracy, Orthodoxy, nationality”. This theory was planted in education, literature, art.

By the end of the 1830s. in the liberal trend, two oppositional trends are emerging - the Westerners and the Slavophiles. The Westerners, led by T. N. Granovsky, believed that Russia should develop along the Western European path, and Peter I laid the foundation for the country's movement along this path. The Westerners were supporters of a constitutional monarchy and freedom of enterprise. Westerners were K. D. Kavelin, V. P. Botkin, M. N. Katkov. A. I. Herzen and V. G. Belinsky adjoined them. Slavophiles under the leadership of A. S. Khomyakov put forward the idea of ​​an original path for Russia. At the heart of the identity of Russia lay the communal beginning of the life of the people and the Orthodox religion. The harmonious way of Russian life was, according to the Slavophiles, destroyed by the reforms of Peter I. The brothers I.V. and P.V. Kireevsky, the brothers K.S. and I.S. Aksakov, Yu.F. Samarin adhered to Slavophilism. The slogan of the Slavophiles was: "The power of power - to the king, the power of opinion - to the people!" What was common for Westerners and Slavophiles was that both directions were in favor of reforms - the abolition of serfdom, the restriction of tsarism, and progressive transformations. Also, both directions strongly denied revolutionary actions.

A. I. Herzen, N. P. Ogarev, V. G. Belinsky gradually break away from the Westernizing wing of the liberals and go over to revolutionary ideology. They saw the salvation of Russia in socialism - a fair social order in which there is no private property and exploitation of man by man. Russian revolutionary democrats had a negative attitude towards Western European capitalism and considered the basis of socialism to be the peasant community that had been preserved in Russia from ancient times. They leaned towards revolutionary methods of fighting tsarism. In 1844, a circle of V. M. Butashevich-Petrashevsky arose in St. Petersburg. M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin and F. M. Dostoevsky attended its meetings. Most of the Petrashevites were in favor of a republican system, the complete liberation of the peasants without a ransom. In 1849 the circle was destroyed. 21 members of the group, including M. V. Petrashevsky and F. M. Dostoevsky, were sentenced to death, replaced by hard labor.

The wave of European revolutions of 1848–1849 plunged the tsarist government into horror: the “gloomy seven years” had come - the time of reaction. In exile, in London, Herzen founded the Free Russian Printing House. Leaflets were printed here, and since 1855 - the almanac "Polar Star".

Foreign policy in the second quarter of the nineteenth century.

Under Nicholas I, two trends combined in Russia's foreign policy: the suppression of revolutionary movements outside the country and the solution of the "Eastern Question" - dominance in the Black Sea, gaining control over the Bosporus and Dardanelles, geopolitical interest in the Balkans, which pushed Russia to wars with Turkey. In 1849, the Hungarian Revolution was suppressed by Russian troops, which testified to the transformation of Russia into the gendarme of Europe.

War with Persia (Iran) 1826–1828 occurred due to the fact that Persia demanded a revision of the Gulistan Treaty. As a result of the war, the Turkmanchai peace was concluded, according to which the Erivan and Nakhichevan khanates in Transcaucasia joined Russia.

War with Turkey 1828–1829 took place in the Balkans and the Caucasus. The enemy was defeated. According to the Treaty of Adrianople, South Bessarabia with the mouth of the Danube, the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus departed to Russia. The Black Sea straits were opened for Russian ships. Turkey recognized the autonomy of Greece as part of the Ottoman Empire, and Serbia, Moldavia, Wallachia under the auspices of Russia. The strengthening of Russia's influence in the Balkans caused opposition from European states.

Caucasian War 1817–1864 Expanding its territories in the south, Russia, under Alexander I, began hostilities in the Caucasus. Among the mountaineers-Muslims, the movement of murids - fighters for the faith - began. Under the leadership of the leader - Imam Shamil - the murids waged a holy war against the infidels (Christians) - ghazavat. In Dagestan and Chechnya, under the leadership of Shamil, a strong theocratic state was created, which successfully resisted the onslaught of Russia. In 1859, Shamil was taken prisoner, and five years later the mountaineers' resistance was broken.

Under the Aigun 1858 and Beijing 1860 treaties with China, Russia acquired the Ussuri Territory.

Crimean War 1853–1856

The reason for the war was Russia's desire to solve the "Eastern question". The reason for the war was a dispute over "Palestinian shrines." Russia demanded that it be given the right to dispose of Christian churches in Palestine (then Turkish territory) - Bethlehem and Jerusalem. In response to the claims of Russia, a coalition arose, which included Turkey, France, and England. In October 1853, the Turkish Sultan declared war on Russia. On November 18, 1853, the Russian fleet under the command of Admiral P.S. Nakhimov defeated the fleet of the Ottoman Empire in the Sinop Bay. Also in the Caucasus, the Turks were defeated. All Allied attacks on Kronstadt, the Solovetsky Monastery, Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, and Odessa were successfully repelled. In September 1854, the Allies landed their troops without hindrance in the Crimea, and the main military operations unfolded here, which gave the name to the war. The siege of Sevastopol by the coalition troops lasted 11 months. The defense of the city was led by V. A. Kornilov, P. S. Nakhimov, V. I. Istomin, and military engineer E. I. Totleben played a significant role. It was also attended by the future writer L. N. Tolstoy, the surgeon N. I. Pirogov, who organized field surgery, used anesthesia and a plaster cast. During the war, nurses began to operate for the first time. In August 1855, Russian troops were forced to leave Sevastopol. The results of the Crimean War were summed up by the Treaty of Paris (1856). According to its provisions, Russia lost the right to have a navy and any military installations on the Black Sea. She lost the mouth of the Danube and Southern Bessarabia. The Danubian principalities and the Christians of the Ottoman Empire were placed under the guardianship of all the great powers. Russia returned the Kars fortress in the Caucasus to Turkey, and Turkey returned Sevastopol and other cities of the Crimea, captured during the war. The defeat in the war showed the backwardness of feudal Russia.

Russian culture in the first half of the nineteenth century.

The victory of 1812 had a great influence on the development of culture, the self-consciousness of the Russian people. The widespread penetration of the ideas of enlightenment into Russia, the Decembrist uprising, the formation of bourgeois liberalism and the revolutionary democratic movement had a noticeable effect on the life of society. The industrial revolution that began in Russia made demands on the development of the education system and various fields of knowledge. In the first half of the nineteenth century. Russian scientific thought became more active.

Education. Universities were opened in St. Petersburg, Kyiv, Kharkov, Kazan, Tartu, Odessa, Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum. Special higher educational institutions were founded: Institute of Technology in St. Petersburg, the Mining and Survey Institutes in Moscow, etc. The number of secondary educational institutions also increased significantly: men's gymnasiums were opened, real schools operated, and the number of private boarding schools expanded. Home education became widespread. Elementary education children from the lower classes were given parish and district schools for the townspeople. However, in general, the number of literate people in 1860 was only 6% of the population.

The science. In 1826, N. I. Lobachevsky substantiated the theory of spatial, non-Euclidean geometry, which the church declared a heresy. The Pulkovo observatory headed by V. Ya. Struve was created near St. Petersburg. Surgeon N. I. Pirogov achieved great success in medicine. Chemists N. N. Zinin and A. M. Butlerov developed the foundations organic chemistry. Physicist B. S. Jacobi developed the basics of electroforming, invented an electric motor and tested it to drive a ship. Navigators I. F. Kruzenshtern and Yu. F. Lisyansky made the first Russian round-the-world trip (1803–1806), and F. F. Bellingshausen and M. P. Lazarev in 1819–1820. discovered Antarctica. In historical science, the work of N. M. Karamzin “History of the Russian State” became the first scientifically systematic review of the past of Russia, covering the history of the Russian state until 1611. The 29-volume “History of Russia from ancient times by S. I. science. The teacher K. D. Ushinsky created a new educational system.

Literature. Romanticism developed, singing the lofty ideal. It was reflected in the work of V. A. Zhukovsky, K. N. Batyushkov, K. F. Ryleev. From romanticism there has been a transition to realism, associated with the work of A. S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, A. S. Griboyedov, N. V. Gogol. AT literary criticism V. G. Belinsky played an important role. The most advanced literary forces united around the Sovremennik magazine.

Art. Painting. There is a departure from classicism (academism). Romanticism is developing, manifested in the work of O. A. Kiprensky (portraits of Zhukovsky and Pushkin), V. A. Tropinin (portrait of Pushkin, "The Lacemaker", "Guitarist"), K. P. Bryullov ("The Last Day of Pompeii", "The Horsewoman "). Popular household plot. Native nature, folk environment are presented in the paintings of A. G. Venetsianov “On the threshing floor”, “Spring. Arable land” and others. In the works of P. A. Fedotov, motifs of realism are already heard (“Wooing a Major”, “Breakfast of an Aristocrat”, “Fresh Cavalier”). A grandiose epic canvas by A. Ivanov "The Appearance of Christ to the People" became an event in painting.

Sculpture. The works of sculptors I. P. Martos (a monument to Minin and Pozharsky on Red Square in Moscow), B. I. Orlovsky (monuments to M. I. Kutuzov and M. B. Barclay de Tolly near the building of the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg), P. K. Klodt (sculptural group "Horse Tamers" on the Anichkov Bridge and the equestrian statue of Nicholas I in St. Petersburg).

Architecture. First half of the nineteenth century - the rise of classicism in architecture. In St. Petersburg, K. I. Rossi creates the building of the General Staff on Palace Square, O. Montferrand - St. Isaac's Cathedral, A. N. Voronikhin - Kazan Cathedral, A. D. Zakharov - the building of the Admiralty. O. I. Bove (buildings of the Bolshoi and Maly Theaters), A. G. Grigoriev and D. Gilardi worked in Moscow. The time associated with the work of A. S. Pushkin and other prominent figures of the first half of the nineteenth in. called the golden age of Russian culture.

Theatre. The actors of the Maly Theater in Moscow M. S. Shchepkin, P. S. Mochalov, the Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg - V. A. Karatygin and A. E. Martynov became famous.

Music. The founder of Russian classical music was M. I. Glinka, who created the operas A Life for the Tsar (Ivan Susanin), Ruslan and Lyudmila, and numerous romances. His follower A. S. Dargomyzhsky wrote the music for many songs, romances, operas "Mermaid", "Stone Guest".

Job Samples

When completing the tasks of part 1 (A) in the answer sheet No. 1, under the number of the task you are performing, put an “x” in the box, the number of which corresponds to the number of the answer you have chosen.

A1. The dates 1828, 1858, 1860 refer to events related to history

1) Industrial development

2) Russia's foreign policy

3) social movement

4) cultural development

A2. At the initiative of M. M. Speransky in Russia at the beginning of the nineteenth century. was established

2) Supreme Privy Council

3) Discharge order

4) State Council

A3. During the reign of Nicholas I, a reform was carried out

1) zemstvo self-government

2) provincial

3) monetary

4) military

A4. Architects who created their works in the nineteenth century.

1) A. N. Voronikhin and D. I. Gilardi

2) V. V. Rastrelli and D. Trezzini

3) A. G. Venetsianov and V. A. Tropinin

4) M. F. Kazakov and V. I. Bazhenov

A5. What events took place during the reign of Alexander I?

A) the introduction of recruitment

B) higher education reform

C) the abolition of the mutual responsibility of the peasants

D) signing of the Tilsit peace treaty

D) the creation of the first secret societies

E) convening the Legislative Commission

Specify the correct answer.

A6. In the nineteenth century called a military settlement

1) military camp in countryside during the exercise

2) a village where a detachment of partisans was stationed in 1812

3) a military fortress created in a mountainous area during Caucasian War

4) a village in which the peasants combined economic activity with military service

A7. The theory of "Russian", "peasant" socialism by A. I. Herzen and N. G. Chernyshevsky included the position

1) "The Russian peasant is not accustomed to communal property"

2) "The peasant community is a ready-made cell of the socialist system"

3) “In Russia it is necessary to create conditions for the development of capitalism”

4) "The transition to socialism in Russia will be carried out by the will of the tsar"

A8. The worldview of the Slavophiles was based on

1) the idea of ​​a special path for the development of Russia

2) the teachings of the French enlighteners

3) theories of Western European utopian socialism

4) denial of religion

A9. On the development of capitalism in Russia early nineteenth in. show signs

A) the strengthening of serfdom

B) small-scale peasant production

C) the use of the labor of hired workers in manufactories

D) growing new crops

D) the beginning of the industrial revolution

E) the emergence of monopolies

Specify the correct answer.

A10. Read an excerpt from the order (September 1854) and indicate which city is being defended.

“The enemy is approaching the city, in which there is very little garrison; I am in need of flooding the ships of the squadron entrusted to me, and attaching the remaining teams with boarding weapons to the garrison.

1) St. Petersburg

3) Kronstadt

2) Ishmael

4) Sevastopol

The tasks of part 2 (B) require an answer in the form of one or two words, a sequence of letters or numbers, which should be written first in the text examination work, and then transfer to the answer sheet No. 1 without spaces and other characters. Write each letter or number in a separate box in accordance with the samples given in the form.

IN 1. Read an extract from a historical document and write the name of the author of the theory presented in the document.

“Deepening into consideration of the subject and seeking those principles that are the property of Russia ... it becomes clear that those principles, without which Russia cannot prosper, grow stronger, live, we have three main ones: 1) Orthodox faith; 2) autocracy; 3) Nationality.

Answer: Uvarov.

IN 2. Establish a correspondence between the names of scientists and the fields of knowledge in which they have shown themselves.

For each position of the first column, select the corresponding position of the second and write down the selected numbers in the table under the corresponding letters.

Answer: 1524.

IN 3. List the events of the 19th century. in chronological order. Write down the letters that represent the events in correct sequence to the table.

A) the monetary reform of E. F. Kankrin

B) Peace of Tilsit

C) the beginning of the reign of Nicholas I

D) Congress of Berlin

Transfer the resulting sequence of letters to the answer sheet No. 1 (without spaces and any symbols).

Answer: BVAG.

AT 4. Which three of the names listed below are participants in anti-government demonstrations? Circle the appropriate numbers and write them down in the table.

1) K. I. Bulavin

4) P. I. Pestel

2) S. S. Uvarov

5) E. Biron

3) A. A. Arakcheev

6) P. I. Pestel

Transfer the resulting sequence of numbers to the answer sheet No. 1 (without spaces and any symbols).

Answer: 146.

To answer the tasks of part 3 (C), use the answer sheet No. 2. First write down the task number (C1, etc.), and then the detailed answer to it.

Tasks С4-С7 provide for different types of activities: presentation of a generalized characteristic historical events and phenomena (C4), consideration of historical versions and assessments (C5), analysis of the historical situation (C6), comparison (C7). As you complete these tasks, pay attention to the wording of each question.

C4. Reveal the reasons for Russia's victory in the Patriotic War of 1812. Determine the significance of Russia's victory.

Similar information.

Alexander 1 ruled from 1801 to 1825. “A great start to the days of Alexandrov...” - these words of Pushkin give an idea of ​​the aspirations of the young tsar. Having come to power with the help of a palace coup, he justified himself by giving Russia a constitution and free peasants. These were his aspirations. In the first years of his reign, he relied on the help of a "secret committee" - a small circle of friends: Stroganov, Novosiltsev, Kochubey, Czartorysky and others. The first reforms gave hope for the future, the policy of "enlightened absolutism" was revived

Education system created

Level 1 - elementary school

Level 2 - secondary schools, gymnasiums

Level 3 - higher - universities

Under the internal policy of Alexander 1, 5 universities and several institutes were opened.

Laws for peasants

1) The ban on selling peasants without land (essentially came down to a ban on advertising the sale of peasants)

2) Law on free cultivators 1803; the landowner, if desired, could free the peasants, endowing them with land, and receiving a ransom, but the landowners were in no hurry.

Serfdom was abolished in the Baltics.

Ministerial reform of 1802

Instead of 12 colleges - 8 ministries: military, maritime, foreign affairs, internal affairs, commerce, finance, public education, justice. Unity of command, but also old ones: bribery. But the struggle was not actively waged.

The task was to create a management system that would actively contribute to the development of the country. This task was entrusted to Speransky.

Speransky - as an achievement of the domestic policy of Alexander I

1809 the project was presented. It was based on the principle of the separation of powers, the preservation absolute monarchy and taking into account the opinion of the people, i.e. the approach itself was very controversial.

All power belonged to the emperor; it creates an advisory body - state council (from persons appointed by the emperor). Through him, the emperor conducts all business. Next, an organ was created - the State Duma. It was an elected representative body. The highest executive power belonged to the ministries. The highest judicial power belonged to the senate (of the persons appointed by the emperor).

Respectively central system management was designed by local authorities. - this was a great achievement of the domestic policy of Alexander 1.

But the project remained a project. Only the state council was taken from it, which did not have the authority that Speransky counted on and was of a legislative nature.

Before the war, Speransky fell into disgrace and was exiled. This is the result of the activities of the noble opposition.

After the Patriotic War, Alexander 1 is trying to continue his reform activities. He instructs Novosiltsev to create a draft constitution. By 1820 the project was in place, but growth revolutionary movement in Europe and Russia forced Alexander I to abandon further work in this direction.

In parallel with the activities of Novosiltsev, projects were being prepared to abolish serfdom. They were distinguished by moderation, for example, according to the project of Arakcheev, a gradual redemption of the peasants by the state from the landowners without land was proposed.

The beginning of the 20s of Alexander's reformist aspirations came up against the resistance of most of the nobility, bureaucracy, part of the merchant class, and the church. Consequence: Alexander 1 curtails the reformist course. Simultaneously amplifies

political reaction. It is associated with the name of Arakcheev. His policy responded to the nobles who did not want reforms, but firm power.

Features of Arakcheevshchina: centralization and bureaucratization of state administration. Military settlements since 1815 Volosts were chosen where state peasants lived - this population passed into the category of military settlements

Soldiers' regiments were settled in the same volosts. Wives were moved to the soldiers, unmarried people were married. Wives passed into the category of military settlers.

Military settlements were obliged to carry out military service and at the same time be engaged in agriculture in order to provide themselves with everything necessary. The whole life of the villagers is subject to military discipline. As a result: the military settlements collapsed. Economically, they did not justify themselves, were unprofitable, cost big money treasury. Social tensions led to uprisings of military settlers.

Persecution of love of freedom in public education

• Revision of programs towards religion
• Elimination of university autonomy
• Tightening censorship

Such was the internal policy of Alexander 1, which introduced many innovations and progressive models into the life of Russia.

1) First quarter of the 19th century marked by reforms, primarily in the field of public administration. These reforms are associated with the names of Emperor Alexander I and his closest associates - M. Speransky and N. Novosiltsev. However, these reforms were half-hearted and were not completed.

The main reforms carried out under Alexander I:

• Decree "On free cultivators";
• ministerial reform;
• preparation of the reform plan by M. Speransky;
• granting constitutions to Poland and Bessarabia;
• project preparation Russian Constitution and programs for the abolition of serfdom;
• establishment of military settlements.

The purpose of these reforms was to improve the mechanism of public administration, search best options management for Russia. The main features of these reforms were their half-hearted nature and incompleteness. These reforms led to minor changes in the system of public administration, but did not solve the main problems - the peasant question and the democratization of the country.

2 ) Alexander I came to power as a result of a palace coup in 1801, which was carried out by opponents of Paul I, dissatisfied with the abrupt departure of Paul I from Catherine's orders. During the coup, Paul I was killed by conspirators and Alexander I, the eldest son of Paul and grandson of Catherine, was elevated to the throne. The short and tough 5-year reign of Paul I ended. At the same time, a return to Catherine's order - the idleness and permissiveness of the nobility - would be a step backwards. The way out was limited reforms, which were an attempt to adapt Russia to the requirements of the new century.

3 ) To prepare reforms in 1801, an Unofficial Committee was created, which included the closest associates - the "young friends" of Alexander I:

• N. Novosiltsev;
• A. Czartoryski;
• P. Stroganov;
• V. Kochubey.

This committee for 4 years (1801 - 1805) was the think tank of the reforms. Most of Alexander's supporters were supporters of constitutionalism and European orders, however, most of their radical proposals were not implemented due to the indecision of Alexander I, on the one hand, and the possible negative reaction of the nobles who brought him to the throne, on the other.

The main issue dealt with by the Unofficial Committee in the first years of its existence was the development of a program for the abolition of serfdom in Russia, the supporters of which were the majority of the committee members. However, after long hesitation, Alexander I did not dare to take such a radical step. Instead, in 1803, the emperor issued a Decree “On Free Plowmen” of 1803, which for the first time in the history of serfdom Russia allowed landowners to release peasants into freedom for a ransom. However, this Decree did not solve the peasant problem. The chance to abolish serfdom in a timely manner was missed. Other reforms of the Private Committee were:

• ministerial reform - instead of the Petrine collegiums, European-style ministries were created in Russia;
• reform of the Senate - the Senate became a judicial body;
• education reform - several types of schools were created: from the simplest (parish) to gymnasiums, universities were given broad rights.

In 1805, the Secret Committee was disbanded due to its radicalism and disagreements with the emperor.

4 ) In 1809, Alexander I ordered to prepare new plan reforms to Mikhail Speransky - Deputy Minister of Justice and a talented lawyer-statist. The purpose of the reforms planned by M. Speransky was to give the Russian monarchy a "constitutional" appearance, without changing its autocratic essence. During the preparation of the reform plan, M. Speransky put forward the following proposals:

while maintaining the power of the emperor, introduce in Russia the European principle of separation of powers;

To do this, create an elected parliament - the State Duma ( legislature), Cabinet of Ministers ( executive power), the Senate (the judiciary);

to elect the State Duma through popular elections, to endow it with legislative advisory functions; give the emperor the right, if necessary, to dissolve the Duma;

to divide the entire population of Russia into three estates - the nobles, the "middle state" (merchants, philistines, townspeople, state peasants), "working people" (serfs, servants);

to give the right to vote only to the nobles and representatives of the “average state”;

to introduce a system of local self-government - to elect a provincial duma in each province, which would form the provincial council - the executive body;

The Senate - the highest judicial body - to form from representatives elected by the provincial dumas, and thus concentrate "folk wisdom" in the Senate;

The cabinet of ministers of 8 - 10 ministers should be formed by the emperor, who would personally appoint the ministers, and who would be personally responsible to the autocrat;

link between the three branches of government - State Duma, the judicial Senate and the Cabinet of Ministers to make a special body - the State Council, appointed by the emperor, which would coordinate the work of all branches of government and would be a "bridge" between them and the emperor;

at the top of the entire system of power was to be the emperor - the head of state endowed with broad powers and the arbiter between all branches of power.

Of all the main proposals of Speransky, only a small part of them was actually implemented:

in 1810, the Council of State was created, which became the legislative body appointed by the emperor;

at the same time, the ministerial reform was improved - all ministries were organized according to a single model, ministers began to be appointed by the emperor and bear personal responsibility to him.

The rest of the proposals were rejected and remained the plan.

5 ) The turning point in the course of the reforms was the Note on the Ancient and new Russia in its political and civil relations”, sent in 1811 to the emperor by the famous historian and public figure N. Karamzin. N. Karamzin's "Note" became a manifesto of conservative forces opposed to Speransky's reforms. In this "Note on Ancient and New Russia", N. Karamzin, analyzing the history of Russia, spoke out against reforms that would lead to unrest, and for the preservation and strengthening of autocracy - the only salvation of Russia.

In the same year, 1811, Speransky's reforms were terminated. In March 1812, M. Speransky was appointed Governor-General of Siberia - in fact, he was sent into an honorable exile.

6 ) After Patriotic War In 1812, reform activity resumed again. Reforms took place in two directions:

• improvement of the national-state structure;
• preparation of the draft Constitution of Russia.

Within the first direction:

• Alexander I granted the Constitution to the Kingdom of Poland in 1815;
• autonomy was granted to Bessarabia, which in 1818 was also granted a constitutional document - the "Charter for the formation of the Bessarabia region."

In the framework of the second direction, in 1818, the preparation of an all-Russian draft of the Constitution began. The work on the preparation of the project was headed by N.N. Novosiltsev. The prepared draft - the State statutory charter of the Russian Empire "- contained the following main provisions:

• a constitutional monarchy was established in Russia;
• a parliament was established - the State Seimas, consisting of two chambers - the Senate and the Chamber of Ambassadors;
• The embassy chamber was elected by the noble assemblies, after which the deputies were approved by the emperor;
• The Senate was wholly appointed by the emperor;
• the initiative to propose laws was assigned only to the emperor, but the laws had to be approved by the diet;
• the emperor alone exercised executive power through the ministers appointed by him;
• Russia was divided into 10 - 12 governorships, united on the basis of a federation;
• the governorships had their own self-government, which in many respects copied the all-Russian one;
• fundamental civil liberties were consolidated - freedom of speech, press, the right to private property;
• serfdom was not mentioned at all (it was planned to begin its phased abolition simultaneously with the adoption of the Constitution).

The main problem that hindered the adoption of the Constitution was the question of the abolition of serfdom and the procedure for its abolition. To this end, 11 projects were submitted to the emperor, each of which contained the most different offers about this question. The first step in implementing these proposals was the partial abolition of serfdom in Russia, initially carried out in the Baltics.

• in 1816, the emperor issued the "Regulations on the Estonian Peasants", according to which the peasants in the territory of Estonia (Estonia) were freed from serfdom;
• in 1817 and 1819 similar regulations were issued concerning the peasants of Courland and Livonia;
• the Baltic peasants became personally free, but were freed without land, which remained the property of the landowners;
• the liberated peasants had the right to lease the land or buy it out.

However, the decision to abolish serfdom throughout Russia was never made. Its consideration dragged on for several years, until Emperor Alexander I died in 1825, after which it was generally removed from the agenda. The main reasons for the delay in solving the peasant question (and with it the adoption of the Constitution) were the personal indecision of Alexander I and the opposition of the elite of the nobility.

7) In the 1820s surrounded by Alexander I, the conservative-punitive trend prevailed. His personification was P. Arakcheev, who began his career as a military adviser to Alexander and in the 1820s. became in fact the second person in the state. This period of decline of reforms was called "Arakcheevshchina". It was during this period that plans to adopt the Constitution and abolish serfdom were finally thwarted. The most odious decision of P. Arakcheev was the creation in Russia of new cells of society - military settlements. Military settlements were an attempt to combine in one person and in one way of life a peasant and a soldier:

• since the upkeep of the army was expensive for the state, Arakcheev proposed that the army be "self-financed";
• for these purposes, soldiers (yesterday's peasants) were forced, simultaneously with military service, to engage in peasant labor;
• the usual military units and barracks and other attributes of the life of soldiers in peacetime were replaced by special communities - military settlements;
• military settlements were scattered throughout Russia;
• in these settlements, the peasants part of the time were engaged in drill and military training, and part of the time - agriculture and ordinary peasant labor;
• strict barracks discipline and semi-prison orders reigned in the military settlements.

Military settlements under Arakcheev received wide use. In total, about 375 thousand people were transferred to the regime of military settlements. The military settlements did not enjoy authority among the people and caused hatred among the majority of the settlers. Peasants often preferred serfdom to life in such military-peasant camps. Despite partial changes in the state administration system, the reforms of Alexander I did not solve the main issues:

• the abolition of serfdom;
• adoption of the Constitution;
• democratization of the country.